review 1-4
How big must the difference in electronegativity be to be considered a polar bond?
Any electronegativity difference between 0.5 or 1.7 will seperate charge enough to create a polar bond.
Gemeinschaften (communities)
Bound together by beliefs, ancestry, or geography
Of what type of tissue is the heart composed?
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
What does it mean to be a cholinergic receptor?
Cholinergic receptors are receptors that respond to acetylcholine.
What is endocrine signaling?
Endocrine Signaling is when cells secrete hormones that travel through the bloodstream to target a distant tissue.
although Erikson was influenced by Freud, what was a key difference?
Erikson suggested there WAS room for GROWTH THROUGHOUT LIFE (not just childhood)
What stimulates the release of estrogen
FSH
What is clinical significance?
For an intervention to be clinically significant AKA practically significant, it must result in worthwhile changes in the health status of an individual.
Galton and Binets ideas
Galton- hereditary genius Biinet- mental age
What is Gay-Lussac's Law?
Gay-Lussac's Law states that pressure is proportional to temperature.
Micelle solubility in water
Generally soluble
What are globosides?
Globosides are glycosphingolipids with two or more sugars attached to the sphingosine backbone. Neutral charge
Who is associated with the biomedical approach to psych disorders
Hans eyesneck
What is the role of Helicase?
Helicase is an enzyme responsible for unwinding DNA, generating two single stranded templates ahead of the polymerase.
independent vs dependent events
If I don't know this, I'm dumb
What is Alter-casting
Imposing a role on another person ex. a good friend would let me borrow the bike
What is a rate limiting enzyme? slow or fast?
In a series of reactions, one of them will be slower than the rest and therefore act as a bottleneck. The rate limiting enzyme is the enzyme associated with the rate limiting step.
What is transesterification?
In transesterification, an ester is nucleophilically acyl substituted by an alcohol, which results in a different ester. This is why its called trans-esterification, because you're just changing the ester group from one to another.
Neurotic defense mechanisms
Intellectualization, rationalization, regression, repression, displacement, reaction formation
What are intercalated discs?
Intercalated Discs are specialized structures that contain many gap junctions. These gap junctions allow the cytoplasm of neighboring cells to connect, and this connection allows cardiac muscle to conduct the signal of the heartbeat so effectively across numerous cells.
What is the isoelectric point (pI)?
Isoelectric point or pI is the pH at which the amino acid is completely neutral as a result of all positive and negative charges balancing out.
What is nonspecific immunity?
Just another name for Innate Immunity
What is a dielectric material?
Just another way of saying insulator.
What is specific immunity?
Just another word for Adaptive immunity.
What kind of infection are Killer-T Cells best at fighting? and what MHC cells do they respond to?
Killer-T cells respond to Class I MHC's, which express the antigens inside of a cell after a cell has been infected by an intracellular invader. It's hard for big things to enter cells. Therefore, only viruses and small bacteria and fungi will ever infect a cell intracellulary. It follows that Killer-T cells respond most effectively to these kinds of infections.
lateral vs ventral hypothalamic food functions
LH - Larry's Hungry - hunger ventrOmedial - satiety
What length of hydrocarbons compose micelles
Long chain fatty acids
How does DNA know which strand is parent when repairing?
Looks at methylation levels, more methylated one has parent and has proper base.
What is hypoglycemia?
Low blood sugar
What are Lysine's structure, character, three letter abbreviation, and one letter abbreviation?
Lys, K, basic
Describe the lock and key theory of enzyme activity?
The lock and key theory states that enzymes are like locks and substrates are like keys, and an appropriate match allows them to interact.
What is the role of mucous cells? and what do they produce?
Mucous cells produce a bicarbonate rich mucus. Bicarbonate is a base, so it helps to protect the stomach wall from the acidic conditions of the stomach.
Risk of dependence drug rank
Opioids and some stimulants Depressants and some stimulants Hallucinogens
Panic disorder
Panic and irrational fear without any instigating object or event (different from specific phobia)
What is post-translational processing and what are the commom types?
Post-Translational processing refers to any modifications made to a protein after it has already been translated. A. Folding by chaperones -bonus: signal pepties B. Cleavage events (signal sequence needs to be cleaved for function) C. Adding biomolecules 1. Phosphorylation 2. Carboxylation 3. Glycosylation 4. Prenylation
two symptoms of Narcolepsy
Random fits of falling asleep anytime anywhere and sleep paralysis
"If a reaction ""goes to completion"" what does that mean"
Reached equilibrium
In optics, all angles are measured from what line?
The normal line
What does the histone H1 do?
Seals off DNA as it enters the nucleosome, adding stability to the structure
What is solvation a.k.a dissolution?
Solvation is the electrostatic interaction between solvent and solute molecules that causes ions to be separated from one another in solution.
What is specification?
Specification is when a cell is reversibly designated to a specific cell type.
What is the rate limiting step of Glycolysis?
Step 3, the conversion of Fructose 6-P into Fructose 1,6-bis P by Phosphofructokinase-1 This is the main point of regulation
What is the Nernst Equation?
The Nernst Equation allows us to determine the E cell of a battery at non standard conditions.
What is the bone matrix?
The bone matrix is the collection of organic and inorganic components that makes up bone and is responsible for its strength.
What does the principle quantum number represent?
The energy level in which the electron resides.
What does the epiglottis cover?
The epiglottis is a flap that covers the larynx during swallowing so food and water don't travel down it.
What is an active site?
The active site is where the enzyme holds the substrate while it catalyzes the reaction.
What are the effects of alcohol
-Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control -Lack of coordination, slurring of speech - Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories)
What are the possible values of Magnetic quantum number?
-l to +l
Psychosocial development theory
-proposed by Erikson - Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan. - Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. - 8 stages
1 formula unit is equivalent to
1 molecule ex. compare the # of molecules of 1 mol of water to the formula units in 1 mole in NaCl they are the same
What are the standard conditions for measuring equilibrium, kinetics, and thermodynamics problems? (signified by the degree symbol)
1. 25 degrees C or 298 K 2. 1 atm pressure 3. 1 M concentration.
What are the 4 types of neuroglia?
1. Astrocytes 2. Ependymal cells 3. Microglia 4. Oligodendrocytes
How are ketones named as substituents and parent chains?
1. Carbonyl substituents, whether they are aldehydes or ketones, are given the mane (oxo-) 2. Ketone parent chains replace the -e of the parent name with -one.
What are the two types of calorimetry?
1. Constant Pressure 2. Constant Volume
What are the two types of electrochemical cell?
1. Galvanic (Voltaic) cell 2. Electrolytic cell
What are the two main types of substitution reactions?
1. Sn1 2. Sn2
What are the two notweorthy cell groups in a blastocyst?
1. The trophoblast cells 2. The inner cell mass
What is a nerve?
A nerve is a bundle of multiple neurons in the peripheral nervous system.
The rate at which nuclei decay is {{c1::proportional}} to the number of nuclei that remain
Aka as time goes on and less nuclei remain, decay will be slower Think: first half life gets rid of half whereas second half life only gets rid of 1/4 of the original total. These half lives are the same amount of time. So decay rate must have been fastest at the beginning since more decayed in an equal amount of time
What is a harmonic series
All possible frequencies that a string can support
What are alveoli?
Alveoli are the small, balloon like structures in the lungs in which gas exchange actually occurs.
What is the difference between ammonia and ammonium?
Ammonia is the deprotonated basic form, NH3. Ammonium is the protonated acidic form, NH4
What is an aldose? structure of glyceraldehyde?
An aldose is a carbohydrate that contains an aldehyde group as its highest priority group.
What are the neural tube, crest, and folds derived from?
ectoderm
what is a lower motor neuron(LMN?)
efferent PNS neuron that synapses on motor unit for skeletal muscle contraction to form a neuromuscular junction
enantiomerization and racemization
enantiomerization- making enantiomer racemization- moving a solution towards equal concentration of both enantiomers
Catecholamines are you know epi/norepi but missing one
epi/norepi and dopamine
remembering residential history/childhood memories is
episodic memory
what is the diffusion of responsibiliy theory?
explains bystander effect. when in a group you feel less responsible for shit
What helps veins push blood since they have low smooth muscle
external skeletal muscle
are position/vibration/touch (mechanoreceptors) fast or slow?
fast
what is culture shock?
feeling of disorientation/uncertainty/fear when encountering unfamiliar cultural practices Ex: muslim guy in europe getting offended by unmarried couple kissing in public
what is the primacy bias?
first impressions are long, strong, and easily built upon. you never get a second chance to make a first impression.
what are examples of complex innate bheavior?
fixed action pattern migration circardian rhythm
what are feeding and eating disorders
food abnormalities Ex: Anorexia nervosa, bulimia
What is the creative self
force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality
what is concentration? in PSY
form of segregation: clusters of different groups in segregated communities
what is the frustration-aggression principle?
frustration-->aggression-->violence Ex: more crime on hot days
at what stage in mead's theory of social behaviorism does the concept of the generalized other emerge?
game stage
What type of bacteria do conjugation
gram negative
what is population transfer?
group is forcefully moved from territory
stimulants do what to glucose metabolism in brain
increse it
what is the recency bias
more importance placed on your recent actions
internal migration
move within same country
what type of reinforcement is drive-reduction
negative reinforcement
What structure is within the basal ganglia
nucleus accumbens and substantia nigra
steric theory of olfaction (shape theor)
odors fit into receptors similar to a lock-and-key
Dipole moment equation
p=qd p is dipole moment q is magnitude of charge d is displacement vector separating two partial charges (distance??)
what is passive aggression?
passively expressing your anger
what is migration?
permanent movement of people into or out of country
what is MRI?
radio waves exposed to magnetic field
spermatazoon
same as spermatazoa (male equivalent to ovum) It is the final haploid product of gametogenesis
conditioned response
same innate response but to a conditioned stimulus (salivation at bell sound)
what is segregation?
separating groups of people and giving access to separate resources
"How do you know how much ""s character"" a bond has"
sp3 is 25% sp2 is 33% sp is 50% literally just basic math
what is a trait?
stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave certain ways
what does it mean to be ethnocentric
to judge someone else's culture from your own culture's viewpoint (viewing our culture as superior, leads to cultural bias and prejudice)
what is the function of behavior?
to maintain homeostasis (internal/external)
what is tokenism?
token black guy/minority in a tv show (One minority character is added to a movie as a stand in for the entire group)
Controlled vs. automatic processing
trying to retain info in long term memory vs not trying. controlled can become automatic with practice (deciphering a foreign language is controlled and then when you're fluent it is automatic)
What are the pancreatic peptidases
trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, carboxypeptidase A and B
What is the external female reproductive anatomy known as
vulva
what is gender expression?
what gender you outwardly express
change in potential energy is equal to
work
Can conjugation occur between different species
yes
What is a rate law?
The rate law is just another term for the rate equation.
How does one find the equivalent capacitance for capacitors in series? How do voltages behave?
The sum of the inverses will be equal to the inverse of the total capacitance. Thus, capacitors in series cause a decrease in equivalent capacitance Voltages will add up to total voltage just like resistors in series
What is the vasculature?
The vasculature is the system of pipes that delivers blood from the heart to the various tissues of the body.
What is theoretical yield?
Theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be generated according to the balanced equation. This number is the yield associated with 100% of the limiting reactant reacting, absolutely no side reactions of any kind occuring, and no accidental loss of product during collection.
Two methods of water absorption in intestine
Transcellular (across cell membrane) Paracellular (squeezing between cells)
Pacinian corpuscles
Type of mechanoreceptor responsible for senesitivity to vibration and pressure. Respond to sudden disturbances especially vibration.
What is an ungated channel? fun?
Ungated channels have no gates, and are therefore completely unregulated. Essentially, these are just holes in the membrane through which certain molecules can pass normally. responsible for maintaining resting membrane potential
What are ureters?
Ureters are tubes that extend from the kidney. They carry the filtrate of the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
What is X-Ray diffraction
Uses the bending of light rays to create a model of molecules. Often combine with protein crystallography. Dark and light fringes dont take on a linear appearence bit rather a complex 2D image
How do vaccines work?
Vaccines are weakened or killed pathogens that are injected into the body so that the body can make antibodies on a weaker and less lethal version of a bigger and badder pathogen. Vaccines can be thought of as training for the immune system.
What is Vitamin A?
Vitamin A (aka Carotene) is an unsaturated hydrocarbon associated with vision, growth, and immune function. Vitamin A is converted to retinal for use in vision and retinoic acid for regulating gene expression during the growth of epithelial tissues.
How do we convert a second order reaction graph into a line graph?
You plot 1/concentration versus time. The slope of the line will be equal to the rate constant.
What is cretinism
a deficiency in thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) in children, results in retardation
Directed attention
allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task
What is vasopressin
another name for ADH
what is a taboo?
behavior that is completely forbidden/wrong in cultures. Ex: incest, cannibalism
the forebrain develops into
cerebrum
in conflict theory, what is the synthesis?
compromise achieved between thesis and antithesis, which becomes new thesis example: members of the working class becoming managers creating a new middle class might have more power than the factory owner. this creates a new thesis/antithesis
Is hormonal control of glycogen/ insulin covalent or noncovalent
covalent, they induce phosphorylation or dephosphorylation which is covalent
what is high culture?
culture that exists in high class society (wealth/formality)
What do trans lipids to do membrane
decrease fluidity
what biological factor contributes to depression?
decreased activation in prefrontal cortex (Associated with difficult in generating actions and decreased decision making capacity) lower levels of activity in reward circuitin the brain
what is hyporeflexia?
decreased reflexive response to stimulation (lower motor neuron sign)
what is the the method used in operant conditioning to operationally define a subject's motivational state?
depriving subject of something desirable for a period of time
what are neonatal reflexes?
disappear as a baby ages
What are restriction enzymes?
Restriction enzymes (also known as restriction endonucleases, a sub class of endonucleases) are enzymes that recognize palindromic double stranded DNA sequences and cut them. These enzymes are isolated from bacteria and are used to cut up DNA strands in the laboratory. A palindromic sequence of double stranded DNA is a strand of DNA that has the same 5' to 3' sequence on both strands, they're just going in opposite directions.
What is the difference between ribose and deoxyribose? (know structure and numbering)
Ribose is a 5 carbon saccharide. Deoxyribose is very similar, it just has an -H instead of an -OH on carbon 2.
Entropy in terms of microstates
S=k[ln(W)] k is boltzmanns constant and W is number of microstates is a term used to describe the number of different possible arrangements of molecular position and kinetic energy at a particular thermodynamic state.
What is secondary structure and what is its characteristic bond?
Secondary structure refers to the formation of repeating patterns of pleated sheets and alpha helices. These patterns are held together by hydrogen bonds between the carboxyl and amino group backbone of the amino acids.
What is shielding?
Shielding refers to how much electron density is on a proton. So electron donating groups increase shielding whereas electron withdrawing groups decrease shielding. Generally, the less shielding, the farther the chemical shift associated with that proton. This means hydrogens attached to or adjacent to electronegative atoms usually have higher chemical shifts. Thus it makes sense why TMS is a zero, the silicon donates so much that there is nothing more shielded (to the right) than it MNEMONIC: Deshielding moves the proton Downfield (to the left)
What is Skeletal Muscle responsible for?
Skeletal muscle is responsible for voluntary movement, and is therefore innervated by the somatic nervous system.
The structure of the sarcomere change when it contracts what process is this called?
Sliding filament model
Ruffini corpuscle
Slowly adapting mechanoreceptor found in the subcutaneous tissue of humans. One of the receptors receptors responsible for mechanoreception
Demographic transition stages 1-5?
Stage 1: In pre-industrial societies, birth and death rates are both high and population growth is slow. Stage 2: As society industrializes, death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increase. Stage 3: As society urbanizes, birth rates decline as access to contraception increases. Stage 4: In developed societies, birth and death rates are both low and population growth is slow. Stage 5: Hypothetically, for developed societies with very low birth rates, population may decline.
What is standard deviation?
Standard deviation is a number that bsically tells you how spread out the data is. The more spread out the data, the higher the standard deviation.
What is substrate-level phosphorylation?
Substrate level phosphorylation refers to the anaerobic production of ATP in steps 7 and 10 of glycolysis. This is different from oxidative phosphorylation which is the generation of ATP from the proton gradient in the mitochondria.
What are terpenes?
Terpenes are a class of lipids built from isoprene units. They are produced mainly by plants and insects. They are generally strongly scented and they are precursors to steroids. Have aromatic properties due to double bond conjugation
The active site of an enzyme is part of what level of protein structure
Tertiary
What is the AV Node location?
The AV Node is the structure after the SA node that conducts the electrical impulse of the heartbeat down the heart. It is located at the junction of the atria and the ventricles.
What is the F generation?
The F generation, or filial generation, is the first offspring generation of the P generation.
What is the Shine-Dalgarno sequence?
The Shine-Dalgarno sequence is seen in prokaryotes. It is a piece of RNA in the 5' UTR that allows the small sub unit of the ribosome to bind.
What can absorption of UV light do to organic molecules
The absorption of ultraviolet light by organic molecules always results in electronic excitation. Bond breaking can subsequently result, as can ionization or bond vibration, but none of these processes are guaranteed to result from the absorption of ultraviolet light.
What is the law of reflection?
The angle that the incident ray makes relative to the normal will equal the angle that the reflected ray makes relative to the normal.
What is the name of the semilunar valve on the left side of the heart?
The aortic valve.
What is the autonomic nervous system?
The autonomic nervous system regulates our heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretion. In other words, the autonomic nervous system is the peripheral nervous system that maintains all of the automatic functions of the body. We do not have voluntary control over the peripheral nervous system.
How can you generally describe the reactions of aldehydes and ketones?
The carbonyl carbon is a good electrophile, so most of the reactions involving aldehydes and ketones involve nucleophilic substitution at the carbonyl carbon. The bond to the nucleophile displaces one of the bonds to the oxygen and pushes it up as a lone pair on the oxygen. If a good leaving group is present the double bond will reform and kick off the leaving group (like with carboxyllic acid and their derivatives) or the negative can just take a proton and be happy as an OH as seen below(aldehydes and ketones)
Where is the ductus arteriosus and what is its function?
The ductus arteriosus provides a one way shunt from the pulmonary artery to the aorta. Helps bypass lungs possible due to higher right side pressure Sometimes a little bit of blood will still be sent to the pulmonary artery, despite the efforts of the foramen ovale. The ductus arteriosus takes whatever blood is in the pulmonary artery and re-routes it to the aorta where it will go to the systemic circulation.
How do NADH and FADH2 interact with the enzymes in the ETC to generate a proton gradient?
The energy and electrons in NADH and FADH2 are used to drive a series of redox reactions that push hydrogen ionds into the innermembrane space. This is why NADH has a higher ATP conversion than FADH2. NADH literally just pushes more hydrogen ions into the inner membrane space than FADH2.
What is the focal point?
The focal point is the point at which light rays parallel to the mirror or lens are focused (or virtually focused in the case of negative focal lengths)
What is the hilum?
The hilum is a large slit in the kidney where the ureter, renal artery, and renal vein enter the kidney.
Which is the third quantum number?
The magnetic quantum number, ml
Describe the metabolic changes associated with starving.
The major change in metabolism when you are starving is the focus on burning fats (for muscle) and the switch to the creation of ketone bodies (for brain). RBC are always dependent on glucose (no mitochondria). Glucagon and catecholamine secretion is higher than ever due to the low level of sugar in the blood. gluconeogenesis is only source of glucose after 24 hours
How does the stomach create its acidic internal conditions?
The mucosa of the stomach contains glands that secrete various substances that contribute to the environment of the stomach.
What do groups allow us to easily ascertain?
The number of valence electron an element has.
What is the parietal pleura?
The parietal pleura is the membrane that is further out from the lung and not adjacent to its surface.
Describe the strength of the peptide bond.
The peptide bond is resonance stabilized (partial double bond from N lone pair) , and is thus very strong. More often than not, we need to use special enzymes to break these bonds down.
phi phenomenom
The phi phenomenon (also known as the motion picture effect) is an optical illusion in which a series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving. The phi phenomenon may have been relevant to perceiving motion during the simulation but is irrelevant to depth perception.
What is the function of the pleurae other than the protection of the lungs?
The pleurae forms a sac against which the lung can expand. This protects the lungs.
What is the function of melatonin?
The precise function of melatonin is still unclear, but levels of melatonin in the blood are correlated with feelings of sleepiness. Melatonin has also been shown to affect circadian rhythm.
What is the range of data? is this a good measure of distrubtion?
The range of a data set is simply the difference between the largest and smallest value. Range is heavily affected by the presence of outliers and is not a very good measure of distribution for this reason.
How do we calculate the rate of a reaction?
The rate will always be equal to the rate constant of the reaction times the concentration of the rectants raised to experimentally determined exponents.
Describe the portal system in the kidney?
The renal portal system consists of the following two capillary beds in series. The first capillary bed is the glomerulus in the bowman's capsule. Instead of returning to venous circulation, blood leaves the glomerulus in the bowman's capsule and enters the capillary bed surrounding the loop of henle known as the vasa recta.
The volume of blood passing through either side of the heart per unit time is (the same or different)
The same
How does titration work?
