Respiratory System

Match the air volumes with their descriptions: (1) Tidal Volume (2) inspiratory reserve volume (3) expiratory reserve volume (4) residual volume (A) air that remains after most forceful expiration (B) volume of air, in addition to resting tidal volume, that can enter lungs (C) amount of air that enters and leaves lungs during a respiratory cycle (D) volume of air, in addition to resting tidal volume, that can be expelled from the lungs

(1) tidal volume - C (2) inspiratory reserve volume - B (3) expiratory reserve volume - D (4) residual volume - A

Name and describe the functions of the cartilages of the larynx.

. Thyroid cartilage—located in the front of the neck, commonly called the Adam's apple, and protects the larynx. b. Cricoid cartilage—located below the thyroid cartilage; marks the lowermost portion of the larynx; and. protects the larynx. c. Epiglottic cartilage—attached to the upper border of the thyroid cartilage and supports the epiglottis and allows for opening and closing of the epiglottis. d. Arytenoid cartilage—located above and on either side of the cricoid cartilage; serves as an attachment for muscles that regulate vocal cord tension for speech; and aids in closing the larynx for swallowing. e. Corniculate cartilage—attached to the tips of the arytenoid cartilages; serves as an attachment for muscles that regulate vocal cord tension for speech; and aids in closing the larynx for swallowing. f. Cuneiform cartilages—small structures in the mucous membrane between the epiglottic and the arytenoid cartilages. They stiffen soft tissue in this region.

Match the following structures with their descriptions: (1) True vocal cords (2) False vocal cords (3) Larynx (4) Visceral pleura (5) Alveoli (A) serous membrane on lungs (B) contains the vocal cords (C) vibrates to make sound (D) air sacs (E) muscular folds that close the glottis

1. True vocal cords—C 2. False vocal cords—E 3. Larynx—B 4. Visceral pleura—A 5. Alveoli—D

Explain the mechanisms of coughing and sneezing and give the functions of each.

A cough involves taking a deep breath, closing the glottis, and forcing air upward from the lungs against the closure. The glottis is then suddenly opened, and a blast of air is forced upward from the lower respiratory tract. This action clears the lower respiratory passages. A sneeze is usually initiated by a mild irritation in the linings of the nasal cavity, and in response, a blast of air is forced up through the glottis. This time the air is directed into the nasal passages by depressing the uvula, thus closing the opening between the pharynx and the oral cavity. This action clears the upper respiratory passages.

Which one of the following is most important in forceful breathing? A) dorsal respiratory group. B) ventral respiratory group. C) pontine respiratory group.

A) dorsal respiratory group.

Physiologic dead space is equal to _________. A) anatomic dead space B) anatomic dead space plus alveolar dead space C) alveolar dead space

B) anatomic dead space plus alveolar dead space

Hyperventilation is which one of the following? A) any increase in breathing B) an increase in breathing that brings in oxygen too quickly C) an increase in breathing that eliminates CO2 too quickly. D) an increase in breathing that has no effect on blood gases.

C) an increase in breathing that eliminates CO2 too quickly.

Explain the function of carbonic anhydrase

Carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid.

Describe the changes that make it harder to breathe with advancing years

Cartilage between the sternum and ribs calcifies and stiffens. Changes occur in the shape of thoracic cavity into a "barrel chest." In the bronchioles, fibrous connective tissue replaces some smooth muscle, decreasing contractility.

Explain why oxygen is required at the cellular level

Cellular respiration enables cells to harness energy held in the chemical bonds of nutrient molecules. In aerobic reactions, cells liberate energy from these molecules by removing electrons and channeling them through a series of carriers called the electron transport chain. At the end of this chain, electrons bind oxygen atoms and hydrogen ions to produce water molecules. Without oxygen, these reactions cease.

Define chloride shift.

Chloride shift is the movement of chloride ions from the blood plasma into the red blood cells as bicarbonate ions diffuse out of the red blood cells into the plasma.

Define compliance

Compliance (distensibility) is the ease with which lungs can be expanded as a result of pressure changes occurring during breathing.

Explain how a sinus headache may occur

Inflamed and swollen mucous membranes due to nasal infections or allergic reactions may block mucous secretion drainage, causing pressure and a headache.

