public speaking test 3

hasty generalization; false cause; invalid analogy; bandwagon; red herring; ad hominem; either-or; slippery slope; appeal to tradition; appeal to novelty

10 types of fallacies:

attention; need; satisfaction; visualization; call to action

5 steps that follow the psychology of persuasion in Monroe's motivated sequence:

religious

____ views are among the most emotionally charged and passionately defended of all human concerns.

NEVER

_____ substitute emotional appeals for evidence or reasoning.

thesaurus

a book of synonyms

hasty generalization

a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

false cause

a fallacy in which the speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second

ad hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute

either-or

a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist

red herring

a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

question of fact

a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

question of value

a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action

question of policy

a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken

creating common ground

a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

cliche

a trite or overused expression

invalid analogy

an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike

fallacy

an error in reasoning

simile

an explicit comparison, introduced with the word "like" or "as", between things that are essentially different yet have something in common

metaphor

an implicit comparison, not introduced with the word "like" or "as", between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common

demgraphic audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background

situational audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion

stereotyping

creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike

situational audience analysis

demographic analysis should be combined with a ______

identifying the general demographic features of your audience; gauging the importance of those features to a particular speech setting

demographic audience analysis done in two steps:

the one sent by the speaker; the one received by the listener; NEVER; get them to be as close to the same as possible

every speech contains 2 messages:.... these two messages are _____ the same, but your goal as a speaker is to _______.

logos

evidence--name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker

fear, compassion, pride, anger, guilt, reverence

examples of emotional appeals:

size, physical setting, disposition toward the topic, disposition toward the speaker, disposition toward the occasion

factors of situational audience analysis:

you get really clear and concise answers; makes for great statistic development

fixed-alternative question--pros:

can give you superficial answers; the answer they would have given is not a choice and so they just pick one close to it, or don't answer the question at all; can give you skewed data or not enough data to use

fixed-alternative question-cons:

specific instances, principle, causal, analogical

four basic methods of reasoning:

audience perceives speaker as having high credibility; audience is won over by speaker's evidence; audience is convinced by the speaker's reasoning; audience's emotions are touched by the speaker's ideas or language

four reasons people are persuaded by a speaker:

competence

how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject

character

how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well being of the audience

good attention grabber in introduction; interesting and relative supporting materials; vivid language; dynamic delivery; use of visual aids

how can you get an audience interested?

depends on your topic and your audience

how much time should be devoted to the need/plan part of your speech?

use emotional language; develop vivid examples; speak with sincerity and conviction

how to generate emotional appeals:

occasion, audience, topic, speaker

how to use language appropriately--appropriate to:

use familiar words; use concrete words; eliminate clutter

how to use language clearly:

audience-centeredness

keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation

inclusive language

language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors

age, gender, religion, group membership, racial, cultural, ethnic background, etc.

one way to figure out what is important to the audience is to look at demographic traits:

they may read the question differently than you intended and answer in a way that it gives you nothing to use

open-ended question--cons:

you get exactly the answer that they want you to have; makes for a great place to find quotes for your speech

open-ended question--pros:

26%

persuasion accounts for up to ____ of the US gross domestic product.

personal relations; community activities; career aspirations

persuasion can benefit you from _____, to _____, to _______.

explain competence; establish common ground; deliver your speech fluently, expressively, and with conviction

proven ways to enhance credibility:

act; something

questions of value never incite people to ___ upon their opinion or do ___ to support or correct a situation.

open-ended questions

questions that allow respondents to answer however they want

fixed-alternative questions

questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives

scale questions

questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers

analogical reasoning

reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first is also true for the second

reasoning from principle

reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion

reasoning from specific instances

reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion

causal reasoning

reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between cause and effects

antithesis

the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure

denotative meaning

the literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase

connotative meaning

the meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase

mental dialogue with the audience

the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

better

the more descriptive and detailed you can be, the ______.

logos

the name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. the two major elements are evidence and reasoning.

ethos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility

pathos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal

burden of proof

the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary

rhythm

the pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words

target audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

persuasion

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

plan

the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: if there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

parallelism

the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences

egocentrism

the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being

practicality

the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?

generic "he"

the use of "he" to refer to both women and men

imagery

the use of vivid language to create mental imagines of objects, actions, or ideas

plan it carefully to elicit precisely the information you need, but don't ask leading questions; use all three types of questions; make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous; keep it relatively brief

things to keep in mind if putting together your own questionnaire:

use specific evidence; use novel evidence; use evidence from credible sources

tips for using evidence:

competence and character

two factors influencing credibility:

imagery and rhythm

two important ways to use be accurate and clear, but stay interesting also:

make sure your own reasoning is sound; you must try to get listeners to agree with your reasoning

two major concerns of reasoning:

evidence and reasoning

two major elements of logos are:

assuming that one event happened before the other event in time, that the first event caused the second event; assuming that events have only one cause

two major errors to avoid when using causal reasoning:

credibility of speaker; delivery; supporting materials; language; reasoning; emotional appeals

what does the audience assess when listening to the speaker?

audience, occasion, purpose

what words you choose depends on what:

should or should not

when questions of policy are formally written they should include the word:

shade the truth a bit to make speech successful; juggle stats to say what you want them to say; doctor quotes; pass opinion off as fact; pander to prejudices and stereotypes

when referring to ethics and persuasion, DON'T:

to whom am i speaking? what do i want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech? what is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish this aim?

when writing a speech and analyzing the audience, what questions do you ask yourself?

advocate

when you speak to persuade you act as an _____.

nick walker

who was the meteorologist from seattle that did his entire Christmas eve forecast to the rhythm of "twas the night before Christmas"?

abstract words

words that refer to ideas or concepts

concrete words

words that refer to tangible objects

CHOOSE

you as the speaker must make the audience ____ to listen.

interesting

you want to be accurate and clear, but you also want to be _____.

bandwagon

a fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable

appeal to novelty

a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

appeal to tradition

a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new

slippery slope

a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

attitude

a frame of mind in favor or or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.

comparative advantage order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions

problem-solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem

problem-cause-solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem

Monroe's motivated sequence

a method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. the five steps are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action

speech to gain passive agreement

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy

speech to gain immediate action

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy

identification

a process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences; REALLY IMPORTANT in persuasive speaking

clutter

discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea

religious

many wars and controversies are stemmed from _____ beliefs.

avoid the generic "he"; avoid the use of "man" when referring to both men and women; use names that groups use to identify themselves

methods of remaining inclusive:

repetition

reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences

alliteration

repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words

you can still get superficial answers

scale question-cons:

you not only get the answer, but the strength of that answer; easy to decipher the answer and produce stats for the audience

scale question-pros:

values, attitudes, beliefs

success for any particular persuasive speech will depend on how well you tailor your message to the ____, ____, and ____ of your audience.

evidence

supporting materials used to prove or disprove something

credibility

the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. the two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character

terminal credibilty

the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech

initial credibility

the credibility of the speaker before she or he starts to speak

derived credibility

the credibility of the speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech

need

the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?