The titrant is something you know the concentration, volume, and therefore moles of. You add the titrant to the titrand/analyte until a visible reaction of some sort is completed. This is usually the color change of an indicator in an acid/base titration. Once the color change occurs, you use how many moles of titrant you added to stoichiometrically determine how many moles of titrand/analyte were in the solution.
What is the difference between a Monocyte and a Macrophage?
They are both phagocytic immune cells. The only difference is that Monocytes are in blood and Macrophages are in the tissues.
Describe the Hill Criterion of Temporality
This criterion states that for an independent variable to be causing a depedent variable, it must occur before the dependent variable in the study. AKA temporal ambiguity
What is threshold frequency (fT)?
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency (and therefore energy) of light required to knock electrons off of a given metal atom. Different metals will have different threshold frequencies. if it doesnt hit threshold no electrons will leave.
What is the main purpose of the membrane?
To selectively regulate traffic into and out of the cell, whether it is chemical traffic through channel proteins or signal traffic through membrane receptors and other signal transduction machinery.
What does Tubulin make, and what is this structures 3 functions?
Tubulin is the protein that makes up microtubules. MIcrotubules are important for providing structure, chromosome separation in mitosis and meiosis, and intracellular transport with kinesin and dynein. Tubulin, like actin, has polarity: The negative end is usally closer to the nucleus and the positive end is usually in the periphery of a cell. \
Fundamentally, how is UV-vis spectroscopy useful?
UV-vis is useful for identifying compounds with interesting electronic properties, which is basically just double bonds, triple bonds, and lone pairs that create conjugated systems.
What is verbal communication other than words? other than written form
Uses words (whether spoken, written, or Signed)
Vmax relation to Kcat
Vmax=[E]Kcat Works under saturated conditions
What kinds of moleucles can travel through the bloodstream with no assistance?
Water soluble molecules
What environment should esterification reactions NOT be carried out in
Water! It will hydrolyze the desired products
How do we convert a first order reaction into a straight line?
We graph the ln of the concentration instead of the concentration. The slope will be equal to negative 1 times the rate constant of the reaction.
minimum justification principle
When someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through a significant rationale. Can occur after buying something you didn't want too
Is an amine/-OR group electron donating or withdrawing
When the atome of nitrogen/oxygen participates through its free electron pair in resonance, the amine/methoxy group plays the role of a donating group by conjugation. When it cannot participate in conjugation through resonance, the amine/methoxy groupe plays the role of inductive electron-withdrawer group, due to the higher electronegativity of nitrogen atom compared to carbon atom. When the amine group plays the role of electron donating group through conjugation, its inductive withdrawing effect (still existing) is weaker and masked by the first effect.
What is happening when an atom is demoted to ground state.
When the electron spontaneously falls from a higher energy level to a lower energy level (THIS WILL ALWAYS HAPPEN) the atom loses some energy. This energy is lost in the form of a photon which the atom basically spits out.
Can HF pass through cell membranes
Yes before it dissociates
Do all atoms release energy when gaining an electron?
Yes, but to different extents
Do prokaryotic cells have organelles?
Yes, just not membrane bound organelles (they have riobosomes)
Is Kcat constant with different enzyme concentrations?
Yes, no clue how though
what is a social construct?
a concept or practice everyone in a society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of inherent value Example 1: money example2 : self our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to other people (and reaction to expectations to society)
what is social stratification?
a society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power
what is foraging?
animal searching for food. has to balance energy spent with energy gained. can be solitary or group driven primarily by genetics but can be gained through learning (ex. primates)
what is autocommunication?
animal talks to itself Ex: bat using echolocation
Is the anticodon parallel or antiparallel to the codon
antiparallel: anticodon 5' GAU 3' would flip and match with codon 5' AUC 3'
what is haloperidol?
antipsychotic used to treat schizophrenia
what is the deal of environmental justice?
areas with high poverty often have few environmental benefits like parks and recreation. looks at fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens across social groups
Stanford prison experiment
being in a prison environment caused guards to be more authoritative, sadistic, and power to do what they wanted with the prisoners. prisoners sucked up to guards
what is epigenetics? ex
changes in gene expression due to modification of DNA at the molecular level. this includes methylation, acetylation, etc.
what are target characteristics?
characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence
Who are vulnerable persons and why are they important
children, pregnant women, prisoners, etc studies involving these groups have extra security to get through
Ludwig Gumplowicz contribution to conflict theory
expanded on Marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest, and cultural/ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others
what is an innate behavior and what are the three types
genetically programed, present at birth Reflex- sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking Orientation behaviors- regulating specially in our environments (Ex. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis) fixed action pattern(FAP)- sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. more complicated than reflex. Ex. praying mantis strike response to seeing prey
Free energy relation to Keq
he equilibrium constant for the reaction is very large (much greater than 1). This necessarily means that ΔG° is negative and the reaction is spontaneous.
what is social psychology?
how individuals think, feel, and behave in social interactions a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. It focuses on interaction between individual and the changing external environmental (situational) circumstances over internal traits/internal motivations/ stable personality traits.
linguistic relativity asserts that
human cognition is affected by language
what are mature defense mechanisms?
humor - humor to be truthful and alleviate feelings but socially acceptable sublimation - channeling negative to positive energy suppression - conscious thought gets pushed to unconscious but CAN access thoughts at a later time altruism - service of others - we fill fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction
proteolytic cleavege is a ____ reaction
hydrolysis
What part of brain regulates body temperature
hypothalamus
______ are NOT active around the primitive neural tube ______ are active
immunoglobulins motor proteins and cell adhesion molecules as well as sonic hedgehog
what is cultural imperialism?
imposing ones culture on others deliberately
where is groupthink more likely to occur?
in cohesive, insulated groups When members are all similar (all part of board of directors or something) respected/important leaders unity takes precedence
what is positive feedback?
increase product. one product stimulates production of another product
The external intercostal muscles can be recruited to aid in inhalation or exhalation?
inhalation
what is an innate behavior?
instinct
what is reciprocal determinism? **
interaction between individuals behaviors, environment, and cognition. Ex: you like soccer(cognition), so you join a soccer team (environment), spend time with soccer players (behavior). and any of these 3 can be interchanged Basis of Social cognitive theory created by bandura
what are neurodevelopmental disorders?
involve distress/disability due to abnormality during development Ex: autism/retardation
what is dysthymic disorder?
less severe depression over a priod of 2 years(ish)
what is antisocial personality disorder?
little or no regard for others. commit crimes and show no remorse
how can social loafing be reduced?
make task hrader separate performance of individual in the group (giving each person their own grade) make individual components to each group member
internalizing receptors
means they go inside neuron and thus there is less of a response to outside NT
Medial vs lateral rotation of muscles
medial rotates axis toward midline and lateral rotates axis of the limb away from the midline
what is a subculture?
medium subcommunity that distinguishes itself from the larger/dominant community smaller than a nation, but unlike a micro-culture, large enough to support people throughout their entire lifespan subculture affects your life on a longer period than a micro-culture subculture is a group of individuals who are characteristically distinct from the dominant culture, but whose values and norms still generally align with the dominant culture. examples: communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, tribes
what is a utilitarian organization?
members are paid/rewarded for their work and efforts (money or a college degree or something)
what is bourgeoisie
minority rich
when there is a high degree of distinctiveness
more likely to attribute to external/environmental factors Ex: guy is late because of huge car crash
what is grey matter?
mostly neural soma
what is suburbanization?
movement away from cities to get a larger home. Larger high and middle class populations ex: Silicon Valley on outskirts of san Jose
What is plasma clearence in regard to the kidney
moving from blood to urine High plasma clearence means a lot will be excreted Plasma clearance refers to the capacity of the kidney to remove a substance from the plasma. It is determined by comparing the concentrations of the substance in the plasma and the urine, and then calculating the rate at which the substance appears in the urine.
what is distress?
negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for the body
what is social capital?
network of relationships and connections that give opportunites and advantages
What is the elaboration coding strategy
new information is meaningfully associated with previously known information. This effortful, deep processing tends to result in more connections to the new material, improving learning.
what is permissive/indulgent parenting?
non-directive and lenient, few behavioral expectations for child
what is ethnicity?
not defined by physical characteristics shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor ethnic minority: can be absorbed into majority after 1-2 generations minority is a group that makes up less than half of the total pop and treated differently due to some characteristic
what defines an authoritarian personality?
obedient to superiors, but don't have sympathy for those inferior oppressive rigid thinkers, inflexible viewpoints
When will SDS page seperate quaternary structure?
only if it doesnt have disulfide bonds. OR if it is in reduccing conditons, it will seperate disulfide bonds
the movement of sodium ions into a neuron during an action potential results in depolarization but why?
opening of more voltage-gated sodium channels, causing further depolarization
DNA vectors used for recombination contain:
origin of replication, antibiotic resistence gene, at least one sequence recognizable by restriction enzymes
what does attribution theory overemphasize and underemphasize?
overemphasizes internal/dispositional factors underemphasizes external/situational factors
If you doubled the amount of weak acid and conjugate base of a buffer, what would happen to pH and buffering capacity?
pH would remain same but buffering capacity would double. Thus, adding acid or base would have an even smaller effect on pH
what is a cosmopolite?
person drawn to city for cultural advantages and convenience example: students, artists, entertainment, and intellectuals
what are the rights and obligations of the sick role?
person has right to be exempt from normal social obligations and forfeit responsibility for being sick person is obligated to recover and obligated to seek medical attention if needed
why is residential segregation important?
political isolation - communities segregated are politically weak because their political interests dont overlap with other communities - become politically vulnerable, dont have the political influence to keep their own needs addressed linguistic isolation - communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in the same city spatial mismatch - opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away, and harder to access. gap between where people live and where opportunities are
what happens during out group derogation?
positive rxn to our in group but negative rxn to out group
prejudice
preconceived OPINION that isn't based on reason or experience discrimination often results from prejudice
Baroreceptors
pressure
primary group vs in-group
primary group is core social group whereas in-group is the group you are affiliated with based on identification (race, religion etc..)
what are some internal factors related to how likely we are to conform?
prior commitments - if we say something that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. if we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformit because we will say the same thing now. we are not likely to change what we say feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow judgements of others
Where are B cells produced, matured, and activated
produced and matured in bone marrow. Activated in spleen and lymph nodes
what is paranoid personality disorder?
profound distrust/suspicion of others
what is negative sanction?
punishment for violating norms
What are pattern recognition receptors (PRR)
receptors found within macrophages and dendritic cells they are able to recognize pathogens (bacterium, virus, fungus, etc) and this pushes them to produce cytokines which will recruit the right type of immune cells. The most common is Toll like receptors (TLR)
What is the easiest way to recall ?
recognition best out of the 3 tests/easiest to recall. Present two words, and say which one you heard. Retrieval of correct word is highly likely. Ex. What was on the list? Fork or spoon and you answer fork.
Social reproduction
refers to the emphasis on the structures and activities that transmit social inequality from one generation to the next which refers to the perpetuation of inequalities through social institutions (such as education or the economy)
what is the function of the pons?
regulates sleep/waking and relaxing
What does NO do and how would it affect arteries
relaxation of smooth muscle, decrease blood pressure
what is negative reinforcement?
removing stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior being repeated (ex. taking away alarm once you put your seatbelt on)
so what the **** is spotlight model of attention?
reorienting your overt attention following an exogeneous cue. think about hearin ga loud noise and shining a spotlight in that attention, selectively attending to that
what is the mere exposure effect?
repeated exposure to something improves our opinion of it not just people
In order for something to be cassical or operant condition it requires _____ behavior
repeated. Offering a candy bar to do your hw one time is not operant conditioning
what is operant extinction?
response no longer reinforced so it may not occur again (stop giving dog treat when it sits, so it stops listening to your sorry ass)
What part of CNS will be activated due to stress
reticular activating system (part of the central nervous system) will be activated at the time of a stressful event
what property of protein-digesting enzymes allows for a sequence to be determined without fully degrading the protein?
selectivity- selective cleavage creates recognizable endpoints on segments so you dont have to fully digest
Self-determination theory
self-determination theory is a need-based motivational theory that places an emphasis on competence (wanting to be good at something), autonomy (wanting to feel in control), and relatedness (wanting to feel connected to others)
what happens if a prenatal reflex reappears in adulthood?
serious medical problem
what hormone is NOT released post-orgasm?
serotonin
gender is a ___ construct
social
what is weak social constructionism?
social constructs dependent on brute facts or institutional facts
social script
social scripts - when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts - or instructions provided by society on how to act
what is ethnicity?
socially defined by national origin/distinct cultural patterns
what is past-in-present discrimination?
something from the past, that may be illegal now, still affects individual today (form of unintentional descrimination) Ex. After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom. (Negative attitude of the past coming forward to the present and causes minority to be discriminated against unfairly)
subtracting in scientific notation
subtract or add number and keep exponent the same. MAKE SURE YOU HAVE SAME EXPONENT
what is a panic disorder?
sudden panic attacks=intense fear and has physical symptoms panic attacks are in response to situations that typically don't warrant that level of stress
what is systematic desensitization
teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. Reduces fear response in individuals phobias ex: akira has arachnophobia - therapist teaches akira relaxation techniques - slowly introduce spiders to akira first a picture, then a cage, then one outside a cage hopefully she associates spiders with relaxation
What is melting temp (Tm)
temperature at which 50% of the molecules are denatured or the fraction folded is 0.5
what is the halo/reverse halo (or devil) effect?
tendency for people to be perceieved as inherently good or bad. The halo they get largely depends on first impression (ex. someone has great first impression, you then think they are better at individul skills like instruments than they really are) The halo effect, which is an attributional error that occurs when an individual with a positive quality (eg, physical attractiveness) is assumed to have other positive qualities (eg, intelligence) ex: physical attractiveness stereotype- attractive people have more positive personality traits
what is sexual dimorphism?
the degree of difference between male and female anatomical traits. [We are attracted to strong facial features of opposite gender]
what is a reference group?
the group to which a person compares themselves for things like beliefs, attitudes, behaviors a group that an individual compares themselves to for self-evaluation (Ex. referring to feminist reference group when deciding whether to change name after marriage if we are female) often imitate reference group
What is the style of life
the manifestation of the creative self and describes persons unique way of achieving superiority
Avolition
the reduction, difficulty, or inability to initiate and persist in goal-directed behavior; it is often mistaken for apparent disinterest. (examples of avolition include: no longer interested in going out and meeting with friends, no longer interested in activities that the person used to show enthusiasm for, no longer interested in much of anything, sitting in the house for many hours a day doing nothing.)
what is the unconditioned stimulus?
the thing that elicits the unconditioned response. does not require learning Ex: hamster loves carrots
What are the UTR necessary for
translation is a sequence that is recognized by the ribosome which allows the ribosome to bind and initiate translation
false consciousnes
unlike class consciousness (proposed by Marx), instead of seeing they have solidarity with one another, they're unable to see their oppression and owners can promote this false consciousness by controlling classes, making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression
pitot tubes
used to determine the speed of fluid by taking into account the difference between the static and dynamic pressure.
what is parturition
vaginal childbirth
When thickness of a lens is ignored, how do we determine the sign of the focal length and radius
want to know the type of lens surface the light passes so we can determine the sign.
what is the critical aspect of Cooley's looking glass self?
we're not influenced by the opinion of others, but by WHAT WE IMAGINE their opinions of us to be
what is gender identity?
what gender you internally express (male, female, neither) social construction theory - states that gender is not fixed or innate, but varies across time and place categories of gender are fluid and subject to social process of meaning-making examples: cis-gender: same biological sex and gender identity examples: trans-gender: biological sex and gender identity don't match cis-gender can express a socially male or female appearance gender queer - dont identity as either male or female agender - rejecting gender categories gender fluid - moving across genders non-binary - not identifying w/any specific gender third gender - cultures that recognize non-binary gender
galant reflex
when Skin is stroked, baby moves/swings to the side it was stroked. Disappears at 6 months
what is similarity bias?
when you only befriend people who look like you
what is social loafing?
when you put in less effort when individual beahvior isn't evaluated
what is regression?
when you start acting childish in problematic situations
can you have negative growth rate?
yes is reflected in a decrease in its gross domestic product (GDP) during any quarter of a given year. Negative growth is typically expressed as a negative percentage rate.
Primary alcohlols can be oxidized by strong oxidizers ---- to form {{c1::carboxylic acids::aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids?}}
(like CrO3 or Na2Cr2O7)
What are the 7 general solubility rules for water?
1. All salts containing NH4+ and alkali metal cations are water soluble. 2. All salts containing NO3- and CH3COO- anions are water soluble. 3. Halides (Cl, Br, I) excluding fluorides are water soluble, with the exception of those formed with Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+ (heavy metals) 4. All salts containing SO42- are water soluble with the exception of those formed with Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+. 5. All metal oxides are insoluble, with the exception of those formed with CaO, SrO, BaO, the alkali metals, and ammonium. 6. All hydroxies are insoluble, with the exception of those formed with Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, the alkali metals, and ammonium. 7. All salts containing CO32-, PO43-, S2-, and SO32- are insoluble, with the exception of those formed with the alkali metals and ammonium
What are the three subunits of a G protein and what do they do?
1. Alpha Sub Unit: Carries GDP/GTP to and from the G protein and the nearby enzymes to catalyze. 2. Beta Sub Unit: Structural component of G protein 3. Gamma Sub Unit: Structural component of G protein. alpha gets phosphorylated by GEF (which can be intrinsic in theGPCR) when bound to GPCR, it then can dissociate from beta and gamma and gives its phosphate to an enzyme to activate or inhibit it. GTP hydrolysis by GAP (which can be intrinsic in the adenylate cyclase) leads to GDP. Once it is GDP again it binds to beta and gamma and repeats
What are the two major building blocks of the skeleton?
1. Bone 2. Cartilage
What are the four divisions of the spinal cord?
1. Cervical 2. Thoracic 3. Lumbar 4. Sacral
What are the two classifications of hormone based on what type of tissue they effect?
1. Direct 2. Tropic
What are the three patterns of evolution?
1. Divergent Evolution 2. Parallel Evolution 3. Convergent Evolution
What are the three stages of muscle contraction?
1. Initiation 2. Contraction 3. Relaxation
How does one determine the quartiles of a data set?
1. Sort the data in ascending order 2. To get the first quartile, multiply the number of data points by 1/4th. 3. If this is a whole number, the quartile is the mean of the value at that data point and the next highest data point. 4. If this is a decimul, round up to the next whole number and take the data point there as the quartile position. To get the second, third, or fourth quartile, simply modify step 2 by multiplying by 2/4ths, 3/4ths, and 1 respectively.
How does sweating cool us down?
1. Sweating causes water to appear on the surface of our skin. 2. The water, now in contact with the hot skin, enters into thermal exchange, with heat going from the skin to the water. 3. The water gets so hot that it evaporates, which also sucks heat from the skin.
When light passes between mediums with two different indexes of refraction, how many beams of light are created and why?
2, one is reflected back into source medium and one is refracted into new medium. In special cases when going from high n to low n, and the critical angle is exceeded, all light will appear reflected (because the refraction angle is higher than 90 and thus goes back into original medium)
birth @ ___ weeks = 50% survival
24
what is the age range and virtue and (-) for the initiative v. guilt stage?
3-6 reach sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make Negative outcome: If tendency to ask questions is controlled, develop guilt - as if they're annoying other people and act more as a follower. Inhibits their creativity, and outcome is inadequacy. Some guilt is necessary so child can have self-control.
What are the phenotype options for ABO antigens?
A and B are the two alleles, and they are codominant. This means that you can have the A antigen, the B antigen, both, or neither.
What is a backside attack?
A backside attack is the way nucleophiles attack electrophiles in Sn2 reactions. They always attack this way because it is lower energy than attacking from the front (where there is more stuff in the way). Backside attacks are interesting in that they invert the configuration of the molecule when they occur. What happens to a molecule during a backside attack is similar to what happens to an umbrella when the wind blows it inside out.
What is a barometer?
A barometer is a device that measures the pressure of something.
What is a beta pleated sheet?
A beta pleated sheet is a structure in which peptide chains lie alongside one another, forming rows.
What is a carboxylic acid?
A carboxylic acid is a molecule with a highest order functional group of a terminal carbonyl with an -OH group.
What is a complete ionic equation?
A complete ionic equation shows a reaction with all of the aqueous reactants and products written as their dissociated ions. Keep solids intact
What is a conjugated protein?
A conjugated protein is a protein that derives part of its function from the presence of proesthetic groups.
What is a gene pool?
A gene pool is the collection of all the possible alleles within a species. For example, we have blue, green, hazel, and brown eyes in our gene pool, but we don't really have purple or yellow alleles in our gene pool. However, some animals do have these alleles in their gene pool. It changes from species to species.
What is a ketose? structure of dihydroxyacetone?
A ketose is a carbohydrate that containes a ketone group as its highest priority group.
What is effect of knockout mouse?
A knockout mouse is a mouse that had one of its genes removed as a zygote, meaning it lacks the gene completely as an adult. Knockout mice are used to study the importance and effects of different genes.
ligand to --?
A ligand is the electron pair donor molecule that attaches to the electron accepting core.
What is a mixture?
A mixture is some combination of two things, whether or not it is homogenous or heterogenous.
What is a mole?