Compare the muscles used (if any) in a resting expiration with those used in a forced expiration.

Normal expiration is accomplished by the elastic recoil of the lung tissues and the decrease in the diameter of the alveoli as a result of surface tension. Forced expiration can be accomplished by contracting the internal intercostal muscles to pull the ribs and sternum downward and inward, increasing the pressure in the lungs. The abdominal wall muscles also can be used to squeeze the abdominal organs inward and increase the abdominal cavity pressure. This translates in forcing the diaphragm even higher against the lungs.

Compare the muscles used in a resting inspiration with those used in a forced inspiration

Normal inspiration is the result of the differing air pressures within the lung and in the atmospheric pressure outside the lungs. When the pressure inside the lungs decreases, the air flows into the body by way of the atmospheric pressure. Forced inspiration can be accomplished by further contraction of the diaphragm and the external intercostals muscles. Additional muscles, such as the pectoralis minors and sternocleidomastoids, can also be used to enlarge the thoracic cavity, thereby decreasing the internal pressure to a greater extent.

Describe how the blood transports oxygen.

Over 98% of the oxygen is transported in the blood on the hemoglobin molecules. The remainder is dissolved in the blood plasma.

Describe the effects of emotions on breathing.

Strong emotional upset or sensory stimulation may alter the normal breathing pattern. Because control of the respiratory muscles is voluntary, we can alter breathing patterns consciously or even stop it altogether for a short time.

Define surface tension and explain how it works against the breathing mechanism

Surface tension is the great attraction for water molecules to attach to one another. This force is used in breathing to hold the moist surfaces of the pleural membranes together. It also helps to expand the lung in all directions.

Define surfactant and explain its function.

Surfactant is a lipoprotein mixture continually secreted into the alveolar air spaces. It acts to reduce the surface tension and decreases the tendency of the alveoli to collapse when the lung volume is low.

Describe how the structure of the respiratory tubes changes as the branches become finer.

The C-shaped cartilaginous rings are replaced with cartilaginous plates at the point where the bronchi enter the lung. The amount of cartilage decreases as the tubes become finer and disappear in the bronchioles. As the cartilage decreases, the amount of smooth muscle surrounding the tube increases. The lining of the larger tubes consists of pseudostratified, ciliated columnar epithelium (PCCE) with a lot of goblet cells for mucus secretion. Along the way, the number of goblet cells and the height of the epithelial cells decline. Cilia become scarce. In the finer tubes, beginning with the respiratory bronchioles, the lining is cuboidal epithelium. In the alveoli, the lining consists of simple squamous epithelium.

Summarize the exchange of oxygen and CO2 across the respiratory membrane

The PO2 level in the atmospheric pressure is higher than that in the blood. This allows for diffusion of oxygen into the blood. The PCO2 level is higher in the blood than in the atmosphere so diffusion occurs out of the blood into the atmosphere.

Name the successive branches of the bronchial tree, from the primary bronchi to the alveoli, and identify their functions.

The branches of the bronchial tree are similar but the C-shaped cartilaginous rings are replaced with cartilaginous plates. As the branches become finer and finer, the amount of cartilage decreases and finally disappears in the bronchioles. Primary bronchi divide into secondary (lobar) bronchi. The secondary bronchi divide into tertiary (segmental) bronchi. The tertiary bronchi divide into intralobular bronchioles. The intralobular bronchioles divide into terminal bronchioles. The terminal bronchioles divide into respiratory bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles connect with the alveolar ducts. The ducts lead to alveolar sacs. Alveoli are the microscopic air sacs that make up the alveolar sac.

Describe the function of the peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies

The chemoreceptors known as the peripheral chemoreceptors function to detect changes in blood oxygen concentrations. When changes are detected, impulses are transmitted to the respiratory center, and the breathing rate is increased. These are only triggered by an extremely low blood oxygen concentration. This seems to support the statement that oxygen seems to play only a minor role in the control of normal respiration.

Explain control of the basic rhythm of breathing.

