public speaking test 3
hasty generalization; false cause; invalid analogy; bandwagon; red herring; ad hominem; either-or; slippery slope; appeal to tradition; appeal to novelty
10 types of fallacies:
attention; need; satisfaction; visualization; call to action
5 steps that follow the psychology of persuasion in Monroe's motivated sequence:
religious
____ views are among the most emotionally charged and passionately defended of all human concerns.
NEVER
_____ substitute emotional appeals for evidence or reasoning.
thesaurus
a book of synonyms
hasty generalization
a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence
false cause
a fallacy in which the speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second
ad hominem
a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute
either-or
a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist
red herring
a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion
question of fact
a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion
question of value
a question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action
question of policy
a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken
creating common ground
a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience
cliche
a trite or overused expression
invalid analogy
an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike
fallacy
an error in reasoning
simile
an explicit comparison, introduced with the word "like" or "as", between things that are essentially different yet have something in common
metaphor
an implicit comparison, not introduced with the word "like" or "as", between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common
demgraphic audience analysis
audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background
situational audience analysis
audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion
stereotyping
creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike
situational audience analysis
demographic analysis should be combined with a ______
identifying the general demographic features of your audience; gauging the importance of those features to a particular speech setting
demographic audience analysis done in two steps:
the one sent by the speaker; the one received by the listener; NEVER; get them to be as close to the same as possible
every speech contains 2 messages:.... these two messages are _____ the same, but your goal as a speaker is to _______.
logos
evidence--name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker
fear, compassion, pride, anger, guilt, reverence
examples of emotional appeals:
size, physical setting, disposition toward the topic, disposition toward the speaker, disposition toward the occasion
factors of situational audience analysis:
you get really clear and concise answers; makes for great statistic development
fixed-alternative question--pros:
can give you superficial answers; the answer they would have given is not a choice and so they just pick one close to it, or don't answer the question at all; can give you skewed data or not enough data to use
fixed-alternative question-cons:
specific instances, principle, causal, analogical
four basic methods of reasoning:
audience perceives speaker as having high credibility; audience is won over by speaker's evidence; audience is convinced by the speaker's reasoning; audience's emotions are touched by the speaker's ideas or language
four reasons people are persuaded by a speaker:
competence
how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject
character
how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well being of the audience
good attention grabber in introduction; interesting and relative supporting materials; vivid language; dynamic delivery; use of visual aids
how can you get an audience interested?
depends on your topic and your audience
how much time should be devoted to the need/plan part of your speech?
use emotional language; develop vivid examples; speak with sincerity and conviction
how to generate emotional appeals:
occasion, audience, topic, speaker
how to use language appropriately--appropriate to:
use familiar words; use concrete words; eliminate clutter
how to use language clearly:
audience-centeredness
keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation
inclusive language
language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors
age, gender, religion, group membership, racial, cultural, ethnic background, etc.
one way to figure out what is important to the audience is to look at demographic traits:
they may read the question differently than you intended and answer in a way that it gives you nothing to use
open-ended question--cons:
you get exactly the answer that they want you to have; makes for a great place to find quotes for your speech
open-ended question--pros:
26%
persuasion accounts for up to ____ of the US gross domestic product.
personal relations; community activities; career aspirations
persuasion can benefit you from _____, to _____, to _______.
explain competence; establish common ground; deliver your speech fluently, expressively, and with conviction
proven ways to enhance credibility:
act; something
questions of value never incite people to ___ upon their opinion or do ___ to support or correct a situation.
open-ended questions
questions that allow respondents to answer however they want
fixed-alternative questions
questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives
scale questions
questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers
analogical reasoning
reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first is also true for the second
reasoning from principle
reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion
reasoning from specific instances
reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion
causal reasoning
reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between cause and effects
antithesis
the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure
denotative meaning
the literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase
connotative meaning
the meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase
mental dialogue with the audience
the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech
better
the more descriptive and detailed you can be, the ______.
logos
the name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. the two major elements are evidence and reasoning.
ethos
the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility
pathos
the name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal
burden of proof
the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary
rhythm
the pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words
target audience
the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade
persuasion
the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions
reasoning
the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence
plan
the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: if there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
parallelism
the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences
egocentrism
the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being
practicality
the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?
generic "he"
the use of "he" to refer to both women and men
imagery
the use of vivid language to create mental imagines of objects, actions, or ideas
plan it carefully to elicit precisely the information you need, but don't ask leading questions; use all three types of questions; make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous; keep it relatively brief
things to keep in mind if putting together your own questionnaire:
use specific evidence; use novel evidence; use evidence from credible sources
tips for using evidence:
competence and character
two factors influencing credibility:
imagery and rhythm
two important ways to use be accurate and clear, but stay interesting also:
make sure your own reasoning is sound; you must try to get listeners to agree with your reasoning
two major concerns of reasoning:
evidence and reasoning
two major elements of logos are:
assuming that one event happened before the other event in time, that the first event caused the second event; assuming that events have only one cause
two major errors to avoid when using causal reasoning:
credibility of speaker; delivery; supporting materials; language; reasoning; emotional appeals
what does the audience assess when listening to the speaker?
audience, occasion, purpose
what words you choose depends on what:
should or should not
when questions of policy are formally written they should include the word:
shade the truth a bit to make speech successful; juggle stats to say what you want them to say; doctor quotes; pass opinion off as fact; pander to prejudices and stereotypes
when referring to ethics and persuasion, DON'T:
to whom am i speaking? what do i want them to know, believe, or do as a result of my speech? what is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish this aim?
when writing a speech and analyzing the audience, what questions do you ask yourself?
advocate
when you speak to persuade you act as an _____.
nick walker
who was the meteorologist from seattle that did his entire Christmas eve forecast to the rhythm of "twas the night before Christmas"?
abstract words
words that refer to ideas or concepts
concrete words
words that refer to tangible objects
CHOOSE
you as the speaker must make the audience ____ to listen.
interesting
you want to be accurate and clear, but you also want to be _____.
bandwagon
a fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable
appeal to novelty
a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old
appeal to tradition
a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new
slippery slope
a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented
attitude
a frame of mind in favor or or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.
comparative advantage order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions
problem-solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem
problem-cause-solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem
Monroe's motivated sequence
a method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. the five steps are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action
speech to gain passive agreement
a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy
speech to gain immediate action
a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy
identification
a process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences; REALLY IMPORTANT in persuasive speaking
clutter
discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea
religious
many wars and controversies are stemmed from _____ beliefs.
avoid the generic "he"; avoid the use of "man" when referring to both men and women; use names that groups use to identify themselves
methods of remaining inclusive:
repetition
reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences
alliteration
repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words
you can still get superficial answers
scale question-cons:
you not only get the answer, but the strength of that answer; easy to decipher the answer and produce stats for the audience
scale question-pros:
values, attitudes, beliefs
success for any particular persuasive speech will depend on how well you tailor your message to the ____, ____, and ____ of your audience.
evidence
supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
credibility
the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. the two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character
terminal credibilty
the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech
initial credibility
the credibility of the speaker before she or he starts to speak
derived credibility
the credibility of the speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech
need
the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?