A mole is a unit we made to conveniently describe the quantity of chemical quantities. One mole is equal to 6.02*10^23 of whatever substance is in question. You could have a mole of cats in the same way you have a dozen eggs. One mole of cat is 6.02*10^23 cats and one dozen of eggs is 12 eggs.
What is a semicarbazone?
A semicarbazone is a modified version of an Imine. In this molecule, the double bonded nitrogen has a N-C(O)-N moiety attached.
What is a symporter?
A symporter is a secondary active transport system that pushes both molecules in the same direction.
What is a tract?
A tract is a bundle of neuron's found in the central nervous system.
What is a transverse wave?
A transverse wave oscillates perpendicular to the direction of movement of the wave. Particles in the wave oscillate perpindicular to the direction of energy transfer
What is acetone?
Acetone is the common name for propanone.
Generally speaking, how does carboxylation affect proteins?
Addition of carboxylic acids. Carboxylating proteins is usually done so that the protein can have calcium binding sites.
What does a carboxylase do
Adds a CO2
What is the (R,S) chirality of amino acids
All are S except cysteine which is R, and glycine which is none
What kind of biomolecules can the pancreatic juices break down?
All three. Carbohydrates with Pancreatic Amylase, proteins with Pancreatic peptidases, and fats with pancreatic lipase.
What is alpha decay? does it pentrate or not ?
Alpha decay is when an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle AKA Helium Nucleus. Doesnt penetrate shielding (like lead sheets)
In peptide bond formation, which end attacks which
Amino terminus attacks carboxy terminus
What is an Amide?
An amide is a carbonyl carbon bonded to a nitrogen.
What is an amino acid?
An amino acid is a molecule that contains an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH).
What is an electrochemical cell?
An electrochemical cell is an anode and a cathode connected somehow that captures the flow of electrons to harness energy.
What is an enol?
An enol is a compound with a double bond and an alcohol group
What phase combos can make solutions
Any phase in liquid, any phase in solid, gas in gas, liquid in gas, solid in gas???
Describe the Hill Criterion of Consistency?
As you increase the number of settings in which you can relate an independent variable to a dependent variable, the more likely there is an actual causal relationship between them.
When balancing reactions, what two things do we consider
Atoms AND charge
What is autoionization?
Autoionization is the phenomenon of water reacting with itself to make hydronium and hydroxide.
what are negative symptoms of Schizophrenia?
Avoliton, blunted emotions, loss of enjoyment, lack of emotional expression, lack of interest/enthusiasm, inability to carry a conversation
How does entropy always change during solvation?
Because solvation spreads molecules out, the change in entropy for this process is always positive.
What does it mean for something to be ionized
Become an ion by gaining or losing an electron
What is beers law
Beers law is used to determine the concentration of a solution using a spectrophotometer. Basically it states that absorption of light by a solution is directly proportional to the concentration of a solution. It is written in the form: A= ELC where A is absorption, E (epsilon) is the extinction coefficient which is predetermined per solution, L is the length of light traveled in units of cm and C is the concentration
What is Benedict's reagent?
Benedict's reagent is a mix of Cu(OH)2 and a special solution. When it interacts with aldehydes, Cu2O is produced, which is a reddish brown precipitate. The appearance of the red precipitate therefore indicates the presence of large amounts of reducing sugars. MNEMONIC: Benedict's is Red like Bricks
Real vs. virtual, inverted vs. upright, magnified vs. reduced for objects placed beyond F, at F, or between F and mirror for converging mirrors. Also for diverging mirrors
Beyond F: real, inverted, magnified At F (or any focal distance away): no image (goes to infinity) Between F and mirror: virtual, upright, magnified Diverging always produces virtual, upright, and reduced image regardless of object positiion
What is boiling point elevation?
Boiling point elevation is the fact that, as you add nonvolatile solutes to a solution, it's boiling point increases. This is described mathematically below. Where Delta T is the change (elevation, so if our answer is 15, the boiling point goes UP by 15) in boiling point, Kb is a constant, m is the molality of the solution, and i is equal to the number of different particles the solute dissolves into. For example, NaCl would dissolve into two ions, so i would equal 2. glucose would have an i of 1
Antibonding vs bonding orbitals
Bonding orbitals place most of the electron density between the nuclei of the bonded atoms. Antibonding orbitals place most of the electron density outside the nuclei. Explanation: Electrons in bonding orbitals stabilize the molecule because they are between the nuclei. They also have lower energies because they are closer to the nuclei. Antibonding orbitals place less electron density between the nuclei. The nuclear repulsions are greater, so the energy of the molecule increases. Antibonding orbitals are at higher energy levels than bonding orbitals.
The Strecker Synthesis results in a {{c1::racemic mixture::stereoselect product or racemic mixture?}}
Both L and D AA can be produced
self-serving bias vs fundamental attribution error
Both more common in individualistic cultures
What are the characteristics of capillaries? size
Capillaries are made of a single layer of endothelial cells across which gas, nutrient, and hormone exchange can occur with surrounding tissues. They are very narrow and fragile. Red blood cells actually have to travel single file in capillaries because they are so narrow!
Mitral/Tufted cell
Cell that glomerulus sends signal too which then sends the signal to brain
What is the only way to change Kw (or any eq constant for that matter)
Changing temp (increasing temp increases Kw). It is just like any other eq constant in that only temp will change it
Approach-approach conflict
Choosing between two good options (least stressful)
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
Choosing between two negatives
What is chromatography?
Chromatography is a tool that uses physical and chemical properties to separate and identify compounds from a complex mixture. Fundamentally, chromatographic methods involve the passing of homogenized protein mixutres through matrices of various sorts. Depending on the type of matrix used, different types of proteins will move through it quickly.
Describe the second step of the Citric Acid Cycle. What does enzyme require
Citrate is isomerized to Isocitrate in two quick steps by Aconitase. Aconitase is a metalloprotein that requires Fe2+ to work.
What does conservation of energy imply about KE and PE
Conservation of energy implies KEinitial = PEfinal, or mv2/2 = mgh
Illness anxiety disorder
Constantly fearing that you have a disease or will get a disease. Different from factitous in that its not intentional
What does an endonuclease do
Cut DNA
In adipocytes, excess glucose is converted into {{c1::DHAP}}
DHAP is converted into Glyercol Phosphate to store incoming fatty acids at triacylglycerols.
What is DNA methylation? which of the base pairs are methylated on a DNA?
DNA Methylation is when C and A Nucleotides are methylated. Methyl groups carry electron density in their bonds, which increases the negative charge of the DNA, which strengthens the interaction between histones and DNA. This results in tight DNA that is harder/unable to transcribe.
What is determination?
Determination is when a cell is irreversibly commited to a cell type.
Are dissociation reacitons typically endo or exothermic
Dissociation reactions are typically endothermic processes because energy must be added to the system (as heat) to dissociate (break) the bonds in the reactants. Thus products will have more energy than reactants on a delta H graph
Is going down or across a better predictor of atomic radii
Down. Chlorine is bigger than nitrogen
What is entropy?
Entropy is the measure of the spontaneous dispersal of energy at specific temperatures. As entropy goes up, more energy gets dispersed or the same ount of energy gets dispersed farther.
What is Cholesteryl ester transferase protein (CETP)
Facilitates transfer of cholesteryl esters from HDL to IDL to form LDL
How do unsaturated fatty acids affect the membrane? increase but why?
Generally speaking, unsaturated fatty acids are not able to stack very well, which decreases their intermolecular forces. Therefore, unsaturated fatty acids decrease the rigidity of the membrane and make it more flexible.
Describe Gluconeogenesis and enzymes involved
Gluconeogenesis is mostly just the reverse of glycolysis. The only difference is that the three irreversible steps of glycolysis must be bypassed by gluconeogenesis specific enzymes. These enzymes are Pyruvate Carboxylase + Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK), Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and Glucose-6-phosphatase.
What is Glycolysis?
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose for energy.
What are the major waste productes excreted in the urine?
H+ ions, Urea, NH3, and K+ MNEMONIC: DUMP the HUNK
is relative poverty harder or easier to measure?
HARDER
Important events in first trimester
Heartbeat 22 days skeleton begins to harden into bone by 7th week After 8 weeks embryo known as fetus and bain is fairly developed Most organs are developed at the end of first trimester
Type of DNA at the centromere
Heterochromatin and high GC content
What is the difference between Hexokinase and Glucokinase? where are the locations/affinity(km)/regulatory enzymes?
Hexokinase is present in most tissues and phosphorylates 6 carbon sugars. It is a high affinity enzyme (low km). Glucokinase is present only in hepatocytes and pancreatic cells and only phosphorylates glucose. It is a low affinity enzyme (high km).Traps extra glucose in liver as part of storage mechanism
What is intracellular digestion?
Intracellular digestion is when a cell takes in something and digests it into nutrients. This involves the oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy.
Resistence in parallel relation to current
Inversly proportional. If we have two branches, and the right branch has double the resistence, it will draw half the current. Remember the junction rule which means current before the split must equal both branches added up
What is the naming convention for 5 and higher carbon molecules?
Just use the normal greek roots for numbers. 5. Pent 6. Hex 7. Hept 8. Oct 9. Non 10. Dec 11. Undec 12. Dodec Etc.
What is the reaction of a weak monoprotic acid with water and what is the Ka expression?
Ka=[H3O+][A-]/[HA]
ATP labeling
Kinases transfer the gamma phosphate, so that is the one to radioactively tag
What hemisphere are broca and wernickes area part of
Left
The fetal hemoglobin curve is shifted _____ compared to the adult hemoglobin curve
Left becasue it has higher affinity of oxygen
How do you quickly determine the harmonic of an open pipe?
Look at the number of nodes/ number of half wavelengths
What does a concave mirror look like?
MNEMONIC: Like entering a Cave
What is molecular formula?
Molecular formula is the exact number of atoms of each element in the compound, without being reduced to simplest whole number ratios.
The more GC pairs in a DNA strand the {{c1::higher::higher or lower}} the denaturation temperature
More hydrogen bonds means more intermolecular forces, which means higher denaturation temperature.
How to tell which AA will provide most energy when degraded
Most carbons provides most energy (dont know how to compare ketogenic vs glucogenic)
What are efferent neurons
Motor neurons, brain to body
Units of a pascal
N/m2
Does increasing surface area of electrodes affect Keq or Ecell or current?
NO to keq and E, but it will increase current
If a reaction is irreversible, is there a reverse rate
No you ********
Can a man ever pass an x-linked disease to his son
No. think about it ********
Sn2 reactions result in {{c1::inverted stereochemistry::inverted stereochemistry or racemic mixtures?}}
Note: this always inverts relative configuration Note: if the nucleophile and leaving group have same priority in their respective molecules then R will switch to S (absolute config) Note: absolute config DOES NOT always switch
What happens if a molecule hits another molecule with less energy than the activation energy of the reaction?
Nothing will happen. If the reaction is to occur, the activation energy must be surpassed.
What are the myelin producing cells in the central nervous system called?
Oligodendrocytes
What are oncogenes?
Oncogenes are pieces of DNA that, if damaged (mutated) promote cell division and cancer.
Gesellschaft (society)
One in which individuals are working toward the same goal (a company or country)
What are thick filaments made of?
Organized bundles of Myosin
What is paracellular transport?
Paracellular transport is when you move through a layer of cells by going through a space in between them. This is what tight junctions protect against.
What are the rules of peak splitting?
Peak splitting follows the n+1 rule, where the number of adjacent hydrogens, n, + 1 equals the number of peaks after splitting.
What is important to remember about polyprotic acids?
Polyprotic acids are acids with multiple protons. This means that 1 mole of a polyprotic acid will dissociate into more than 1 mole of protons. It is important that we account for this difference in ka calculations, neutralization reactions, etc.
What is Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase's role in the PDH Complex?
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase phosphorylates PDH when ATP or acetyl-CoA levels or high, which turns it off.
What is Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex and what are its 5 components?
Pyruvate Dehyrogenase Complex is a 5 enzyme complex in the mitochondrial matrix that produces acetyl-CoA and NADH. Exergonic reaction. PDH is also inhibited by acetyl-CoA, ATP, and NADH. It is comprised of the following 5 enzymes. 1. Pyruvate Dehydrogenase 2. Dihydrolipoly transacetylase 3. Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase 4. Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase 5. Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Phosphatase
Diastereomers optical acitivty
Random. Can differ in magnitude and sign
What is red bone marrow?
Red bone marrow is filled with hematopoetic stem cells, which are responsible for the generation of all the cells in our blood.
Amides, Esters, and anhydrides are produced from by {{c1::condensation::}} reactions?
Remember, these molecules are produced by bringing together two molecules and losing a small one, in the case of these reactions,the small molecule lost is water.
Timeline of language acquisition based on age
"9 to 12 months- babbling 12 to 18 months- about one word per month 18-20 months- explosion of language and combining words 2 to 3 years- longer sentences (3+ words) grammar rules suck 5 years- language rules largely mastered Interesting thing is that grammar rules decrease as kids become toddlers and over think/overuse rules. Ex. lil lad might say ""I ran"" but toddler might say I ranned."
Describe the polarity of DNA.
"DNA as a long linear molecule that is considered by the enzymes that work on it to ""start"" with the 5' end and ""end"" with the 3' end. Because of the one way nature of DNA enzyme activity, DNA is said to have polarity. 5' end has OH or phoshphate and 3' end has free OH"
Individualist vs collectivist cultures response to emotion
"In Western cultures, which tend to value individualism, emotional expression is more acceptable than in non-Western cultures, which value collectivism. Differences in the expression of emotion between women and men tend to be more pronounced in Western cultures, which stereotype women as ""emotional"" and men as ""rational."""
What is Na+/K+ ATPase? most important role?
"Na+/K+ ATPase, aka ""The Sodium Potassium Pump"" is an enzyme in the membrane of cells that uses ATP to actively transport Sodium and Potassium against their gradients. This pumping plays an important role in the generation of action potentials."
What are the two types of MHC's found in the body?
1. MHC Class 1 2. MHC Class 2
What is weak nuclear force
1/10E6 as strong as strong nuclear force. Contributes to stability of nucleus
How many isoprenes make up a single terpene unit?
2 isoprenes make one terpene unit. A terpene or terpenoid can be made up of many terpene units. monoterpenes have 2 isoprenes sesquiterpenes have 3 isoprenes diterpenes have 4 isoprenes triterpenes have 6 isoprenes tetraterpenes have 8 isoprenes (carotenoids)
what is dissociative identity disorder?
2 or more identities in a single body. usually from people who have suffered child abuse or life stresses. extremely rare. some poeple think it isnt even legit each personality is unaware of the other conscious dissociates or separates from the painful memories, thoughts, or feelings
Molecular orbitals contain a maximum of ____ electrons
2, like any orbital
Resolution limit of a light microscope
200nm
How much volume does one mole of an ideal gas take up at STP?
22.4 Liters
What is the overall metabolic reaction of Glycolysis?
2ADP + 2 ATP + 2 NAD+ + Glucose -> 4 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 Pyruvates There are also some hydrogen ions and water molecules but they aren't as important.
What is the shape of the P orbital?
3 lobes that share a center but extend across three different axes.
in what group size are we likely to conform?
3-5
fraternal twins share __% of their genetic code
50
What is a Line-Weaver Burke Plot?
A Line-Weaver Burke Plot is a modified Michaelis-Menten equation. It measures 1/v and 1/s instead of v and s. For this reason, Line-Weaver Burke Plots are often called double reciprocal graphs. These plots are used because they represent the equation behind enzyme kinetics in the form of a straight line.
What is a capacitor?
A capacitor is an electrical element that can store energy within itself.
What is a cathode?
A cathode is where reduction occurs.
What is a confidence interval?
A confidence interval is a range of data in which you are some x percent sure that the real value falls in. For example, a 95% confidence interval from data you are analyzing that goes from 1 to 5 means you are 95% sure that the real value of the data is somewhere in between 1 and 5. If confidence intervals overlap, then there is not statisically significant difference! 95% sure the real mean is in this range somewhere.
What is a configurational isomer?
A configurational isomer is a molecule that differs in its 3D orientation in such a way that it can't just rotate around the bond to interconvert, like a conformational isomer. Bonds would need to be broken to interconvert. This is seen in double bonds and stereocenters.
What is a deoxy sugar?
A deoxy sugar is a sugar with hydrogens in place of one or more hydroxyls. The most well known of these sugers is D-2-Deoxyribose, the carbohydrate found in DNA.
What is a diastereomer?
A diastereomer is a molecule that is non-super imposable but is not a mirror image of another molecule. This can only really happen when there are more than one chiral centers, so it's a good idea to be thinking about diastereorism whenever you see multiple chiral carbons in a molecule.
What is a Ligand Gated Channel?
A ligand gated channel is a channel that is regulated by the binding of specific ligands.
What is a map unit or centimorgan?
A map unit is the unit used to describe how far away genes are on a chromosome. One map unit correspons to a 1% chance of recombination occuring between the genes. Recombination frequency is correlated highly with distance.
What is a monosaccharide and what are its types?
A monosaccharide is a single carbohydrate. Monosaccharides can have 3 carbons (trioses), 4 carbons (tetroses), 5 carbons (pentose), or 6 carbons (hexoses).
What is a nitrile?
A nitrile is a carbon triple bonded to nitrogen. This is usually a result of a reaction with Cyanide (C triple bonded to N). Cyanide below
What is a peptide?
A peptide is a chain of amino acids.
What is a polypeptide?
A polypeptide is any chain of amino acids that is longer than 20 amino acids.
What is a population?
A population is the entire set of individuals with a certain set of characteristics. Data on everyone in a population would be a parameter
What is a portal system?
A portal system is when two capillary beds are wired in series, so blood passes through two differrent capillary beds before returning to the vein highway.
What is a spectator ion?
A spectator ion is an ion that stays in the aqueous form and keeps its oxidation number after the reaction is complete. In other words, spectator ions don't change during the reaction, they are just spectating.
What is an MRI?
An MRI is just applying NMR to humans. Using NMR, we can determine the density of hydrogens in the body, which correspond to tissue types. More hydrogens= brighter. so lots of water or fat =brighter. so bone=dark DONT NEED TO KNOW THESE DETAILS By looking at the general shape of tissues and cavities in the body, we can determine abnormalities.
What is an alcohol?
An alcohol is a molecule with a highest priority functional group of an -OH.
What is an antibody? Functions (what does it do to other cells nearby?)
An antibody, aka immunoglobulin, is a protein produced by B-cells that functions to neutralize immune system targets and then recruit other cells to help eliminate the threat.
What is an antibonding orbital?
An antibonding orbital is a molecular orbital where the two atomic orbitals overlapping have opposite signs and cancel out when they combine.
What is the definition of an arrhenius acid?
An arrhenius acid is something that dissociates to form an H+ ion.
What is an exocrine gland?
An exocrine gland is a gland that secretes its product into a duct for secretion.
What does an exponential graph look like?
An exponential graph rises ever increasingly faster, getting steeper and steeper in a certain direction.
Describe the structure of an operon according to the Jacob-Monod model?
An operon is a cluster of genes transcribed as a single mRNA. The main pieces of an operon from left to right are the Regulator gene, the Promotor site, The Operator site, and The Structural gene Regulator gene- Codes for repressor Promoter site- Provides place for RNA pol to bind Operator site- Non transcribable region of DNA that can bind repressor Structural gene- codes for protein of interest
What is an osteoblast?
An osteoblast is an external bone cell that builds more bone. secretes bone matrix MNEMONIC: Osteoblast builds bone
How do the rules of resistors apply to the cardiovascular system?
Capillaries, veins, and arteries all act like resistors, and therefore follow the same rules. For example, two capillary beds in series will have an equivalent resistance equal to their resistances added up. Two individual capillaries wired in parallel will decrease the resistance to the tune of 1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2. Just like in circuits! Longer blood vessels=higher resistence Wider blood vessels=lower resistence All systemic capillary beds are in parallel with the exception of the portal systems!
How do catalysts speed up reactions? what does it do to activation energy?
Catalysts are molecules that in some way shape or form stabilize the transition state of the reaction and lower its energy ** KAPLAN 162. This in turn lowers the activation energy of the reaction, which is used in the Arrhenius equation to determine the rate constant of the reaction.
Why do chaperones proteins exist?
Chaperones are a special protein that wraps around newly synthesized proteins in order to protect them and change the microenvironment in which the protein folds.
What is the loop rule?
Around a closed circuit loop, the sum of voltage sources will always be equal to the sum of voltage drops. Sum of all voltage will be 0 (source is pos and drops are neg)
What are colligative properties?
Colligative properties are physical properties of solutions that are dependent on the concentration of dissolved particles but not on the chemical identity of the dissolved particles
What are viroids and how do they function
Contain a very short circular single stranded RNA that usually infects plants. Bind to RNA sequences or the genes themselves to silence genes. HDV is an example of a human viroid that needs HBV to exert its silencing effect
What are brush-border enzymes?