The dorsal respiratory group controls the basic rhythm of breathing. The neurons emit bursts of impulses that signal the diaphragm and other inspiratory muscles to contract. The neurons remain inactive during exhalation and then begin the bursts of impulses anew.

Describe the inflation reflex.

The inflation reflex occurs when the stretch receptors in the visceral pleura, bronchioles, and alveoli are stimulated as a result of lung tissues being overstretched. Sensory impulses of this reflex travel via the vagus nerves to the pneumotaxic area of the respiratory center. This center causes the duration of the inspiratory movements to shorten. This reflex prevents overinflation of the lungs during forceful breathing.

Name and describe the locations of the major sinuses.

The major sinuses are located within, and named from, the maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones in the skull.

Explain how the nose and nasal cavity filter incoming air

The nose contains internal hairs that help prevent the entrance of the relatively large particles sometimes carried in the air. The nasal cavity is lined with a mucous membrane that has goblet cells that secrete sticky mucus. This mucus traps dust and other small particles entering with the air.

Explain the relationship between the partial pressure of a gas and its rate of diffusion.

The partial pressure of a gas within the blood will use diffusion to equalize the pressure between its blood concentration and its surroundings.

Locate the respiratory areas and name their major components.

The respiratory center is found widely scattered throughout the pons and medulla oblongata in the brain stem. The two major components are the medullary rhythmicity center and the pneumotaxic area. The medullary rhythmicity center is further subdivided into the dorsal respiratory group and the ventral respiratory group.

Describe the respiratory membrane

The respiratory membrane consists of at least two thicknesses of epithelial cells and a layer of fused basement membranes separating the air in an alveolus from the blood in the capillaries. This membrane is the site at which gas exchange occurs between the blood and the alveolar air.

Name the lobes of the lungs and identify their locations.

The right lung consists of three lobes called the superior, middle, and inferior. It is located in the right side of the chest. The left lung consists of two lobes called the superior and inferior. It is located on the left side of the chest.

Explain the effect increasing CO2 levels have on the central chemoreceptors.

The similarity of the effects of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions is a consequence of the fact that carbon dioxide combines with water in the cerebrospinal fluid to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid then ionizes releasing hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions. If these concentrations rise, the central chemoreceptors signal the respiratory center and the breathing rate increases.

Explain why carbon monoxide is toxic.

The toxic effect of carbon monoxide occurs because it combines with the hemoglobin more effectively than does oxygen. It also does not dissociate readily from hemoglobin, thereby leaving less hemoglobin available for oxygen transport.

Distinguish between the upper and lower respiratory tracts

The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx, and the upper portion of the trachea. The lower respiratory tract consists of the lower portion of the trachea, the bronchial tree, and the lungs.

Distinguish between the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura.

The visceral pleura are the lining that covers the outside of the lungs. The parietal pleura are the lining that covers the pleural cavity.

Distinguish between vital capacity and total lung capacity.

The vital capacity is the maximum amount of air a person can exhale after taking the deepest breath possible. Total lung capacity is the vital capacity added to the residual volume. The residual volume is the amount of air that remains in the lungs even after forceful expiration.

Describe a possible function of yawning.

Yawning may be rooted in primitive brainstem mechanisms that maintain alertness.

Give the percentages of the three ways CO2 is transported in blood.

a. It can be dissolved in the blood plasma. —7% b. It can combine with hemoglobin and form carbaminohemoglobin. —15 to 25% c. It can be transported as part of a bicarbonate ion. —70%

List the general functions of the respiratory system.

a. It functions to remove particles from incoming air and transport it from outside the body into and out of the lungs. b. It houses the structures where gas exchange takes place between the air and the blood.

List three factors that increase the release of oxygen from hemoglobin.

a. The blood concentration of carbon dioxide. b. The blood pH. c. The blood temperature.

The pharynx is also known as: (A) nasal cavity (B) oral cavity (C) voice box (D) the throat

d. the throat

Calculate both minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation given the following: (p. 754) respiratory rate = 12 breaths per minute tidal volume = 500mL per breath physiologic dead space = 150mL per breath

minute ventilation = 500 x 12 = 6000mL per minute alveolar ventilation = (500 - 150) x 12 = 4200mL per minute