Brush-Border enzymes are a series of enzymes found in the duodenum that break down trimers and dimers of macromolecules into absorbable monomers. disaccharidases and peptidases
Decreasing the recoil of lung tissue has what affect
Difficulty exhaling completely (lung wont recoil back to normal) which would increase residual volume Increased total lung capacity because less recoil opposing inhalation
Calculating emperical and molecular formula given grams of atoms within molecule
First, divide gram of each element by molar mass of element. Next, divide all those answers by the lowest answer. Third, that ratio is emperical formula. If the total molar mass of that is different from the total grams they gave, you need to multiply it to get molecular formula. Ex. we have 112g molecule and emperical formula is 56g/mol, multiply each atom by 2 to get molecular
What are the steps of the half reaction method?
For basic, add OH- to both sides at the end of the problem. Merge H+ and OH- to form water and then cancel out water. For this example we would add 16OH- to each side.
What is freezing point depression?
Freezing point depression is the fact that, as you add nonvolatile solutes to a solution, it's freezing point decreases. This is described mathematically below. Where Delta T is the change (depression, so if our answer is 15, the freezing point goes DOWN by 15) in freezing point, Kf is a constant, m is the molality of the solution, and i is equal to the number of different particles the solute dissolves into. For example, MnCl2 would dissolve into three ions, so i would equal 3.
What kind of molecular orbitals contribute to a single bond?
Just sigma bonds.
How does Glucagon affect different macromolecule metabolism?
Glucagon is much more focused on liver cells than insulin. Glucagon increases the breakdown of glycogen in the liver. It also increases gluconeogensis, ketogenesis, and break down of fats in the liver for energy (However, glucagon is not considered a major fat mobilizing hormone because it acts on liver and not adipocytes).
What hormones make us hungry
Glucagon, ghrelin
What is gluconeogenesis? where does it occur
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose in cytosol (formation of OAA from pyruvate occurs in mitochondria).
Describe Glycogenolysis
Glycogen Phosphorylase, the rate limiting enzyme of Glycogenolysis, cleaves a Glucose-1 Phosphate from the glycogen chain. The G1P can be converted to G6P (by a mutase) and enter relevant metabolic pathways. Not a hydrolysis, rather, this is phosphorylysis (adds phosphate to cleave)
What is glycogenin?
Glycogenin is a core protein that glycogen uses as its core and starting synthesis point.
What is glycolysis?
Glycolysis is a cytoplasmic pathway that converts glucose into two pyruvate molecules, releasing a modest amount of energy.
Describe the Regulation of Hexokinase?
Hexokinase is subject to negative feedback in the form of inhibition by Glucose-6-Phosphate
Latent content (freud's dream theory)
Hidden meaning (job pushing you out)
What is the social influence branch of social psych
How imitation, roles, reference groups, and culture are all parts of social influence. Looks at individual thoughts, actions and feelings are influenced by social groups.
What is Km
Km (AKA the Michaelis Constant) is the concentration at which half of the enzyme's active sites are in use and the velocity of the reaction is half of the Vmax. Km can be used to compare the affinities of different enzymes for specific substrates. For example, an enzyme with a Km of .5M needs .5M of substrate to occupy half of its active sites. However, an enzyme with a Km of .25M only needs .25M of substrate to occupy half of its active sites.
What are Hydrogen Bonds?
Hydrogen bonds are just a particularly strong dipole-dipole interaction formed when hydrogen binds certain very electronegative elements (F,O,N). Hydrogen bonds are so strong, that they can act as intermolecular forces (attraction between different molecules) or intramolecular forces (attraction between a hydrogen dipole within the molecule and another element within that same molecule). MNEMONIC: Hydrogen bonds pick up the FON (phone): Hydrogen bonds are only seen in molecules containing a hydrogen bound to Fluorine, Oygen, and Nitrogen.
What is the Inspiratory Reserve Volume? (IRV)
IRV is the volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation(as defined by TV).
What happens to GI motility if parasympathetic nervous system is blocked, will it lead to constipation or diarrhea?
If parasympathetic is blocked then GI mobility is severely limited because peristalsis stops. Even though secretin secretion will stop (which slows down motility), the loss of secretin wont cause a speed up to trump the slow down caused from loss of peristalsis. Thus things will move very slow meaning water has ample time to leave meaning constipation
Eight factors indicative of groupthink
Illusion of invulnerability- creation of optimism and encouragement of risk taking Collective rationalization- Ignoring warnings against the ideas of the group Illusion of morality- the belief that the groups decisions are morally correct Excessive- the construction of stereotypes against outside opinions Pressure for conformity- Pressure you put on someone who expresses opinions against the group, say they're disloyal Self-censorship- the withholding of opposing views Illusion of unamity- false sense of agreement with the group Mindguards- the appointment of members to the role of protecting against of opposing views
What is a K-complex purpose?
Supresses cortical arousal and keeps you asleep. Also helps with sleep-based memory consolidation (declarative/explicit)
What is the LUMO?
The LUMO is the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital. This is the lowest energy level that the electrons can be promoted to.
Where is Albumin synthesized?
The Liver
What are Leukocytes?
Leukocytes are the white blood cells. These are specialized immune function cells that make up a much smaller portion of the cellular component of blood.
Inclusive fitness
Measure of an organisms success in the population Based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and ability of offspring to support one another. An example is altruistic behavior where older members sacrifice themselves for the young
What is the blastopore?
The blastopore is the name for the mouth of the opening in the gastrula known as the archenteron.
What are capillaries?
The capillaries are the most branched parts of the vasculature that serve as the site of gas and nutrient exchange into the tissues.
What is Parallel Evolution?
Parallel Evolution refers to the process where related species with a recent common ancestor evolve in similar ways for a long period of time in response to similar environment pressures.
What are 3 coping mechanisms for stress
Perceived control- many studies show lack of control associated with higher stress. Low SES increases stress. look for areas of life where you can take a little bit of your control. "King of your own castle" Optimism- Optimism- humor and optimisms linked to decreased stress. Nurture an optimistic outlook Social support- - one of best coping mechanisms of stress. Allows us to confide thee painful/difficult feelings and allows us to understand we are not alone in stress, which helps in our perceived control and optimism.
Thats not all technique
Persuader makes an offer and then adds something extra to make the offer look better before the person can make a decision
Nucleophile/electrophile reactions require what type of solvents?
Polar, nonpolar are ass
Basic model of emotional expression and proposer
Proposed by Charles Darwin, states that emotions serve an evolutionary purpose, and thus are similar across cultures.
What two hormones coordinate the contractions of the uterus in childbirth?
Prostoglandins and Oxytocin
What phosphorylates serine and threonine
Protein kinase A (and B?)
What is a mixed order reaction
Rate orders that vary over the course of the reaction
All D sugars have the hydroxide of their highest numbered chiral center on the ____ and all L sugars have theirs on the _____
Right, left
What is the role of Secretin?
Secretin causes pancreatic juices to be released into the duodenum. It also lowers pH of the digestive tract by inhibiting parietal cells and increasing bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas. Finally, Secretin is an enterogastrone, which slows down the motility of the GI tract, giving more time to fully absorb food.
what is the preconventional stage divided into?
Self focused
Describe the -NH IR peak
Sharp peak around 3300cm-1 usually shorter than OH peaks
How do solutes affect vapor pressure?
Solutes depress the vapor pressure.
What is starch and what is its characteristic bonding pattern?
Starches are polysaccharides that are more digestible by humans. There are two types of starch and they are both made of a-D-glucose monomers. The first type of starch, amylose, is comprised of glucose monomers linked by a-1,4 bonds. The second type of starch, amylopectin, is just like amylose, except it also has occasional branches of a-1,6 bonds (every 25). Main energy source of plants The presence of starch can be tested for with iodine!
What are steroids and how are they formed?
Steroids are characterized by their conserved 4 ring structure (3 cyclohexane and 1 cyclopentane). Note, a steroid is not necessarily a steroid hormone. There are steroids that serve no hormonal function. steroids are mostly nonpolar
What is the function of the mineralcorticoids?
The mineral corticoids are used in salt and water homeostasis.
What is the molar solubility?
The molar solubility is the concentration of an ion in molarity in its saturated solution.
Describe the Hill Criterion of Plausibility?
The more reasonable the mechanism of action between the independent variable and the dependent variable, the more likely they are actually causally related. For example you can get good correlations between ice cream sold and shark bites. But, just think about it, it is extremely unlikely that ice cream sales could be having an effect on shark bites. What is actually the case is that a confounding variable, in this case temperature (in the summer more people eat ice cream and more people go to the beach where sharks hang out.) is the more plausible explanation.
What are the structural features of an osteon?
The osteon is a microscopic canal surrounded by concentric circles of bony matrix known as lamellae. The microscopic canal makes room for blood vessels and nerves in the bone.
Why is the primary immune response slow?
The primary immune response is the slow initial response to an infection. The reason it is slow is because the naive B-cells in the lymph nodes need to spend time developing good antibodies.
What is the proton motive force?
The proton motive force refers to the electrochemical gradient of hydrogen ions from the intermembrane space into the matrix. The force of hydrogens flowing down this gradient, much like the flow of water that turns a water wheel, is used to generate ATP from ADP's and P's.
What is the radius/center of curvature for a spherical mirror?
The radius/center of curvature is the distance to the center of the theoretical sphere that the mirror would make if it was a complete sphere.
What are the semilunar valves?
The semilunar valves are the valves between the ventricles and the circuits into which they flow. (both have three leaflets)
What is the interpleural space?
The space in between the two pleura of the lungs.
What is the Urea functional group?
The urea functional group is a carbon double bonded to an oxygen, single bonded to two nitrogens.
What is the urethra?
The urethra is a tube that extends from the bladder and empties into the outside world. Urine stored in the bladder is sent through the urethra so it can be excreted.
What is the yolk sac?
The yolk sac is a temporary structure from which the embryo draws nutrients and forms red blood cells. The yolk sac supports the embryo until the umbilical cord and the placenta are fully formed and can take over supplying the embryo.
What makes purines and pyramidines so stable?
They're aromatic heterocycles. Heterocyle means they contain two different elements in ring (carbon and nitrogen)
Biological systems are often considered {{c1::open::closed, open, or isolated systems?}}
Think about it! We definitely exchange energy with the environment and mass. We're losing and gaining weight all the time. On the cellular level systems are considered closed however
How can you infer what an enzyme's most active pH will be?
Think of the environment in which that enzyme is found. The pH of that environment will usually be the enzyme's optimal pH. For example, Pepsin, in the acidic stomach, is best at ph = 2. Trypsin, in the basic small intestine, is best at pH = 8. Salivary Amylase, in the neutral (7.3) mouth, is best around 6.5.
Anti Bonding orbitals are {{c1::higher::higher or lower energy?}} than bonding orbitals
This also means they are less stable! Atoms together are higher energy than the atoms apart
All L-amino acids have (S) configurations except for {{c1::cysteine::which amino acid?}}
This is becasue the Sulfur in Cysteine's side chain flips its priority around. Try it yourself!
Sn1 reactions result in {{c1::racemix mixtures::inversion of stereochemistry or racemix mixtures?}}
This is because the carbocation is a trigonal planar intermediate, and the nucleophile can either attack it from the top or the bottom, resulting in two different stereochemistries.
what is impression management?
attempt to control how others see us on the front stage why? we want to be viewed in a positive way can do backstage management (putting on makeup)
what is the anal stage? think of how it affects kids both good and bad behavior
baby focues on deveoping self efficacy for pooping/peeing. fixation leads to messiness/disorganization in adult life control/independence - serves as basis for competent, productive, creative adults if fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and mesiness (can be too organized or too messy)
what do the antipsychotic meds for schizophrenia ultimately aim to do?
downregulate dopamine
what is the basic thrust of humanistic theory and psychologist associated?
focuses on healthy personality development, humans are inherently good. self motivated to self actualize (innate drive to enhance one to full potential). emphasize free will. based on concious as opposed to psychoanalytic
How are peptide bonds cleaved (3 methods)
hydrolysis by adding hydrogen to nitrogen and OH to carbon. can be done by trypsin and chymotrypsin, acid hydrolysis (strong acid and heat), adding strong base
how can an electric potential energy between two ionic compounds increases?
increasing atomic radii if the two metals are far apart then they will have higher potential energy.
what characterizes innate behavior?
inherited - encoded by DNA intrinsic - present even if youre raised in isolation (pooping, ****ing) stereotypic - performed the same way each time inflexible - not modifidable by experience consummate - fully developed right away, at first performance (subject to change through mutation)
What are high frequency of recombination (hfr) cells
When sex factor plasmid gets incorporated into bacterial genome, it will attempt to replicate and transfer entire genome during conjugation, but bridge usually breaks before it can.
How does one calculate the Doppler effect?
Where f' is the perceived frequency, f is the original frequency, v is the speed of sound, vd is the speed of the detector, and vs is the speed of the source. Use upper signs when the detector or source is moving toward the other object, and the bottom signs when the detector or source is moving away from the other object Ex. you are driving and an ambulance is approaching your rear. EVEN THOUGH ambulance is getting closer, YOU are still driving AWAY from the ambulance, so use bottom sign in numerator (negative). the ambulance is driving TOWARD you, so the top sign is used in the demoniator (negative) MNEMONIC Use the TOP sign when the detector/source is moving TOWARDS the other object.. Use the bottom sign when it is going away.
what are the basics of classical/Pavlovian conditioning?
able to elicit an innate response to a previously conditioned stimulus in response to a (previously) neutral stimulus
what are sexual dysfunctions?
abnormal sexual performance
what are Anxiety disorders? EX:
abnormal worry/fear. Ex: GAD, social anxiety/panic disorder
what is a hypomanic episode?
abnormally elevated mood and abnormally increased energy lasting at least 4 consecutive days the episode is not SEVERE enough to cause impairment in functionig or to require hospitalization
what is racialization?
racial identity ascribed to a minority group
what is an adoption study?
when an adopted child is compared to their biological family and adopted family
what is compliance?
when we do a behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid punishment dont have to believe in it
resorption vs reabsorption
"Think of resorption as ""the process of losing substance"". And think of reabsorption as ""the process of absorbing again""."
what is a fasciculation?
"involuntary ""twitch"" of (lower motor neuron sign)"
charge in pH 7
-3, amine does NOT get protonated, but carboxylic OH's lose an H
Theories for the existence of cities
-Functionalist perspective: Cities have important functions and have a slice of culture and diverse populations but also host to crime and other disruptions to society. - Conflict Theory: Source of inequality that are entertainment centers for the wealthy. Political and economic elite run the city to increase personal resources while taking from the poor. Diversity of culture and social backgrounds increases conflict on beliefs/values. -Symbolic Interactions Theory: Cities are places where people have different ways of looking at life. Strong cultural values, people have strong cultural values and people have different interactions and perspectives of urban life.
fluids and the circulatory system
-closed loop with non constat flow rate (so no continuity equation, use poisseuilis in isolated segments) Actually tho you can use continuity equation -blood volume entering heart=exiting during pump cycle -each vessel has higher resistence when flowing away from heart, but total resistence of system decreases because they are in parallel (equivalent resistence is lower for capillaries thnan aorta) - heart murmers cause turbulent flow -arterial circulation is motivated by heart, venous circulation is motivated by skeletal muscle contraction and expansion of heart and is three times volume of arterial -flow slower in capillaries than in aorta because lots of small cross setional areas added are larger than aorta cross secrional
CBT
CBT first addresses maladaptive behaviors through behavior therapy to systematically modify a person's behavior. This is followed by sessions designed to foster cognitive change, through self-assessments.
Ca in water equation
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g), producing a basic solution. Ca (s) + 2(H2O) (l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2 (g)
DSM-5
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, from the American Psychiatric Association (APA).20 top level categories
dichloromethane vs water solvation
Dichloro is an Organic solvent, dissolves less polar things than water. Water works really well with charged things because they are so polar. If it is in acid form it often needs to be treated with base to gain a charge so water can dissolve it.
What is the role of gap junctions in the plasma membrane?
Gap Junctions allow for direct cell-cell communication and are often found in small bunches together. They are also called connexons because they are composed of 6 molecules of connexin. Permit movement of water and some solutes but generally not proteins
what is fundamentalism?
a reaction to secularization, religion goes back to its roots and is very orthodox/strict
what is the function of the prefrontal cortex?
"what makes us ""human"". higher level thinking, control over actions/emotions"
What is a solution?
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in a single phase (usually liquid).
What is the function of Antiduretic hormone (ADH)? what does it respond to and what does it increase/decrease in the body?
ADH increases re-absorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys in response to increased plasma osmolarity or increased concentration of solutes in blood or low blood volume. This increases blood volume and decreases osmolarity
What can you do to a solution to increase the rate of mutarotation?
Add acid OR base
How do we get the molecular weight of a molecule?
Add the atomic weights of the elements that make the molecule up. Remember, we can always refer to a periodic table for the atomic weight of any element.
What is an enolate?
An enolate is a deprotonated enol. Enolates are better nucleophiles than enols.
What do we do if we are working with a lewis structure and seem unable to get a stable octet on all the atoms?
Make sure that one of the elements you are working with isn't an exception to the octet rule. For example, remember some elements can handle less than 8 electrons, and every element in period 3 or larger will be able to hold extra electrons in their d orbitals.
Does antibiotic treatment cause antibiotic resistence
NO. These are mutations that came spontaneously before the treatment. what treatment does is kill all the vulnerable bacteria and allow the resistent ones to proliferate, but it doesnt cause WT ones to mutate to antibiotic resistence
Benzaldehyde structure and limitation in aldol reactions
No alpha hydrogen!!! therefore it cannot be a nucleophile
Regarding photoelectric effect, what is the relationship of the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons to light intensity
No relation. intensity relates to photocurrent
Is pH=7 always neutral?
No, only at 25 degrees celsius (298K) . Once temp changes, Kw changes
Can bomb calorimeters determine bond energy
Not unless you have a metric shit ton of info
Positive/neg symptoms of schizophrenia
Note: reduced need for sleep is for mania not schizophrenia Note: incoherent speech is positive
Describe SDS-PAGE (what two things does SDS do)
Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) PAGE is useful because it separates proteins based only on their relative molar masses. This is accomplished through the addition of SDS to the proteins before running them on the gel. SDS serves two purposes. One, it disrupts noncovalent bonds in the proteins, denaturing them without breaking the primary structure. Two, it imparts on the proteins massive nonpolar groups that essentially mask the actual charge of the protein and instead leave it with a constant negative charge. Because all proteins are carrying more or less the same negative charge, the relative velocities of migration are dependent entirely on the masses of the proteins.
Which is the fourth quantum number?
The spin quantum number, ms
How does one calculate sound level?
Where I is the intensity of the sound wave and Io is the threshold of hearing 1*10-12 W/m2
what is habituation?
tuning out stimulus
Distinguishing between classical and operant conditioning
"Aversive conditioning is a term that looks like it may be used in different ways - either to refer to operant conditioning (specifically positive punishment) or classical conditioning. When the aversive stimulus follows an undesired behavior, it is equivalent to positive punishment. When the aversive stimulus is paired with another stimulus (e.g., part of a rat's cage floor is electrified when a light goes on), it is classical conditioning. This is pairing an unconditioned stimulus (US, such as a shock) with a conditioned stimulus, so that the unconditioned response (moving to the non-electrified portion of the cage) becomes the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus. With enough pairings, the rat will go to the ""safe"" side of the cage whenever the light goes on. The simplest way to distinguish classical and operant conditioning is to look at the timing. Classical conditioning precedes the target behavior, while operant conditioning follows."
Social desireability bias vs demand characteristics
"These are definitely similar concepts, but there are a couple differences to note. The first is that the concept of demand characteristics has to do with subjects figuring out what the experimenter wants (or what they think the experimenter wants), not necessarily w/ broader social/cultural perceptions. Instead, social desirability bias has to do with perceptions of generally acceptable vs. stigmatized behavior/attitudes. Another way of thinking about this is that the point of demand characteristics is for the subject to ""help"" accomplish the goal of the experiment (although generally unconsciously), whereas the point of social desirability bias is for the subject to come off in a better light (although again, generally unconsciously, and even in anonymous settings -- perhaps due to internalized shame/stigma, etc.). The second major difference is that social desirability bias is generally associated specifically w/ responses to questionnaires, whereas demand characteristics can reflect any aspect of the behavior involved in an experiment."
What is beat frequency and equation
"When two sounds of slightly different frequencies are produced in proximity, volume will naturally fluctuate due to interference effects. These variations are called ""beats"" and the beat frequency can be obtained by subtracting the two freuencies that are close in pitch. The beat frequency is the frequency of the periodic increase in volume."
fertility rate
# of births a woman is expected to give birth to in her child bearing years >2 = increase in pop = 2, no increase/decrease in pop < 2 = decrease in pop
what is bond order
# of bonds between atoms (single, double, or triple)
what 3 tenents did blumer propose to explain symbolic interactionism?
(1) we act based on meaning we've given something (ex: tree is place to rest) (2) different people assign different meanings to things. we give meanings to things based on social interactions, ex. someone tells us tree is infested with ants. but we have different views of the tree and we act differently (3) the meaning we give something isn't permanent, ex. something bites my back, so might not sit under next tree one finds. (tree now is defined as shade o a hot day with a potential of getting bit)
What is the NMR shift associated with alkyl protons (sp3 hybridized carbons)?
0 to 3 ppm.
Does going from energy level 1 to 2 or 5 to 6 take more energy
1 to 2 takes more than 5 to 6.
what are the 3 stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome and by who?
1) Alarm phase (stress rxn kicks in) 2) Resistance (fleeing, huddling,cortisol high, BP and RR high) 3) Exhaustion (resources depleted, tired, dampered immune system) Hans Selye LOOK AT GRAPH as resistance to strss
How are alkynes named?
1. Alkyne substituents are interesting. You actually modify the parent name still, changing the -ane into -yne, but then you let the highest order functional group partially overwrite it. 2. Alkyne parent chains replace the -ane of the parent name with the carbon#-yne.
What are the five kinds of radioactive decay?
1. Alpha Decay 2. Beta minus Decay 3. Beta plus Decay 4. Gamma Decay 5. Electron Capture
What are the 3 unique features of Eryhtrocytes?
1. Biconcave shape to maximize surface area for gas exchange as well as fit through small spaces. 2. Mature Erythrocytes have no membrane bound organelles or DNA (Nucleus, mitochondria, etc.). They destroy them to make room for Hemoglobin. Thus, they can't divide or do oxidative phosphorylation. They rely on glycolysis for ATP 3. They are phagocytized by the liver and spleen after 120 days
Describe the path of blood through the body starting from the right atrium and ending in the right atrium.
1. Blood passes from the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve, into the right ventricle. 2. Blood passes from the right ventricle, through the pulmonary valve, to the pulmonary artery. 3. Bood passes from the pulmonary artery, to the lungs. 4. Blood passes from the lungs to the pulmonary veins. 5. Blood passes from the pulmonary veins to the left atrium. 6. Bood passes from the left atrium into the left ventricle through the bicuspid (mitral) valve. 7. Blood passes from the left ventricle into the aorta through the aortic valve. 8. Blood passes from the aorta to various arteries in the body. 9. Blood passes from the various arteries to the arterioles. 10. Blood passes from the arterioles to the capillaries. 11. Blood passes from the capillaries to the venules. 12. Blood passes from the venules to the veins. 13. Blood passes from the veins to the venae cavae 14. Blood passes from the venae cavae to the right atrium.
What are factors that affect nucleophilicity?
1. Charge: Nucleophilicity increases with increasing electron density (negative charge) 2. Electronegativity: Nucleophilicity increases with decreasing electronegativity because the electrons can freely leave the atom to attack. 3. Steric Hindrance: Bulkier molecules are less nucleophilic 4. Solvent: Protic (acidic) solvents can hinder nucleophilicty by protonating the nucleophile and neutralizing its negative charge.
How do fatty acids (in the cytoplasm) increase the levels of Acetyl-Coa in the mitochondria?
1. CoA is coupled with a fatty acid (acyl group) in the cytoplasm, which crosses into intermembrane space. 2. The acyl group is transferred to carnitine to form acyl-carnitine, which crosses the inner membrane of the mitochondria. 3. The acyl group is then transferred to a mitochondrial CoA to reform the CoA-fatty acid, which can undergo B-oxidation in the mitochondria to form acetyl-CoA.
What are the primary structural proteins in the body?
1. Collagen 2. Elastin 3. Keratin 4. Actin 5. Tubulin MNEMONIC: Cold Elephants Kill Angry Tigers
What are the 4 most common forms of chromatography?
1. Column Chromatography 2. Ion Exchange Chromatography 3. Size-Exclusion Chromatography 4. Affinity Chromatography Mnemonic: Columns of Ions Should Anger you.
What are the three patterns of dominance?
1. Complete Dominance 2. Codominance 3. Incomplete Dominance
What are the 4 things that can affect the rate of a reaction?
1. Concentration of reactants 2. Temperature 3. The medium (solvent) in which the reaction takes place (generally polar solvents preferred) 4. Catalysts
What are the various forms of isomers?
1. Constitutional Isomers 2. Stereoisomers a. Conformational Isomers b. Configurational isomers I. geometric II. optical i. enantiomers ii. diastereomers
Five forces of tertiary structure you dont know the last one
1. Covalent disulfide bonds between cysteines to form the dimer cystine 2. electrostatic interactions (between acidic and basic) (salt bridges) 3. hydrogen bonds 4. van der Waals 5. hydrophobic forces
What are the 5 assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory?
1. Gases are made up of particles with negligible volumes compared to the container. 2. Gas atoms exhibit no intermolecular attractions or repulsions. 3. Gas particles are in continuous random motion, undergoing collisions. 4. Collisons between gas molecules are elastic, meaning energy and momentum are conserved. 5. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas (in K), and this KE is the same for all gases (As a whole, KE not the same for each individual gas particle as seen in maxwell boltzmann distribution curve), at any given temp, regardless of chemical identity.
What are the important metabolic intermediates that can be used to make glucose through gluconeogenesis?
1. Glycerol 3-Phosphate (From stored fats or triacylglycerols) 2. Lactate (from anaerobic glycolysis) 3. Glucogenic amino acid (from muscle breakdown)
What are common ways to denature a protein?
1. Heat. As temp increases, hydrogen bonds and salt bridges destabilize. 2. Solutes such as urea and beta mercaptoethanol can disrupt disulfide bridges, causing denaturation. 3. Detergents can solubilize proteins, which disrupts noncovalent bonds and therefore promotes denaturation.
What are common ammonia derivatives that react with aldehydes and ketones?
1. Hydroxylamine, H2N-OH, forms Oximes 2. Hydrazine, H2N-NH2, forms Hydrazones 3. Semicarbazide, H2N-NH-C(O)NH2, forms Semicarbazones.
What are the 4 types of intermolecular forces?
1. London Dispersion Forces 2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions 3. Hydrogen Bonding 4. Ionic Bonds
What are the ways the structure of a protein can be determined?
1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR) 2. X-ray Crystallography
What are the 5 ways to express concentration?
1. Percent composition by mass 2. Molarity 3. Molality 4. Normality 5. Mole fraction
What are the main components of a DNA strand?
1. Phosphate groups in the backbone 2. Deoxyriboses in the backbone 3. Nitrogenous bases in the middle.
What are the measures of distribution?
1. Range 2. Interquartile Range 3. Standard Deviation
What are the four fundamental forces?
1. Strong Nuclear Force 2. Weak Nuclear Force 3. Gravitational Force 4. Electromagnetic Force
What are the 5 major classes of non-enzymatic proteins?
1. Structural Proteins 2. Motor Proteins 3. Binding Proteins 4. Immunoglobins 5. Biosignaling Proteins MNEMONIC: Some Motorcycles Bind to Immune Bikers.
What are the two types of summation?
1. Temporal Summation 2. Spatial summation
What are the 4 main types of signaling lipids?
1. Terpenes and Terpenoids 2. Steroids 3. Prostaglandins 4. Fat Soluble Vitamins
What are the 4 components of the information processing model?
1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli. 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain(rather than automatically responded to) to be useful in decision making 3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems 4. Problem solving is dependent on both a person's cognitive level and the context and complexity of the problem itself.
What are the 5 main ways that Eukaryotes regulate how much of their genome they are expressing?
1. Transcription Factors 2. Enhancers 3. Gene duplication 4. Histone Acetylation 5. DNA methylation
Social movement stages
1. begins with shared idea shared by a few, 2. incipient stage - public takes notice of the situation that they consider to be a problem 3. People begin to organize in a group and raise up 4. They will either succeed in changing the society or have to adapt. In the end, they become part of bureaucracy they try to change. If they are successful, they become absorbed into institutions once desired changes have been achieved. If failed = they are not active anymore but leave a mark on society/culture
stages of elaboration likelihood model
1. pre-processing due to target characteristics (do you want to hear it or not) 2. processing stage by message/source (are you going to focus on message or superficial aspects of source) 3. change in attitude (will your attitude be changed temporarily or permanently)
If the equilibrium constant for a reaction written in one direction is Keq, what is the equilibrium constant of the reverse reaction?
1/Keq
How many protons are pumped into IMS per one NADH and FADH2
10 per NADH, 6 per FADH2. So the number of protons pumped for each complex is per pair of electrons. Ex. per pair of electrons from NADH, 4 are pumped from complex I and III and two are pumped from complex IV
What is Faradays constant
1F=96, 485 C/mol e- Basically one F is equivalent to the amount of charge in one mol of electrons On test use 105 C/mol e-
What is the speed of sound in air at 20 celsius
343 m/s
What is the NMR shift associated with alkene protons (sp2 hybridized carbons)?
4.6 to 6 ppm
What is the NMR shift associated with aromatic protons?
6 to 8.5 ppm
What wavelength is associated with the color Red?
750ish nm
What is the equation for the distances of objects and images in optics?
=2/r where f is the focal length, o is the length at which the actual object is, and i is the length at which the image of the object is. NOTE: Different types of optics will have different sign conventions. It's extremely important you remember the sign conventions for the different optics and assign them correctly.
What is a coordination compound and what type of bond allows them to form?
A coordination compound, a.k.a, a complex ion refers to a molecule in which a cation is bonded to at least one electron pair donor (called ligands). This electron pair donor is often the solvent, like water. Held together through coordinate covalent bonds
What is a cooperative enzyme? what happens to T/R and what is the difference between them?
A copperative enzyme is an enzyme with multiple active sites that affect one another. Generally speaking, these active sites are either in the low-affinity tense state (T) or the high affinity relaxed state (R). Binding of substrate to one site increases likelyhood that other sites will bind substrate (they transition to R). When substrate leaves, other sites transition back to T and make other substrates leave. Example: Hemoglobin binding oxygen
What is a melanocyte? produced by and found in? function?
A melanocyte is another type of cell found in the epidermis. It is derived from Neural Crest cells and is found in the stratum Basale. These cells produce melanin, which pigments the skin to protect DNA from ultraviolet radiation. (skin color is determine by activity of melanocytes not amount of melanocytes)
What happens at the node?
A node is a point on a standing wave at which there is no amplitude.
What is a plasma cell?
A plasma cell is one of the product cells of the activation of a naive B cell. It's function is to enter the bloodstream and produce large amounts of antibodies.
What is a species?
A species is the largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form fertile offspring. When they can't breed then we have a new species
What is a standing wave?
A standing wave is a wave that appears to be stationary because of the interference pattern of the two waves that make it. The only apparent movement of a standing wave will be the fluctuation of the amplitude of the wave. Standing waves can only be observed in closed end wave systems. The gif below illustrates. The top wave is the incident wave, the middle wave shows the reflected wave, and the bottom wave shows the superposition wave of the top and middle wave.
What is a subunit?
A sub unit refers to one of the functional tertiary peptides comprising the overall quaternary peptide.
What is a synovial capsule?
A synovial capsule is a fluid filled sac composed of ligaments and synovium that connects two bones.
What is a Transferase?
A transferase catalyzes the movement of a functional group from one molecule to another. One specific example of transferases are kinases, which catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group, generally from ATP to another molecule.
What is a zwitterion?
A zwitterion is a molecule with both a positive and a negative charge simultaneously. This is seen in amino acids at neutral and body pH's.
How many H bonds in each nucleotide pair
A-T has 2 C-G has 3
ABC transporter
ABC transporters often consist of multiple subunits, one or two of which are transmembrane proteins and one or two of which are membrane-associated AAA ATPases. The ATPase subunits utilize the energy of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) binding and hydrolysis to provide the energy needed for the translocation of substrates across membranes, either for uptake or for export of the substrate. ATP-binding cassette transporters
Describe the regulation of a-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Complex
ATP NADH and Succinyl-Coa (energy products) inhibit a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex. ADP and calcium ions stimulate it.
Cog dissonance
According to the cognitive dissonance theory, when an individual's attitudes are incongruent with his or her behavior, this leads to cognitive dissonance. To eliminate cognitive dissonance, the individual can either change his or her attitudes or his or her behavior. The theory posits that individuals are more likely to adjust their attitudes to align with their behavior than the other way around.
Whats happening if hydrogen gas is produced at cathode
According to the passage, H2(g) was produced at the cathode. The reaction taking place at the cathode was 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g), which means the H+ was gaining electrons and undergoing reduction.
What neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic nervous system use to exert its effects?
Acetylcholine, released from both pre and post ganglionic
How do you remove protecting groups?
Acid
What are acinar cells?
Acinar cells are the cells that make up the bulk of the pancreas and produce pancreatic juices.
Where does the largest drop in blood pressure occur
Across the arterioles (they have highest resistence), this is important because capillaries would burst if blood came in with too much pressure!
how do you obtain active immunity?
Active immunity is when the body is exposed to a pathogen, either naturally by getting infected or artificially by getting vacinated, and creates the antibodies it needs to fight that pathogen more effectively next time.
What is meant by active transport?
Active transport is when energy is required to transport something across the cell membrane. This is due to the fact that the molecule in question is being pushed from low concentration to high concentration, opposite the direction of the concentration gradient.
How is adrenaline controlled
Adrenaline is produced within 2 to 3 minutes after stress event. Adrenaline is released when the nerve connected to the adrenal gland is stimulated. When the nerve impulse is lowered, the gland stop producing adrenaline.
Describe the role of the E site.
After a tRNA in the P site loses its peptide chain, it is transferred to the E site where it pauses for just a second before dissociating back into solution so it can be recharged.
What is albumin?
Albumin is a protein that maintains the osmotic (oncotic) pressure of the blood and serves as a carrier for drugs and hormones.
Describe the formation of hemiacetals or hemiketals from aldehydes and ketones respectively?
Aldehydes treated with one equivalent of alcohol will produce hemiacetals. In this reaction, the alcohol acts as a nucleophile and attacks the electrophile carbonyl carbon. The electrons pop up to the oxygen, and the oxygen picks up the alcohol's hydrogen, resulting in a hemiacetal. *This reaction can be catalyzed with acid which will protonate the carbonyl oxygen and make the carbonyl carbon a better electrophile.* not sure about this The formation of hemiketals from hemiacetals is exactly the same, except there will be R groups on both sides of the carbonyl carbon, not just one.
What does an ammeter measure?
Ammeters measure current at some point in the circuit. Use the magnetic properties of current carrying wire to obtain a measurement. has extremely low resistence as to not change circcuit mathematics when inserted into circuit (increasing resistence would decrease current). Inserted in series into the circuit. Circuit needs to be on
What is amplitude in the context of waves?
Amplitude is the maximum possible displacement for a wave. NOT total distance from crest to trough (that would be twice the amplitude)
What does it mean to be amphoteric?
An amphoteric substance is something that can react like an acid or a base. Water is amphoteric.
What is an antinode? what happens to amplitude?
An antinode is any point on a standing wave where interference is maximized and the amplitude is greatest.
Describe the diversity of electrochemical cells.
An electrochemical cell can be made out of almost anything, as long as there is a cathode and an anode of some sort connected by something. This is seen in batteries as solution reactions connected by wires, but it can be seen in the body as two sides of the mitochondria connected by a plasma membrane. As long as there is flow of electrons, there is potentially an electrochemical cell at play.
What is an electrophile?
An electrophile is an atom that is attracted to the negative charge of the electrons on other atoms. Generally electrophiles have a positive charge or are in a dipole-dipole bond that gives them a partial positive charge. (aka alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and most of their derivatives) Good leaving groups make electrophiles good as well
What is an endergonic reaction?
An endergonic reaction is a reaction that has a positive Delta G and therefore needs energy input to happen.
What is an enzyme linked receptor?
An enzyme linked receptor is a membrane receptor that displays catalytic activity in response to ligand binding. These enzyme linked membrane receptors have 3 primary domains: the membrane spanning domain, the ligand binding domain, and the catalytic domain. Enzyme linked receptors often lead to second messenger cascades. Below is an Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) a common enzyme linked receptor. Monomer Dimerizes upon ligand binding. The dimer is the active form that phosphorylates additional cellular enzymes, including the receptor itself (autophosphorylation)
What is an optical isomer?
An optical isomer is an isomer that changes the way the molecule rotates plane-polarized light. Enantiomers and Diasteromers are both considered optical isomers.
What are antibodies?
Antibodies are molecules that bind to specific antigens. Once an antibody has bound to an antigen, cells of the immune system can target and attack the antigen and the invader that is producing it.
What are antioncogenes?
Antioncogenes are genes that stop and slow tumor progression (Also called tumor suppressor genes, p53 and Rb). This can be because they prevent mutations to DNA in the first place, fix them after they happen, or kill cancer cells. When antioncogenes are mutated, they lose their anti-tumor properties.
What are the possible values for n?
Any positive integer to infinity (whole number other than 0).
self-fulfilling prophecy (general definition) and visual summary
Any positive or negative expectation about circumstances, events, or people that may affect a person's behavior toward them in a manner that causes those expectations to be fulfilled. An employer who, for example, expects the employees to be disloyal and shirkers, will likely treat them in a way that will elicit the very response he or she expects.
How big must the difference in electronegativity be to be considered an ionic bond?
Any two elements with an electronegativity difference of greater than 1.7 will form an ionic bond. This is because the difference in electronegativity is so big that one of the atoms just takes the electrons from the other one instead of sharing them.
In a reaction with two possible products, how do you get the kinetic product?
Apply low temperature to the reaction.
What role does the parasympathetic system play in digestion?
As parasympathetic activity increases, glands in the stomach are stimulated secrete more often and peristalsis is increased.
As the neural groove deepens, what happens to the neural folds?
As the neural groove deepens, the neural folds come closer to one another. They will continue to come closer to one another until they meet, forming the neural tube.
steps in the lytic cycle
Attachment: The bacteriophage comes in contact with the bacterial cell wall and attaches to the host bacterium using its tail fibers. Viral genome entry: The phage uses its tail sheath to inject its genome into the cytoplasm of the bacterial host (Number I). Host genome degradation: Viral enzymes degrade the host genome into its nucleotide components to provide the building blocks for replication of the viral genome (Number III). Synthesis: Loss of the bacterial chromosome ends synthesis of host molecules. As a result, the host machinery (eg, ribosomes), now under the control of the viral genome, begins to synthesize the components needed for new viral progeny, which then assemble inside the host cell. Release: Many newly assembled viral progeny (virions) are released as the bacterium disintegrates (lysis) due to the action of lysozymes on the host cell wall.
Cluster C personality disorders
Avoidant- inhibited, feel inadequate and try to avoid putting themselves in a situation where they can be criticized Dependent- submissive and clingy (staying in abusive relationship) Obessive compulsive personality disorders (OCPD NOT OCD)- Very focused on life being ordered and things being perfect and for them being in control to an extent where it annoys other people. It is a personality! On the other hand, in OCD the focus is on order, things in control, having to wash hands.
When do we use molality?
BP elevation and FP depression
Why must fetal hemoglobin have a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin?
Because Fetal Hemoglobin has to compete with adult hemoglobin for the oxygen that the mother delivers to the baby. Fetal Hemoglobin literally rips oxygen molecules off of adult hemoglobin with its higher binding affinity.
What is anabolism?
Building things up
What is bulk modulus?
Bulk modulus is a measure of an object's resistance to compression. Bulk modulus is lowest in gases (easily compressed) and highest in liquids and solids (almost impossible to compress)
Unique characteristic of transition metals
Can have many different stable oxidation states (ex. Mn +2, 3, 4, 6, or 7)
What are canaliculi?
Canaliculi are tiny chananels that connect lacunae. This allows waste and nutrient exchange between the osteocytes that live in the lacunae and the Haversian and Volkmann's canals that carry blood vessels.
Describe the characteristic physical properties of carboxylic acids.
Carboxylic acids have both a hydrogen bond donor (-OH) and a hydrogen bond acceptor (C=O). This means they can engage in many hydrogen bonds, which results in high intermolecular forces and high boiling and melting points. Often exist as dimers in solution due to high IMF The other important characteristic of carboxylic acids is their acidity! The -O- is resonance stabilized after deprotonation, which makes the conjugate base stabilized. Note, most carboxylic acids will still only be weak acids. They still don't compare to the strong acids like HCl annd H2SO4
What is a Case Control study?
Case control studies assess outcomes between groups and then assess those groups history to see if they were exposed to different or similar things.
What are ganglia and nuclei
Cell bodies of neurons of the same type within a nerve cluster together in ganglia in the peripheral nervous system Cell bodies of the individual neurons within a tract cluster together in nuclei in the CNS
What is cell specialization?
Cell specialization is the development of a vast variety of specialized cells in the body from the same genetic information (DNA).
what is the elaboration likelihood model for persuasion?
Central Route of Persuasion: The degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central! Peripheral Route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The doctor himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words!) cognitive approach
What conformations does cyclohexane take to make ring strain as low as possible?
Chair, boat, and twist.
Acid or base from H+ concentration
Compare it to 1E-7. If it H+ is less then we have a base, if it is greater we have an acid. For strong/ weak compare concentration of H+ to concentration of original acid. If it is same then we have a strong acid taht fully dissociated
Describe Complex IV of the ETC.
Complex IV uses Cu2+ to transfer electrons from reduced cytochrome c in the forms of hydride bonds to oxygen, forming water and completing the journey of electrons through the electron transport chain. This step pumps 2 hydrogen ions into the inner membrane space.
What is Convergent Evolution?
Convergent evolution refers to the independent development of similar characteristics in two species that do not share a recent common ancestor.
molecular clock model
Correlating the degree of genomic similarity with the amount of time since the two species split off from the same common ancestor
Describe a deletion chromosomal mutation
Deletion occurs when a large segment of DNA is lost form a chromosome.
Theories on how hypnotism works
Dissociation Theory (hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness) and the Social Influence Theory (people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles)
What is a dynamic equilibrium? in chemistry
Dynamic equilibrium is when reactants are converted into products, but at the same rate at which products are converted into reactants, resulting in no net change in the substance and allowing it to remain at equilibrium.
what brain imaging techniques tell us solely about function?
EEG (electroencephalogram) -tells us about overall activity (good for seizures, sleep stage, cognitive task) MEG (megnetoencephalogram) (squids)- more detailed than EEG but more expensive. Records magnetic fields
What is the EMF or Ecell?
EMF or Ecell is the difference between standard reduction potentials between two half cells. If you need to balance by multiplying half reactions by a common factor, dont multiply Ered or Eox, they dont depend on moles present
How do the alveoli exchange Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide with the blood? where do they go?
Each alveoli is surrounded by a capillary. A pulmonary arterial carrying low Oxygen/high Carbon Dioxide blood abuts the alveoli and exchanges gases with it. Oxygen comes into the blood, carbon dixoide goes into the alveoli. This oxygenated blood is then carried away by a pulmonary venule to the heart where it can be pumped to the body.
How does UV spectroscopy allow us to determine the concentration of protein in a sample?
Each protein has a certain energy of light it absorbs. By passing different type of light through the sample and seeing how much of it is absorbed, one can determine the concentration of the protein. The higher the concentration of the protein the more of its characteristic light it absorbs. This method is very easy, but is also highly sensitive to contamination as most proteins absorb similar energies of light.
Eletric potential vs electric potential energy
Electric potential (V) is the property of points in space. Electric potential can be defined in several ways: The value of the electric potential at a point in space numerically gives the amount of work that needs to be done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. A charge q is said to have a potential energy of Vq if it is at a point in space which has a potential of V. For example, if you place a charge q at a point, space nearby will have a non-zero value of potential. The electric potential at a point due to a charge at a distance r from it is given by: V=kq/r What is Electric Potential Energy? Electric potential energy (U) is the property of a system. Two charges in the vicinity of each other are said to have potential energy. The electric potential energy associated with two charges separated by a distance r is given by: U=kq1q2/r
Electric potential of 3 charges around a point
Electric potential is a scalar not a vector! They don't cancel out so just add them Electric field would cancel out
How are signals passed down the length of the axon?
Electrically, in the form of saltatory conduction of an action potential.
What is Electron Affinity?
Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an an atom gains an electron. In other words, Electron Affinity describes how easily an atom can capture an extra electron.
What is electron capture?
Electron capture is when an unstable nucleus combines an inner electron with a proton to form a neutron while releasing a neutrino. The neutron stays in the nucleus. This lowers the atomic number while keeping the mass number the same.
What is Electronegativity?
Electronegativity is a measure of how much force with which an atom can pull electrons towards itself. The more electronegativity an atom has, the stronger it pulls electrons towards itself.
What does it mean for elements to be in series?
Elements in series are elements which are placed sequentially on the same path. Because there is still only 1 path, the each element will have the full current pass through them.
What does the 2nd law of thermodynamics state, in basic terms?
Energy will always spontaneously spread out if it is not actively being kept from doing so.
What are Erythrocytes?
Erythrocytes are the red blood cells. These are specialized cells designed for the transport of oxygen. High concentration in blood
What is erythropoietin?
Erythropoietin is a hormone secreted by the kidney that increases the synthesis of new erythrocytes in the bone marrow.
what is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
Event-->Physiologic Response+Emotion Emotion+Physiologic response happens at same time Ex: holding your cat (event) causes your heart rate (physiological response) to increase and feel joy (emotion) at the same time. mnemonic: picture a bad cannon splitting a cannonball into two (simultaneous)
what is fixed interval? is the response rate fast or slow?
FIXED = CONSISTENT INTERVAL = TIME reward given at a fixed TIME interval, may result in slower response rate WHY THE **** WOULD I CARE TO WORK?!?! CONSEQUENCE - SLOWER
Describe Fatty Acid Synthase
Fatty Acid Synthase (AKA Palmitate Synthase because its the only one humans synthesize de novo) is a large multienzmye complex that uses NADPH to add 2 carbon fragments to malonyl-CoA. Complex cntains Acyl carrier protein (ACP) that requires pantothenic acid (B5). This happens over and over until the fatty acid is 16 carbons long (Palmitate). Induced in liver following meal high in carbs because insulin is elevated ***learn more, kaplan 388 and biochem ppt***
How are fatty acids named?
Fatty acids are written like so carbons:double bonds omega# Carbons refer to the number of carbons in the fatty acid. Double bonds refers to the number of double bonds in the fatty acid. Omega# is a number that designates how close to the 1 carbon the closest double bond is. For example, a 20 carbon fatty acid with 5 double bonds, the closest of which is at carbon 3, would be called C20:5 omega3. *****Kaplan 386)
Which AA are favored in alpha helix and which break up alpha helix
Favored- MALEK (straight side chains so lower change in conformational entropy than glycine when in helix, thus ethalpic interactions overcome entropic barriers) Break- glycine (it has high conformational flexibility so staying in a rigid position is unfavorable) and proline (kinks)
what is a filtrate and describe the process.
Filtration isolates a solid from a liquid. In this method, one pours a liquid-solid mixture through a filter of some sort (usually a paper filter). The liquid will pass through and fill a flask. This is known as filtrate. The solid on the other hand will be left in the filter. This is known as residue.
How do you make a recombinant vector?
First, you use a specific restriction endonuclease to cut a certain piece of the vector's DNA out. Then, you use the same specific restriction endonuclease to cut a piece of the DNA you are interested in out. Because you used the same endonuclease, the foreign DNA will be able to fit the hole made in the vector DNA. Finally, you just mix the foreign DNA fragment with the vector, mix them in annealing conditions and treat with DNA ligase to lock them into place.
How do the nutrients in the food we eat actually make it to our tissues?
Food is broken down in the digestive system. Capillary beds in the digestive system absorb the nutrients and carry them to other tissues so they can be used.
What method is used to determine the primary structure of large proteins?
For large proteins, chymotrypsin, trypsin, and cyanogen bromide are used to selectively cleave the protein at specific amino acid residues, which creates small fragments that can be analyzed by elecrophoresis or the edman degradation. Based off which enzyme was used and what the fragment looks like, you can deduce the primary structure.
Calculate molar solubility equation of Ca3(PO4)2 in water
For molar solubility this would be (3x)3(2x)2=108x5 where x is molar solubility of Ca3(PO4)2
What is Fractional Distillation?
Fractional Distillation is like simple distillation, except that there is a fractionation column connected to the distillation flask. The purpose of the fractionation column is to give the vapor more surface area on which it can condense (0ften contains glass beads or steel wool). This is useful for liquids with close boiling points. For example, a liquid with a 90C and a liquid with a 100C boiling point will both boil at 90C. It's just that the 90C liquid will boil completely while the 100C liquid will boil a little bit. However, if there is a long fractionation column, the tiny bit of 100C liquid that boils will never make it to the condenser, so you're safe from contaminating your distillate!
what is the evolutionary (instinct) approach to motivation? and creater
From an evolutionary point of view, behaviors are not made consciously: they are instinctual, and based on what is most advantageous in terms of passing one's genes on to the next generation. motivated to do just whats needed to survive (like a baby). In line with Darwin Controversial because it negects the role learning has on behavior
Equation for shear force of a liquid
Fshear=(eta)[(delta V)/(delta y)] eta is dynamic viscosity delta V is change in velocity between two locations delta y is distance between both locations
social theories overview (DRILL THIS INTO YOUR BRAIN)
Functionalism - how society can exist over time. Society is always trying to come to an equilibrium. Institutions remain constant and only make minor change when stability is lost to fill need of society. Ex. Business institution had to adapt to online shopping boom. Change is bare minimum to become functional again. • Conflict Theory - how societies changes and adapt over time through conflict. Two opposing positions would merge to create a new society where both are content. Ex. Class struggle of 19th century Europe. • Social Constructionism - what society is rather than how it exists/changes. Everything is created from the mind of society. Agreement that something has meaning and value that it doesn't have intrinsically, ex. Money. Everything only has value because everyone agrees it has value; we construct the world around us. • Symbolic Interactionism - Puts a lot of focus on individual and how they behave - based on meanings we give to things, ex. Tree = shade. People are created by their society, and act based on past experiences, and meanings they've given things. Not everyone gives same meaning to same things. We interact with the world to give it meaning. symbolic interactionist perspective, which is predicated on interaction and interpretation • Functionalism = looking at stability of society, conflict theory = how society changes, social constructionism = how things are given value, symbolic interactionism = how individuals act. -Feminist Theory - macro level perspective on society, focussing on gender inequalities inherent to patriarchal capitalist societies, where men occupy governing positions in family and community. Both men and women often forced into gender-based roles. Focuses on gender differences, gender inequalities, gender oppression, and structural oppression. [Feminist theory does not intend to replace men at the top of the social ladder] • Rational Choice Theory - people always take rational actions, weighing costs and benefits of each action to gain most benefit. 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity, and independence of irrelevant alternatives. [Do we all make rational choices, and why would we do something for someone else, is every human interaction just a rational process?) • Exchange Theory - application of Rational Choice Theory to social interaction. Family, work, partner selection, parenting, interpersonal relationships. People behave with goal of maximizing own rewards while minimizing punishments, and people can make rational choices in social norm, and self-interest and interdependence guide interactions, and human relationships from cost-benefit analysis.
What is social identity theory
Further assesment of self concept. Divided into personal identity and social identity. Personal Identity: things unique to each person like personality traits Social Identity: includes the groups you belong too in our community
Gender term clarification - gender role - gender sterotypes - gender identity - gender expression - gender script - gender schema
Gender roles basically refer to the expected societal role of specific genders. For example, the expectation of men as "bread winners" and the expectation of women being stay-at-home moms or housewives. This also includes the idea that women should be submissive and men dominant. Gender norms are basically the exact same thing. Gender stereotypes might include things like "all men are aggressive" or "all women like the color pink." This refers to blanket statements surrounding gender, saying that everyone who identifies as male is one way and everyone who identifies as female is another way. Gender identity is the perceived gender of a person. For example, a cis woman is a woman who was assigned female at birth (born with a vagina and uterus), while a cis man is a man who was assigned male at birth (born with a penis and testes). Trans women are women who were assigned male at birth, and trans men are men who were assigned female at birth. Non-binary is an umbrella term that describes anyone whose gender falls outside of the male/female binary. Gender expression refers to how one presents, such as wearing dresses and make-up, which is traditionally seen as feminine, or having short hair and wearing clothes from the "men's" section. It's important to remember that gender expression does not equate to gender identity, and that some people who identify as male might wear "feminine" clothing and make-up, while some who identify as female might wear "masculine" clothing. A good example of this might be drag queens, who are (generally) cis men who present femininely for fun and entertainment. Gender script usually refers to how products are marketed, such as how floral scented perfumes, body washes, and shampoos are marketed as being for women, or how blue is seen as a masculine color. This can also be seen as how women are expected to shave their body hair, while men are generally considered more masculine with more body hair. Another example might be children's toys, in which baby dolls and Barbies are marketed towards young girls, and action figures, trucks, and cars are marketed towards young boys. Gender schema isn't something I'm very familiar with, but from what I've been able to gather it appears to be a theory as to how one's gender identity is developed. I was able to find a few articles and YouTube videos just by Googling "gender schema," so I'd suggest taking a look into those.
What is genetic leakage?
Genetic leakage is the flow of genes between species. This happens when two species can make a viable hybrid offspring. For example, cows and bison can mate to make a hybrid known as a beefalo. This beefalo can reproduce with either cows or bison, and can therefore leak genetic information from one to the other.
Describe the regulation of Glycogen Synthase
Glycogen synthase is activated in times of high sugar. Therefore, it is stimulated by the presence of Glucose-6 Phosphate and Insulin. It is deactivated in times of sugar need. Therefore it is inibited by the presence of Glucagon(liver), Epinephrine(liver and muscle), and AMP(muscle). These inhibit it by phosphorylation
What is Graham's Law of effusion and diffusion?
Graham's law allows us to compare diffusion and effusion rates (which equal speed) between gases by relating the square root of their molar masses. Where the r's are the diffusion or effusion rates of the two gases, and the MM's are the molar masses. A gas with 4 times the molar mass will travel half as fast as lighter gas
Groupthink aamc
Groupthink occurs when situational pressures hinder groups from critically evaluating relevant information. A powerful leader makes groupthink more likely, and the other group members are largely complicit in the behaviors and beliefs that produce groupthink. Groups affected by groupthink wrongly believe they have followed a sound decision-making process.
What is the half-equivalence point
Half the species has been protonated/deprotonated pH=pKa middle of flat part on pH graph
What is HbF?
HbF stands for Fetal Hemoglobin. This is a modified version of the Hemoglobin protein found in fetuses that has a higher affinity for oxygen then normal hemoglobin.
What is the purpose of homogenization?
Homogenization is when a tissue of interest is crushed, ground, or blended into an evenly mixed solution. This is an important preliminary step for isolating and analyzing proteins in tissues.
What is Hund's Rule?
Hund's rule states that energy of the various orbitals in a sublevel are equal. What this implies is that each orbital in the sublevel will receive one electron before it receives two electrons.
In liquids, what two kinds of pressures can potentially exist?
Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
What is the route taken by hypothalmic hormones after they are secreted?
Hypothalmic hormones travel directly through the capillary beds of the hypothalamus to the capillary beds of the anterior pituitary due to the portal system that connects them.
In what direction will the reaction proceed if Q > Keq? What is ΔG?
If Q > Keq then the ratio of products to reactants is higher then it would be at equilibrium. Therefore, we'd expect the reaction to go in the reverse direction to reach the equilibrium ratio. ΔG is positive
Deviations from Raoult's law
If solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions are better than solute-solvent interactions (we're talking about two very different molecules, like ethanol and hexane), then the molecules won't want to stay in solution and will readily evaporate, increasing vapor pressure higher than what the law predicts If solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions are Worse than solute-solvent interactions (we're talking about two very compatable molecules, like nitric acid and water), then the molecules will want to stay in solution and will not readily evaporate, decreasing vapor pressure to lower than what the law predicts
When can we ignore the autoionization of water?
If the concentration of acid or base is significantly greater than 10-7M. If it is equal or less you need to take in water autoionization. Ex. calculate pH of a 1E-8 solution of HCl. You might think it is 8 but that doesnt make sense because there is more acid than when at neutral so it has to be slightly below 7. Kw=[H3O+][OH-]=[x+10-8][x]=10-14 with x being concentration of hydronium and hydroxide from autoionization. Solving for x is outside scope of MCAT but know that actual H+ concentration will be x+10-8 which is slightly below pH7. Kaplan 356
What is apparent movement
Illusion of percieved motion across empty space (lights going around a neon sign)
What are the mood disorders
Ilnesses affecting an individuals long term emotional state. Major depressive and bipolar.
How is the cardiovascular circuit analagous to an electrical circuit.
In a circuit, a voltage drives a current through a given electrical resistance. In the cardiovascular system, a pressure drives cardiac output through a given vascular resistance.
Describe an Inducible System operon?
In an inducible system, an ever-present repressor protein (coded for by the regulator) binds to the operator and stops RNA polymerase from transcribing it. However, if an inducer is present, then it will bind to the repressor and stop it from repressing the gene. This allows the operon to be transcribed. This is useful because it ties transcription of these genes to the presence of a specific molecule, which means that the gene is only on when the cell feels like it is needed. The classic inducible system is the lac operon, an operon that allows bacteria to digest lactose when it is in high enough concentrations. (they prefer glucose and thus don't need to produce lactase regularly) Negative inducible system
Isomerization
In chemistry isomerization (also isomerisation) is the process by which one molecule is transformed into another molecule which has exactly the same atoms, but the atoms have a different arrangement
Describe Column Chromatography
In column chromatography, a column is filled with silica(polar) or alumina(polar) beads as the stationary phase. A solvent of almost any type can be chosen as the mobile phase. Proteins are placed in the solvent of choice and poured into the column. Gravity moves everything down the column. As everything moves down the column, the polar proteins will have a higher affinity for the stationary phase, increasing their retention time.
Describe nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions? Think about this what are the final products and why are they favored in --/-- ?
In nucleophilic acyl substitutions, a nucleophile attacks a carbonyl and then the carbonyl reforms, knocking off a leaving group. This is very similar to nucleophilic addition on aldehydes and ketones, but the carbonyl comes back instead of becoming a hydroxyl group. Favored in acidic and basic solutons (acidic protonates carbonyl and basic makes nucleophile better)
How does one determine the primary structure of a protein?
In order to determine the actual order of the amino acids, they can't just be randomly hydrolzyed and separated. Instead, sequential and specific digestion of the protein in question is conducted using specific cleavage enzymes.
What is the function of the Stratum Spinosum?
In the Stratum Spinosum, skin cells become connected to one another. This is also the laayer that houses Langerhans cells.
What happens to Pyruvate in the presence of oxygen?
In the presence of oxygen, Pyruvate Dehydrogenase uses CoA and NAD+ to produce Acetyl-CoA, an NADH, and CO2. Acetyl-CoA can then enter the citric acid cycle or be used for fatty acid synthesis. Acetyl-CoA negatively inhibits Pyruvate Dehydrogenase and activates pyruvate carboxylase to make OAA (to enter gluconeogenesis)
What is incomplete dominance?
Incomplete dominance is when a heterozygote expresses a phenotype that is a mix of the two alleles. The incomplete dominant phenotype will look like an indistinct mix of the two individual phenotypes.
If a moderate supporter for something is presented with facts from both sides, what will happen to their level of support
Increase due to belief perserverence
What are the only ways to change the rate of a 0 order reaction
Increase temp, add catalyst
What is induction in the context of acids and bases?
Induction is when an electronegative group somewhere on the acid spreads the negative charge of the conjugate base out. This stablizes the acid and the effect increases when the group is more electron withdrawing and when it's closer to the proton that will be lost (the atom that the negative will be on) so FCH2COOH is doper than CH3COOH. Having electronegative groups close to the atom that will accept the proton on a base is actually worse. THe base wants electron donating groups (aka groups that are less electronegative, so NH3 is weaker than CH3NH3 because the methyl donates to the nitrogen making it more electron dense and more likely to take a proton)
equation for current population
Initial Population + Births - Deaths + Immigrating In - Emigrating out [ If this is a negative number, you have a negative growth rate for that country]
How do Insulin and Glucagon interact with Glycolysis in the liver?
Insulin and Glucagon act on an enzyme called Phosphofructose Kinase 2 (PFK2) which converts Fructose 6-P into Fructose 2,6-bis P. Fructose 2,6-bis P activates PFK 1. Insulin increases the activity of PFK 2, which increases Fructose 2,6-bis P, which leads to an increase in PFK1 activity. Glucagon has the exact opposite effect on PFK 2. (makes sense because shutting down glycolysis means free glucose can flow around blood and raise blood sugar) Activating PFK-1 allows hepatocytes to override inhibition caused by ATP, so glycolysis can continue to produce metabolites for production of glycogen, fatty acids, etc.
Alternate intensity method
Intensity can be found by taking the energy density (energy per unit volume) at a point in space and multiplying it by the velocity at which the energy is moving
How is intensity of sound related to your distance from it?
Intensity of sound is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. This means that if you are twice as far away from a sound, it will be 1/4 times as intense. If you are 3 times as far away from a sound, it will be 1/9 times as intense. Note: this is because surface area of a sphere is 4(pi)r2 so as it travels further the surface area increases exponentially thus distributing power more thinly, reducing intensity
two types of memory interference
Interference is a memory (not attention) process describing when old information prevents recollection of new information (proactive interference) or new information prevents the recollection of old information (retroactive interference)
Describe an inversion chromosomal mutation.
Inversion occurs when a segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome.
If something has low power and is statistically significant
It may sound bad but it actually makes the results stronger. You had a low chance to reject the Ho but did anyway
Father of behaviorism
John Watson (little albert)
What is juxtacrine signaling?
Juxtacrine signaling is when a cell directly activates the receptors of a nearby cell with itself instead of sending out a chemical.
What are Ketogenic Amino Acids?
Ketogenic amino acids ( leucine and lysine, as well as isoleucine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and tyrosine) are amino acids that can be converted into acetyl coA and ketone bodies.
What is Ketolysis?
Ketolysis is the breaking down of ketone bodies for energy. 3-Hydroxybutyrate is picked up by the mitochondria of the needy tissue and oxidized to acetoacetate, releasing NADH. Acetoacetate (the picked up versions and the newly oxidized versions) are activated by succinyl-CoA Acetoacetyl-CoA transferase (commonly called thiophorase-only present in tissues outside the liver) to make Acetoacetyl-CoA, which can be cleaved into two molecules of Acetyl CoA. Ingeniously, the liver does not have thiophorase, meaning it can never burn the ketone bodies it produces. This helps the liver serve its purpose as an energy supplier to the rest of the body.
What are ketone bodies? where are they produced?
Ketone bodies are essentially transportable forms of acetyl-CoA that the liver produces to feed other tissues during prolonged periods of starvation. (essentially 2 acetyl coA linked)
What is Kinesin?
Kinesin is one of the two motor proteins that associates with microtubules. Kinesin plays a key role in aligning chromosomes during metaphase and depolymerizing microtubules during anaphase. Kinesin also transports cargo vesicles towards the positive end of the microtubule.
Which AA are common in the different sections of beta sheets
Large aromatic residues (tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan) and β-branched amino acids (threonine, valine, isoleucine) are favored to be found in β-strands in the middle of β-sheets. Different types of residues (such as proline) are likely to be found in the edge strands in β-sheets
What are leak channels purpose?
Leak channels are specialized channels that allow ions to move slowly in the direction of their concentration gradient instead of just rushing down it. Sodium leak channels allow sodium to leak into the cell and potassium leak channels allow potassium to leak out of the cell.
What are the two common receptors that are used by the postsynaptic neurons to bind neurotransmitters
Ligand gated ion channels and GPCRs
What does a parabolic graph look like?
Like a U. This reflects a squared variable, which means both positive and negative values in the independent variable lead to positive dependent variables.
In what way can the metallic bond be described?
Like a sea of electrons floating over a rigid lattice of metal cations. This flowing nature of the electrons over metals is what makes metals such good conductors of electricity. More accurately it is an equal distribution of the charge density of free electrons across all of the neutral atoms within the metallic mass
How do we name amides as substituents and parent chains?
Like all the other carboxylic acid derivatives, amides won't usually be substituents, but when they are, they are called carbamoyl- or amido- Amides are named by dropping the -oic acid of the parent name and adding -amide. The groups bonded to the amide nitrogen are designated N-
What are major and minor grooves?
Major and minor grooves are grooves in DNA that arise as a result of the double helix. These grooves are used as binding sites by proteins.
What is a common marker for healthcare system quality
Maternal mortality rate
As intermolecular forces in a molecule become stronger, how do melting and boiling points change?
Melting and boiling are both examples of separating atoms from one another. Atoms are held together by intermolecular forces. Therefore, as intermolecular forces get higher, boiling and melting points get higher. This is because you need more temperature energy to overcome the intermolecular forces and break the atoms up into liquid or gas form.
Repressed memories
Memories that are unconciously blocked but still messing up your concsious. can allegedly be recovered through therapy but any real psychologist kust knows thats a bs way to generate false memories
How to estimate the equivalence point from a graph of pH
Middle of the region with the steepest slope
What does it mean for eukaryotic mRNA to be monocistronic?
Monocistronic RNA is mRNA that can only be translated into one protein product. That means every single on of the thousands of proteins we contain has its own mRNA strand.
Higher Ksp means more or less soluble
More soluble
Base rate fallacy
Most events have general probabilities, or base rates. From the percentage of men who cheat on their wives, to the percentage of dogs with cancer, to the probability of it raining in your location, it is possible to know how likely these events are given no other information. When trying to predict specific probabilities - what is the chance my husband is cheating; what is the likelihood my dog has cancer; what is the likelihood it will rain today, we have two categories of information. One is the general probability, and the other is event-specific information - lipstick on his shirt, or a limp in the dog's walk, or dark clouds. We tend to give more weight to the event-specific information than we should, and sometimes even ignore base rates entirely. An important causal bias is the representativeness heuristic, which states that when asked about likelihood, we instead answer the question of how much this event resembles other events. So when we see clouds, we don't think about how rarely or often it rains. We only consider how well this situation resembles other situations in which it rained, and assign probabilities based on that
What are the two functions of myelin?
Myelin is a fatty white substance that surrounds the axon. It serves to insulate the axon and prevent nearby neurons from accidentally discharging eachother. Myelin also serves to speed up the rate at which nervous signals are conducted.
What are myopia and hyperopia and what lens is used to correct them
Myopia- Uses divergent lens to correct for nearsightedness (Near objects are clear, but cant see far) Hyperopia- Uses convergent lens to correct for farsightedness (Far objects are clear, but cant see near)
Describe Natural Selection.
Natural selection is the theory that certain characteristics or traits possesed by individuals within a species may help those individuals to have greater reproductive success. Because these individuals have more offspring, their genetic information is more heavily represented in the next generation. As certain genetic information is selected for by the environment, the composition of populations change over time to adapt to said environment.
What is necrosis?
Necrosis is when cells die as a result of injury. These cells just leak out their damaged contents instead of packaging them.
Are double displacement reactions considered redox reactions
No because the oxidation states usually don't change. They also only have a net ionic equation if the phases of any elements change. If both sides are all aqueous there is no net ionic equation
Do products ever appear in or affect the rate law? why are reactant the only ones that affect rate law?
No! Rate is dependent on the concentration of the reactants, so only they are included.
Can unsaturated fatty acids be oxidized normally?
No! These fatty acids require special enzymes. These enzymes are isomerases and reductases, and their purpose is to unsaturate and unbranch these fatty acids so that they can be beta-oxidized like normal. Enoyl-CoA isomerase rearranges cis double bonds at the 3,4 position to trans double bonds at the 2,3 position. In monounsaturated FA this allows oxidation to proceed 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase converts two conjugated double bonds to just one double bond at the 3,4 position, where it is turned into a 2,3 trans by isomerase, which allows oxidation to occur in polyunsaturated FA
are enzyme reactions restricted to one coenzyme or cofactor?
No! often combine both coenzymes and cofactors
Are all resonance structures created equally?
No, certain resonance structures will be much more stable and dominate for that reason. If one resonance structure is way more stable than the other, the molecule might be 99.9999% like the more stable resonance structure with a little tiny bit of the other resonance strucure contributing. Things that make a resonance structure more stable include: Some resonance structures will have less formal charge on the atoms, which is more stable. Some resonance structures will have more full octets or full octets on highly electronegative atoms, which is more stable. A resonance that creates aromaticity is very stable
You approach someone who holds a speaker , is the doppler effect the same as if they had approached you (while holding the speaker) at the same velocity
No, plug in the numbers to see this
Can acid anhydrides easily form aqueous solutions
No, they are reactive in water and thus will turn into carboxylic acids
Do you split up solids when writing net ionic equations
No. AgCl stays as AgCl and does not split into Ag and Cl alone.
Is gluconeogenesis in the liver an energy source for the liver?
No. Hepatic gluconeogenesis is dependent on beta oxidation of fatty acids in the liver to provide ATP required for gluconeogenesis Kaplan 319
Is the distribution we see in a punnet square always accurate?
No. Punnet squares only predict the inheritance pattern of unlinked genes that have no affect on one another. We now know that some genes are linked to one another and will almost always travel together, resulting in non statistically-random offspring.
Does RNA polymerase just randomly transcribe segments of DNA as they open up?
No. RNA polymersase searches for specializeed DNA regions known as promoter regions and only transcribes starting at those.
What is noncompetitive inhibition?
Noncompetitive inhibition is when an inhibitor binds to an allosteric site somewhere on the enzyme that causes it to change its shape and reduce its function. Bind Equally well to enzyme and ES complex. Because the noncompetitive inhibitor is not competing with the substrate, increasing the concentration of substrate will not reverse the inhibition.
What is Normality?
Normality is equal to the number of equivalents of interest per liter of solution. An equivalent of interest is a measure of the number of molecules there are to react. To calculate the normality of a solution, you must know what purpose the solution serves and which species is the reactive species. Then, the normality will equal the molarity of the reactive species multiplied by the number of times it could react. For example, H2PO4 could dissociate twice to give 2 protons into solution. This means, in a solution of base, it will be able to react with the OH groups not once but twice. Therefore, it's normality will be equal to twice it's molarity. (6M would be 12N)
What is the Aufbau Principle?
Orbitals are filled in order of lowest energy to highest energy. The order of low energy orbitals to high energy orbitals can be determined using the diagonal method shown below. An electron not in its lowest energy orbital is called excited and will shortly return to its lowest energy orbital. energy of orbital can be determined by adding first two quantum numbers (n+l rule)
What is an Osteocyte?
Osteocytes are early osteoblasts that become trapped in the lacunae while they build up the bone. These cells are internal to the bone and maintain it by both building and absorbing bone.
What does it mean for two waves to be out of phase?
Out of phase waves have a phase difference that is not equal to 0 degrees.
Moving through the ETC, what happens to oxidation and reduction potentials
Oxidation potential gets lower (less likely to give up electrons as we move through) Reduction potential gets higher (more likely to take electrons as we move through)
What is an oxidation state?
Oxidation state is the charge an element will usually take if it is going to form an ion and become part of an ionic compound. For most elements, this will be the charge assocated with an octet configuration. For example, all of the Alkalie Metals (Na, K, Li) will always have an oxidation state of +1 in ionic compounds. The same is true for some Halogens and their -1 oxidation state. Then, there are some elements that are usually going to have the oxidation number associated with their octet configuration, but not always. Finally, there are the transition metals, many of which take on many different oxidation states. It is important to know the few stable transition metals and then just figure out what the oxidation state of any other transition metal is during the problem.
What is the relationship between PTH and Vitamin D?
PTH activates Vitamin D which allows calcium and phosphate to be absorbed in the gut.
what structure is this?
Palmitic acid
How do parallel plate capacitors work?
Parallel plate capacitors are composed of two plates, one connected to the positive terminal one connected to the negative terminal, separated by a small distance. The plate connected to the positive terminal will build up positive charge and the plate connected to the negative terminal will build up negative charge. The difference in charge between the two plates will cause an electric field to develop between them. The energy that is stored in a capacitor is stored in the electric field it creates.
Describe how DNA polymerase proof-reads bases.
Part of the DNA polymerase enzme is specifically designed to proofread. When complementary strands have incorrectly paired bases the hydrogen bonds are unstable. The proofreading section of DNA polymerase detects the unstable hydrogen bond and removes the incorrect base. All prokaryotic polymerases and DNA epsilon and delta have 3'-5' exonuclease activity
What is penetrance?
Penetrance is a population measure defined as the proportion of individuals in the population carrying the allele who actually express the phenotype. In other words, penetrance is the probability that, given a particular genotype, a person will actually make the physical changes associated with the phenotype. In the image below, the each offspring has the Bb genotype, but only a little more than half of them actually exprerss the phenotype.
Can peptide hormones easily cross the cell membrane?
Peptide hormones can be large and are always polar, so we would not expect them to be able to cross the cell membrane easily.
Five recognized methods of mate choice
Phenotypic benefits- Observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex (males that appear more nurturing are likely to care for offspring) Sensory bias- development of a trait to match a pre existing preference that exists in the population (male crabs build towers that attract females because crabs are naturally attracted to things that cross their vision plane) Fisherian or runaway selection- A trait that has no effect or a negaive effect on survival becomes more exaggerated over time. This increased attractiveness makes it more likely to be passed on (example, peacock feathers) Indicator traits- traits that signify overall good health and well being of an organism (female cats attracted to male cats with shiny coats) Genetic compatibility- creation of mate pairs that have complementary genetics. Attraction to those with very differet genetic makeup reduces likelihood of offspring being homozygous for a recessive allele
What are dipole-dipole interactions? In what phases do they matter?
Polar molecules share electrons unequally in their bonds, and therefore have areas of partial negative charge and areas of partial positive charge. In dipole dipole interactions, the positively charged region of one molecule will attract to the negatively charged region of another molecule. These dipoles are not temporary, like in London Dispersion forces, and so the dipole-dipole interaction is much stronger. neglidgible in gas phase because molecules are far apart
What is the function of Prolactin?
Prolactin stimulates the production of milk in the mammary glands.
How does one analyze the activity of a protein?
Protein activity is generally determined by monitoring a knonw reaction with a given concentration of substrate and comparing it to a standard. Reactions with a color change are particularly convenient because you can put the protein in the reaction and see if the color changes any faster or slower.
Describe pyruvate carboxlyase
Pyruvate carboxylase is a mitochondrial enzyme that is activated by acetyl-coa. It converts Pyruvate into Oxaloacetate during times of high energy when glucose consumption is not required. Uses ATP
What is the formula for Capacitance?
Q is the magnitude of the charge on either of the plates (they will be the same just opposite sign)
As the permeability of the collecting duct increases, it is easier for water to be reabsorbed. This causes the urine to become {{c1::more::more or less concentrated?}} why?
Reabsorption is the movement of things from the urine to the blood. If water is moving from the urine into the blood, there is less water in the urine, i.e. more concentrated urine.
At equilibrium, as concentration of products increases, concentration of reactants _____
Reactants decrease (because forming products) Careful with wording, the question doesn't say we are adding products (in which case concentration of reactants would increase)
Reaction quotient vs Equilibrium constant
Reaction quotient is concentration of reactants and products at any time during reaction and Eq constant is concentrations at equilibrium
Religious affiliation
Religious affiliation describes the specific religious group to which an individual identifies, which is not synonymous with living one's life according to the principles, behaviors, or customs of that religion. For example, one may consider oneself to be Catholic but not attend church. A study in which believers are surveyed about the incorporation of religion into their lives is assessing religiosity, not religious affiliation
What do dehydrogenases do
Remove hydrogens and thus oxidize
What does aminopeptidase do? dipeptidase?
Removes N-terminal amino acid Cleaves dipeptides to release free amino acids
what are the physical and emotional components of depression/major depressive disorder?
Sadness + SIG: E CAPS (picture a sad celebrity signing his signature on tons of electronic caps in the year 2090) Suicidal thoughts: low self-esteem, low mood Interests decreases (anhedonia) Guilt Energy decrease - lethargy Concentration decreased Appetite disturbance (+ or -) Psychomotor changes/symptoms (agitation/retardation) Sleep disturbance (+ or -) +weight gain/loss
ionization potential functions ?
Same as ionization energy Predicts reactivity of alkali and alkaline earth metals. Up and to the right takes more energy to remove an electron so it is less reactive. Cesium will blow your face up because it is so reactive
What is saturation in the context of hydrocarbon chains?
Saturation refers to how many double bonds are in the hydrocarbon chain. An saturated hydrocarbon tail will have only single bonds. An unsaturated hydrocarbon tail will have double bonds. The more double bonds, the more unsaturated the chain.
What are self-antigens?
Self-antigens are the protein and carbohydrate tags on the surface of our own cells.
How do we teach complicated behaviors and what do we have to keep in mind
Shaping each part of behavior can't be counter to natural instict
Describe the C=O IR peak
Sharp peak around 1750cm-1. Usually pretty tall as well.
Shell vs subshell vs orbital for electrons
Shell is energy level: subshell is s, p , d ,f ex. so shell 2 has subshells s and p p has 3 orbitals with 2 electrons each
What does it mean to say muscles can be synergistic?
Sometimes, instead of working opposite to one another, muscles can work together to accomplish the same function.
Describe a concentration cell
Special type of galvanic cell. Contains two half cells connected by a conductive material that allows a spontaneous reaction to occur. However, both electrodes are chemically identical. For example both are copper metal, so both have same reduction potential. Thus, current is generated as a function of concentration gradient. The gradient results in a potential difference that drives the movement of electrons in a way that brings equilibrium. Thus, the voltage/ electromotive force is Zero when concentrations are equal. Example is a cell membrane!!
How can we calculate the standard gibbs free energy for a reaction?
Subtract the sum of the standard gibbs free energy of the products by the sum of the standard gibbs free energy of the reactants. or deltaG=deltaH-TdeltaS equation but with standard H and S
What is superheating?
Superheating is when a liquid is heated to a temperature above its boiling point without vaporizing. Superheating occurs when gas bubbles within a liquid are unable to overcome the combination of atmospheric pressure and surface tension. This is fixed in distillations by adding boiling chips, ebulliators, or magnetic stir bars to the distilling flask.
What is the function of Supressor or Regulatory T-cells?
Supressor T-cells are also CD4+ cells, like Helper T-cells. However, Supressor T-cells express a unique protein that helps the immune system calm down once an infection has been adequately contained. Supressor T-cells, because they can reduce the immune response, are also useful in turning of self-reactive lymphocytes and defending against auto-immune disease. Called self-tolerance
doppler equation for frequency
The Doppler equation for frequency is Δf/f = -v/c for a given relative velocity v between source and detector. Thus, the frequency shift Δf depends inversely on the speed of the wave in the medium in which it propagates, c. The velocity of sound is much smaller than that of electromagnetic radiation, so for the same relative velocity the frequency and wavelength shifts are much greater for sound than for radio waves.
What are the reactants and products of the Gabriel Synthesis?
The Gabriel Synthesis uses a cyclic molcecule called Phthalamide (usually as potassium phthalimide) and Diethyl Bromomalonate in the presence of base to generate a highly substituted carb-anion intermediate. This is mixed with an R-Br (any good leaving group of choice) and treated with acid to make an amino acid.
What is the Hawthorne Effect?
The Hawthorne Effect, also called the observer effect, is the phenomenon where people change their behavior as a result of being knowing they are being observed. This is a type of bias.
What is the fundamental/allelic Hardy-Weinberg equation and what does it state?
The allelic Hardy-Weinberg Equation is as follows. Where p is the frequency of the dominant allele and q is the frequency of the recessive allele. This equation is simply stating that, in a population with only 2 alleles, p and q, the sum of the relative frequencies of the two of them will be 100%. In other words, if 40% of the alleles in the population are p, and there are is only one other allele, q, in the population, then 60% of the alleles in the population must be q.
What is the function of the axon hillock?
The axon hillock is an area just before the axon where action potentials can be generated for conduction down the axon.
Describe the backbone of DNA. how are they connected?
The backbone of DNA is composed of alternating sugar and phosphate groups. These sugars and phosphates are connected with 3'-5' phosphodiester bonds. That is to say, a phosphate group links the 3' carbon of one sugar to the 5' carbon of the next sugar through a phosphate bond. Remember, phosphate has a negative charge, so DNA and RNA strands are actually pretty negatively charged overall.
What is the bowman's capsule?
The bowman's capsule is a cuplike structure that takes the filtrate from the glomerulus and sends it through the loop of Henle, starting with the Proximal Convuluted Tubule
"What does it mean if a thermodynamic property is written with a degree sign (prime) or called ""Standard"""
The changes in enthalpy, entropy, and free energy that occur when a reaction takes place under standard conditions are called the standard enthalpy, standard entropy, and standard free energy changes, respectively, and are symbolized by ΔH°, ΔS°, and ΔG°.
What is the classical pathway of the complement system?
The classical pathway is when the complement system is actived by the binding of an antibody to a pathogen. (note, that although an antibody is present here, this is nonspecific, and therefore a part of innate immunity.)
What is the colon? and where do they accept their content from and what type of contents are accepted.
The colon is the majority of the large intestine where the absorption of water and salt occur. It is the path that the stomach contents follow after they have moved from the small intestine into the large intestine.
The movement of any solute or water by diffusion or omsosis is dependent on the electrochemical gradient of _________ (the compound of interest or all compounds in the cell)
The compound of interest
The concentration of the filtrate changes dramatically as it moves through the nephron. What prevents water from rushing into the nephron and bursting it when the filtrate is very concentrated, and what prevents water from rushing out of the nephrone and collapsing it when the filtrate is very dilute?
The concentration of solutes in the interstitium changes depending on the location of the nephron. Therefore, those places in the nephron that have very concentrated filtrate are surrounded by a concentrated, isotonic interstitium. The places in the nephron that have very dilute filtrate are surrounded by a dilute, isotonic interstitium.
What is the critical point?
The critical point marks the boundary of pressure and temperature at which you will still see normal phases. After the temperature and pressure exceed that of the critical point, the substance becomes a supercritical fluid with gaseous and liquid properties.
What is the Junction Rule?
The current going into a junction must be equal to the current going out of a junction.
How do dielectrics affect isolated capacitors?
The dielectric will lower the electric field of the isolated capacitor, which will lead to a decrease in voltage and an increase in capacitance.
How do dielectrics affect capacitors connected to a voltage source (battery)?
The dielectric will reduce the electric field in the capacitor, which would normally lead to a decrease in voltage, but the capacitor is hooked up to an external voltage source, so it maintains its voltage. Instead, the decrease in the electric field in the capacitor will manifest itself as an increase in the charge on the plates of the capacitor.
Where is the ductus venosus and what is its function?
The ductus venosus shunts blood returning from the placenta via the umbilical vein directly to a location farther up the inferior vena cava so that it can bypass the liver.
What is the electro-motive force?
The electro-motive force is the potential difference between the two terminals of a cell. This potential difference is what drives the electrons through the wire of the circuit. Notice that this is not a force, but a potential difference. The name is a misnomer. Has units of volts (J/C)
How does one find the enthalpy of a reaction using only bond dissociation energies?
The enthalpy of the reaction will be equal to the energy it absorbed by breaking bonds minus the energy it released by forming bonds. going from solid to gas counts in total energy absorbed (bonds broken)
What happens if you shine light on a metal that has a higher energy than the work function energy?
The extra energy is converted into kinetic energy for the electron. So, the higher the frequency of the light shined on a metal, the higher the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.
How does one calculate the focal distance?
The focal distance will always be half the distance of the radius of curvature. f=R/2 Thus we can find focal point from this
What happens in Contraction?
The free globular heads of the myosin molecules, which are bound to ADP (a hydrolyzed ATP) move towards the exposed sites on actin and bind to it. The ADP on the myosin heads dissociates, which causes the myosin molecule to contract and pull the actin filament inwards towards the M-line, shortening the sarcomere.
What is the role of the gall bladder? and what does it respond to?
The gall bladder stores bile for use in the small intestine. It secretes this bile into the small intestine in response to CCK.
What is the glycoprotein coat?
The glycoprotein coat refers to sugar molecules attached to the exterior of the membrane. The glycoprotein coat is important for cell recognition, signalling, and more. '
pragmatics
The intended meaning of the speaker taking into account context and prosody prosody - rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
How do the kidneys affect blood pressure?
The kidneys control the amount of water and salts reabsorbed into the blood. As the amount of water in the blood goes up, the blood pressure goes up.
How does cooperative binding make hemoglobin a very efficient oxygen delivery system?
The partial pressure of oxygen in resting muscles is only about 20 mmHg higher than the partial pressure of oxygen in exhausted muscle. Despite this small difference in partial pressure, the need for oxygen in exhausted muscle is significantly higher than the need for oxygen in resting muscle. Notice that, on the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, the steep part of the sigmoid falls perfectly in between the partial pressure for resting muscle and exhausted muscle. This makes it so that oxyhemoglobnin keeps basically all of its oxygen in resting muscle and then deposits basically all of its oxygen in exhausted muscle, despite the relatively small difference in their partial pressures. Cooperative binding is what creates the sigmoid shape of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, and the sigmoid shape of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is what makes it so efficient at delivering large amounts of oxygen to the tissues that need it quickly. The body is even capable of shifting the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to affect the efficiency of this process even further in situations of need.
What is the reaction quotient?
The reaction quotient, Q tells you the ratio of products to reactants at some point other than equilibrium. The reaction quotient can be compared to the Equilibrium constant for a given reaction and used to determine if the reaction is going to progress forward, backwards, or stay where it is.
What is the renal portal system?
The renal portal system is the portal system composed of the capillary bled in the glomerular capsule going to the large capillary bed known as the vasa recta that surrounds the nephron before going back to the vein highway. It may be hard to see the two capillary beds in the picture below, so they have been marked with a 1 and 2. 1 is the capillary bed in the glomerular capsule, 2 is the vasa recta.
What is a solute?
The solute is the compound you add to the solvent. In this example, the blue powder is the solute because it was a solid before mixing and in the liquid phase with water after.
How can we calculate the standard enthalpy of a reaction?
The standard enthalpy of a reaction will be equal to the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation for the products minus the sum of the standard enthalpies of formation of the reactants. Remember to multiply delta H values in table by the stoichiometric modifier in the balanced equation Plug in whatever sign is in table. Keep negatives
What is responsible for the switch to sleep
The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO or VLPN) of the hypothalamus is one area of the brain that is particularly involved in the switch between wakefulness and sleep.
The welfare state catergoies
The welfare state is a form of government in which the state protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of the citizens, based upon the principles of equal opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for citizens unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life.[1] Sociologist T. H. Marshall described the modern welfare state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare, and capitalism.[2] As a type of mixed economy, the welfare state funds the governmental institutions for healthcare and education along with direct benefits paid to individual citizens.[3] Modern welfare states include Germany and France, Belgium and the Netherlands,[4] as well as the Nordic countries,[5] which employ a system known as the Nordic model. The various implementations of the welfare state fall into three categories: (i) social democratic, (ii) conservative, and (iii) liberal.
Whats important to remember about the ideal gas constant, R
There are many different forms, the relevant one will be provided in the question. Make sure everything you plug in works out with the units of R!!!
The pulmonary and systemic circulation are wired in {{c1::series{{c2::series or parallel?}}}}
There is one path you can follow through the entirety of the cardiovascular system. That means the two circuits, the pulmonary and systemic circulation, are in series.
What are the two types of filaments in Sarcomeres?
Thick and Thin Filaments
Describe Complex II of the ETC.
This complex receives its electron carrier from succinate. FADH2 gets oxidized by iron-sulfur protein, which is oxidized by CoQ → no protons pumped; succinate dehydrogenase involved in this complex. Also, the reasons why no protons are pumped is because FAD isn't no high energy molecule compared to NADH.
What 4 tissues are included in gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) and what is the purpose
Tonsils, adenoids (in head), Peyer's patches (in small intestine), lymphoid aggregates in the appendix. Part of the immune system and in close proximity to digestive system which is a common site of invasion
What is a tosylate?
Tosylates contain the functional group -SO3C6H4CH3. Tosylates are good leaving groups. Tosylates are prepared by reacting alcohols with p-tolouenesulfonyl chloride. Derived from toluenesulfonic acid
What is a vacuum distillation?
Vacuum distillation is just like simple distillation, except a vacuum adapter is used and hooked up to a vacuum that lowers the atmospheric pressure inside the distillation apparatus. By lowing the atmospheric pressure, one lowers the boiling points of all liquids present in the distilling flask. This method is used on compounds with higher than 150 C boiling points to lower their boiling points. Heating a reaction mixture past 150 C is not a good idea, because it will put so much heat energy into the solution that it will probably cause it to start undergoing undesired reactions.
What does Vitamin C do
Vitamin C is useful in generating connective tissue, which is why vitamin C deficient people have connective tissue disorders like scurvy. Also helpful in immune function and wound healing
What kinds of compounds can Gas Chromatography analyze?
Volatile compounds, which are low melting point, sublimable solids or vaporizable liquids.
What is a countercurrent multiplier system
What the vasa recta and nephron are. Flow of filtrate through loops of Henle is opposite direction from flow of blood through the vasa recta. This is to prevent them from reaching equilibrium and thus haltying reabsorption. When flowing opposite the filtrate is constalty exposed to new hypertonic blood which sucks out water
How does increasing and decreasing [A] affect rate=(k1[C][A]2)/(k2+k3[A])
When [A] is high, k3[A]>>k2, so the reaction will appear first order (with respect to A) When [A] lowers, k2>>k3[A], so the reaction will appear second order (with respect to A)
What is gamma decay?
When an unstable nucleus emits a gamma ray AKA a high energy photon. Gamma rays are massless and chargeless, they just carry energy and their emission helps to stabilize a high energy nucleus. They do not affect the atomic number or mass number of a nucleus.
What is the mucociliary escalator
When cilia propel mucus up the respiratory tract to the oral cavity where it can be expelled or swallowed
What is reciprocal development
When tissue 1 induces a change in tissue 2, and the change in tissue 2 then induces a change in tissue 1
What is the Doppler effect? what happens as you move away or towards the source?
When two objects are moving in relation to one another, the frequencies of the sounds they make will be altered. When the source and detector are moving toward eachother, the perceived frequency is greater When the source and the detector are moving away from eachother, the percieved frequency is less than the actual frequency
Intensity of transmitted light through a polarizer
When unpolarized light first hits a polarizer, intensity is halved (dont use cosine equation) Itransmitted = I0cos2θ. I0 is intensity intitial theta is angle between incident and new polarizer 90 degrees means no light is transmitted, 0 degrees means all light is transmitted
How do you calculate the Delta G of a reaction at non standard conditions?
Where Q is the reaction quotient of the reaction, T is the temperature of the reaction, and R is the ideal gas constant.
Working memory vs short term memory
Working memory and short-term memory are distinct executive functions. While both involve a limited and temporary store, working memory involves the manipulation and processing of information while short-term memory does not. You just use this to hold info for a short time ex: reciting phone number that was just learned. Working memory is conceptualized as consisting of a central executive, which regulates attention and task switching, and three subsystems, which are controlled by the central executive. The visuospatial sketchpad is employed when manipulating visual and/or spatial information (eg, reading a map). The phonological loop is employed when manipulating spoken and written information (eg, reading a book). The episodic buffer is responsible for temporal processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (eg, remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant). The results indicated that driving was impaired because of the cognitive overload produced by competing tasks and visual inattention. The central executive, responsible for attention and switching among various tasks, such as holding a conversation and driving, appears to be the aspect of working memory that is overloaded.
what is sublimation?
a defense mechanism where unacceptable behaviors are transferred into acceptable behaviors Ex. someone with anger issues turns to boxing
What is myelin
a fatty layer
What is a self-schema
a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities (example: athlete)
Sense vs antisense strand and which one RNA pol uses as a template
a sense strand (coding strand) and an antisense (noncoding) strand. RNA is produced when RNA polymerase uses the antisense strand as a template to make a new nucleic acid. The newly synthesized RNA strand will accordingly have the same sequence as the sense strand of the DNA (with the exception that RNA contains uracil instead of thymine)
what is oligarchy
a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution
Display rules
a social group or culture's informal norms that distinguish how one should express themselves.They can be described as culturally prescribed rules that people learn early on in their lives by interactions and socializations with other people
what are depressive disorders?
abnormally NEGATIVE mood. long term emotional state. Ex: major depressive disorder mood is a long term emotional state - not necessarily to events mood becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others, ex. crying)
Describe the hydrolysis of amides
acid activated amides can be attacked by water to perform a nucleophilic acyl substitution in which ammonia is the leaving group. This requires highly acidic conditions to protonate carbonyl or strong base to increase nucleophile abilities. If in basic conditions the nucleophile would be a hydroxide which means the reaction would end with a carboxylate anion
what is the Eros drive?
aka Life drive: health, safety, sex
lower esphageal sphincter
aka cardiac sphincter as food approaches this relaxes to allow food into stomach
activity theory (ageing) and akas..?
aka implicit theory of aging aka normal theory of aging aka lay theory of aging successful ageing occurs when older adults stay active and maintain social interactions - remain socially active
Cultural Universals and what is it evidence for
all cultures have ways of dealing with illness/medicine/healing Or wedding/funeral ceremonies. Language(ability to communicate within a group) evidence that evolution selects for behaviors as well
what is a class system?
allows degree of social mobility combo of background and movement, often by education, less stability
what is a dependency ratio?
an age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labour force, and compares that to # of people who are (15-64
what could be an example of an extinction burst?
animal no longer receives regular reinforcement original behavior spikes dramatically
Movement of electrons is from ______ to ______ in an electrochemical cell
anode to cathode. Thus current is from cathode to anode. This is always the case whether it is galvonic or electrolytic
what is continuity theory?
as person ages, wants to maintain same lifestyle so they try to adapt as people age they make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging
what is the difference between authoritarian, authoritave, and permissive parenting?
authoritarian: Hitler, lots of punishment authoritative: disciplined father permissive/indulgent: lets anything go
"""In the past ten years, we've been bombarded with ads, 'These are the symptoms of BD—they're easily missed—and here is a new drug to treat it.' I think that when you're constantly being reminded not to overlook something, you start looking for it everywhere, even when it's not there."""
availability heuristic The availability heuristic is the tendency to make decisions or base judgments on how easily something is recalled from memory. In other words, things that are readily available in memory are thought to be more common. The physician's quote describing heightened exposure to the symptoms of BD leading to a propensity to overdiagnose is an example of the availability heuristic influencing a decision-making process.
selective exposure
avoidance theories opposing view to reduce cognitive dissonance
what is categorical self?
awareness that even though we are a distinct entity, we exist in the world with others (comes after existential self) younger examples: age, gender, skills, size older examples: traits, comparisons, careers
Only organism with peptidoglycan
bacteria
what is a folkway?
basically like a common courtesy/manner. no consequences for not complying describes a specific situation Ex: saying thanks to the cashier, telling friend his zipper is open
what is the prototype willingness model?
behavior is a function of 6 things, prototyping/modeling is one of them past behavior attitudes subjective norms intentions willigness to engage models/prototyping
What are the disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders?
behaviors that are unacceptably disruptive or impulsive
What composes the old brain
brainstem, reticular formation, thalamus, cerebellum
What is the primary way carbon dioxide is transported in our blood?
by converting it into carbonic acid by carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme. Afterward, Carbonic acid will dissociate and travel through the bloodstream as a charged molecule. Once it get to the lung, Carbonic acid is converted back into carbon dioxide via carbonic anhydrase when this occurs, it means it's ready to exchange content with the alveoli.
Theory of universal emotions
certain emotions are expressed and detected by everyone, regardless of culture
what is private conformity?
change behaviors and opinions to align with group Ex: If you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color.
what is intergenerational mobility?
change in social class between generations Ex: son studies and gets rich
What is pheromones made from?
chemical signals that trigger smell which is linked to certian behaviors like mating (in animals, humans don't rely too much on pheremones)
what is aversive conditioning? (aversion theraapy)
classical conditioning used to stop certain behaviors Ex: If you want to stop Lashonda from smoking you shock her every time she smokes The shock is the UCS and the pain is the UCR. Once the smoking becomes associated with the electric shock (acquisition), Shanikwa will experience pain when she smokes, even without the shock. Thus the smoking will become the CS and the pain the CR (but only if the shock is no longer given).
behaviorism considers
classical/operant conditioning
what is the generalized other?
common behavioral expectations of society
Autocommunication
communicating with yourself (echolocation)
what is meaning-focused coping?
concentrating on deriving meaning from the stressful experience
what is operant conditioning?
consequences that follow behavior increase/decrease likelihood of behavior happening again
what is the function of the hypothalamus
control of autonomic nervous system and basic drives (food thirst sleep sex). Also controls pituitary gland
what is cortical cooling?
coolsdown neurons until firing stops
As high energy molecules leave the liquid and become gas the temp of the liquid _____
decreases
what is regression?
defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situation
what is a safety behavior?
demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety
what is a problem with conflict theory?
doesnt explain the stability a society can experience, how society is held together (unity), despite some members not liking the status quo
which neurons are lost in parkinson's disease?
dopaminergic neurons leading to loss of dopamine
Melting and evaporating are ______ while condensing and freezing are______
endothermic, exothermic
Lipopolysaccharide antigens on the surface of gram-negative bacteria are called
endotoxins.
what is autobiographical memory?
episodic + semantic
what is hidden curriculum?
expected social and cultural norms that are taught informally. (we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers) girl says red her fav color, teacher replies saying pink is more appropriate
How does one calculate the wavelength/ frequency of the standing wave in a closed pipe?
f= (nv)/4L Where L is the length of the pipe and n is limited to odd integers above zero (1,3,5... etc.). n represents the number of quarter wavelengths. limited to odd harmonics
Complex innate behaviors
fixed action patterns (mating dance), migration, circadian rhythms (bird singing in morning)
what is a secondary group?
formal/impersonal and business like relationship. goal-oriented Ex. You do things like attending a lunch meeting to talk business. You are only part of the group to accomplish a task or for example, earn money (means to an end) "formal impersonal groups."
what is the most powerful predictor of relationships/friendships forming?
geographical proximity
what is fixation, in the context of Freud's developmental theory?
getting stuck at a certain stage of development
Excess of deficit of growth hormone in childhood causes
gigantism, dwarfism, respectively
what is group polarization?
group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want. This can turbo charge the group's viewpoints
what is confirmation bias?
group members seek out info that supports the majority view
Only way to determine whether a gene is expressed
identifying said genes mRNA by probing. A probe that hybridizes with the genome DOES NOT indicate expression, just that the gene is present.
what is dis-assortative mating? (non-assortive)
individuals with different phenotype more likely to mate
whats a molten globule
intermediate state in protein folding (doesn't last long, fraction of second)
what is a phobia?
irrational fear of specific objects or situations FOCUSED anxiety
what caused fixation?
libido being stuckat one stage what is libido? natural energy source well into adulthood
what is microsociology?
looks at small scale interactions, families and schools and how these interactions affect larger groups in society; interpretative analysis of society example: doctor-patient interactions, or family dynamics
what is the resource mobilization theory?
looks at the factors that help or hinder a social movement from doing its shit success of social movements depends on resources (time, money, skills, etc.) and the ability to use them. emphasizes the ability of a movement's members to 1) acquire resources and to 2) mobilize people towards accomplishing the movement's goals. In contrast to the traditional collective behaviour theory that views social movements as deviant and irrational, resource mobilization sees them as rational social institutions, created and populated by social actors with a goal of taking political action.
what is the brainstem composed of and what is its function?
medulla, pons, midbrain, reticular formation. basic functions like HR and RR. connects cerebellum to cerebral cortex and spinal cord
what is the substantia nigra associated with?
motor planning and purposeful movement
what is urbanization
movement of people from rural to urban areas
what are some things strongly related to alzheimer's?
mutations of genes involved in processing of amyloid protein ApoE4 (metabolism of fats) high blood pressure
exhaustive outcomes
no other possible outcomes
what is a microculture?
one that cannot support people through their lifespan, only affect one period of life Ex: girl scouts, sororities, boarding school
what are peptide neurotransmitters?
opioids (endorphins) (perception of pain)
what is spatial mismatch?
opportunities for low income people are farther away and harder to access( literally, the jobs are far away)
Smell synapses on the ___ and all other senses synapse on the ____
orbitofrontal cortex, thalamus
what does evolutionary game theory state? ****learn more
organism that is most fit will survive and reproduce, and those genes will become more common in successive generation Game theory mathematically evaluates the relative success of particular strategies (behavioral phenotypes) over time. When the evolutionary benefit of a social behavior outweighs the cost of that behavior (eg, a warning call puts an individual at risk but increases the likelihood that genes will be passed on), game theory predicts that the behavioral phenotype will persist reproduction and environment are central to evolutionary game theory helps us predict the appearance of evolutionary stable strategies Ex. Altruism - 2 groups of monkeys, one selfish and one not. Selfish group doesn't alarm others of predators. Non-selfish group alerts others and leads to overall success of group over time. Making a call at their own expense is sometimes good (the one who makes the call might not survive, but those similar to it can be helped...this is better strategy for the population)
What 5 digestive enzymes are produced in the pancreas
pancreatic amylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase A and B, lipase
electrons in different orbitals with same spins are said to be
parallel
what is the hypothesis of relative deprivation? Relative depreciation?
people become more prejudiced/discriminatory when they are lacking some resource they feel entitled to Relative depreciation is the discrepancy of what they are entitled to and what they get
what is optimum arousal theory?
people do things to reach a peak state of arousal or natural high ex. why we go to amusement parks
what is the bystander effect?
people feel less responsibility to do shit or help others when in a large group
Rural rebound
people getting sick of cities and moving back out to rural areas.
whats the deal with Milgram's experiments?
people shocked a confederate alot due to obedience to authority. demonstrated that everyone has a fundamental obedient side to them people look at nazis as evil yet did shit things themselves, we all express fundamental attribution error
what is anxious avoidance?
person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means
what does behaviorist theory state? and sociologist responsible for this theory?
personality result of learned behavior patterns based on environment. deterministic, meaning people start as blank slates and get molded by the environment skinner was strict behaviorist
Why does a catalyst speed up rxn?
progression towards equilibrium
what is poor lower class proletariat or bourgeois?
proletariat
What is the vertebral column
protects the spinal chord and transmits nerves at the space between adjacent vertebrae
What is rRNA?
rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus and functions as an important structural component of ribosomes (and catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds in the growing AA chain). rRna molecules can also act as ribozymes. (detail: can also splice out its own introns)
what are paraphilic disorders?
recurrent, intense, sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors that are distressing or disabling and that involve inanimate objects, children or nonconsenting adults, or suffering or humiliation of oneself or the partner with the potential to cause harm.
what is cross tolerance?
reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target
what is the effect of endocrine signaling
response that is far away
can mood affect likely to conform/obey?
rough day - less likely to conform
naming of sugars
six carbon with aldehyde= aldohexose five carbon with ketone= ketopentose
what is the moro reflex?
startle reaction - throw outs arm, arch back, then bring back towards itself
what is social learning?
states that people learn through observing others
Column chromatagrophy general characteristics
stationary phase is column containing silica or alumina beads (these beads are coated with specific things in each type of chromatogrpahy. For example, in ion they are coated with ions) Mobile phase is a nonpolar solvent, which travels by gravity
converting haworth to chair
stereochemistry is maintained. Down goes to down, up goes to up. (in the chair, down just means lower of the two on that carbon, doesnt have to look like its pointing down) (remember axial will point in direction of the point/corner/vertex)
In an electrolytic cell, the cathode is {{c1::negative::positive or negative?}}
the cathode is where the electrons are going to do reduction and electrons will be forced to go to the cathode which makes it negative.
Intensity relation to # of photons
the energy of electromagnetic radiation is directly proportional to the number of photons, and the intensity of electromagnetic radiation is defined as energy emitted per unit time. Thus, intensity is directly proportional to the number of photons emitted.
What is agnosia
the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds
what is society?
the way people organize themselves. i.e. people who live together in an area structure that provides organization for people (includes institutions) ex. hardware of a phone
How does internal energy relate to temperature
they are proportionate, doubling one doubles the other
do institituions need individuals?
they don't need 1 individual, they need many of them, and each individual is very replaceable institutions are created by individuals but continue even after an individual is gone
what are primary reinforcers?
things that are innately satisfying like food or sexy time
what are agents of socialization?
things that help you socialize family, media, friends, religion, school
What is aversive control
type of operant conditioning, can be escape or avoidance
discrimination
unjust TREATMENT
What are virions
viral progeny after replication
what is spontaneous recovery?
when an old conditioned response comes back spontaneously after time gap
How does one calculate the energy of a photon?
where f is the frequency of the proton and h is planck's constant