S-130 Wildland Hazards and Human Factors on the Fireline

Good Communication

- Allows you to receive orders and instructions - Provides a way for you to learn of hazards - Gives a way for you to report the situation to others - Serves as a learning tool to encourage learning, making you a better wildland firefighter

Barriers to Communication

- Having a preconceived opinion about a message - Allowing personal or environmental distractions to take your focus - Hearing what you want to hear and filtering out the rest - Focusing on your own response instead of listening to what's being said - Allowing personality differences to hinder effective listening and message relaying skills

Heat Related Illness

- Heat cramps—painful muscle cramps in the legs and abdomen caused by loss of salt in perspiration - Heat exhaustion—general weakness and fatigue, cool and clammy skin, unstable gait, and possible fainting - Heat stroke—a life-threatening emergency caused by the total collapse of the body's temperature-regulating system - Hypothermia—lower than normal body temperature from exposure to cold that can lead to unconsciousness and death

Fire characteristics of Successful Teams

1. Continuous and effective communication 2. Continual experimentation to improve performance 3. High performance from team members and leaders 4. Needs of the team before the needs of individuals 5. Cohesion among team members

Other Dangerous Weather Factors

1. High temperatures—the higher the temperature, the higher the temperature of wildland fuels. Heated fuels ignite and burn much easier than those at lower temperatures. The higher the temperature, the more likely the hazard. 2. Low relative humidity—if the relative humidity is high, the air adds moisture to fuels, making them less likely to ignite. On the other hand, if the relative humidity is low, the air removes moisture from fuels, making them more likely to ignite. The drier the wildland fuels, the more likely the hazard.

10 Steps To Become a Good Team Player

1. Know yourself and seek improvement 2. Be technically and tactically proficient 3. Comply with orders and initiate appropriate actions in the absence of orders 4. Develop a sense of responsibility and take responsibility for your actions 5. Make sound and timely decisions and recommendations 6. Set the example for others 7. Be familiar with your leader and his job 8. Keep your leader informed 9. Understand the task and ethically accomplish it 10. Be a team member but not a "yes" person

Backfeeding

Backfeeding is when electric power flows in the opposite direction than it typically flows.

Conditions that can Cause Trees to Fall

Be aware of these conditions that can cause live trees to fall: - Felling operations - Strong winds and downward rotor blast from helicopters - Heavy equipment - Fire burning inside live trees - Shallow, exposed or burned roots - Loose and cracked branches, limbs, and tops - Trees leaning heavily to one side or on the side of steep terrain - Eroded areas around live trees - Insect activity causing disease and decay

Listener Responsiblities

By taking these steps, you have a better shot at hearing—and understanding—important information: - Be focused and pay attention - Clarify any unclear information - Ask questions - Repeat instructions back to your supervisor - Switch roles frequently back and forth during the communication process At the end of this exchange, you should know the answers to each of these questions: - What task am I to perform? - What are the known hazards? - Where do I go to be safe? - How do I get there?

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, tasteless, invisible gaseous by-product of the combustion of organic (carbon-containing) materials. When there is insufficient oxygen available to form CO2, the fire forms CO instead. Even though there appears to be an unlimited supply of oxygen available to fires in the wildland, this is not always the case. For example, fires burning in thickly matted grasses cannot get enough oxygen to all layers of the fuel to form CO2, so CO is formed instead. CO is present at some level in all smoke from wildland fires, but can be found in even higher concentrations in inversions.

Limit Possible Exposure to CO

Crew leaders and supervisors should limit each firefighter's possible exposure to CO by: - Rotating personnel from areas of heavy smoke to areas with little or no smoke as the situation allows - Monitoring personnel operating chain saws or fire pumps in confined areas for signs of CO exposure - Not allowing personnel exhibiting symptoms of CO exposure to operate a chain saw or any other potentially dangerous piece of equipment, or drive a fire apparatus until they have recovered - Following agency policy with regard to giving oxygen to affected personnel

DOs of Downed Powerlines

DO identify, map, and discuss at briefings all electrical lines in the incident area DO announce "power line down" to alert personnel if a line falls, and make sure that all acknowledge the announcement by repeating it back DO notify communications or dispatch so rebroadcast can be made to responding units

Toxic Gases in Smoke

Depending upon what is burning, the smoke can contain any or all of the following gases: Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon monoxide (CO) Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Hydrogen chloride (HCl) By far the most common fire gas that wildland firefighters are exposed to is CO.

Categories of Hazards

Fire and burned-over areas Tools Electrical lines and fences Firing operations Weather Biological Human-related Base camp Vehicles Aircraft Hazardous materials

Lightning and Thunder Dangers

Ideally, try to get inside a vehicle or structure if possible. If that isn't possible, get in the middle of a large clearing and sit (don't lie down) on your pack or crouch with your feet together—especially if your skin tingles. During a lightning storm, don't use landline phones and radios with long antennas—use only cell phones or radios that have short antennas. Then, avoid getting too close to: - Dry creek beds because of the flash flood potential - Heavy machinery - Flammable liquids - Poles or trees - Ridge tops - Ledges - Wire fences - Rock outcroppings - Metal tools

Communicator Responsibilities

If you're delivering the message, follow these do's and don'ts: DO be direct and know what you need to communicate DO use standard wildland fire fighting terms DO use easy-to-understand language DO be specific with instructions DON'T be patronizing, superior, or sarcastic DON'T assume that everyone understands your message

Human Hazards

Maintaining your SA on the fireline can be challenging for a number of reasons: - Inexperience - Personal and job-related stress - Fatigue - Personal and environmental distractions - Attitude Distractions and lack of focus on the fireline can draw your attention away from potential problems or hazards. Decision making can be a struggle when you're fatigued and your ability to filter the important information is diminished.

DONTs of Downed Powerlines

Now, even if a line is not down, here are some DON'Ts: DON'T operate heavy equipment under power lines DON'T drive vehicles with long antennas under power lines DON'T stand or work in dense smoke anywhere near power lines—smoke may become charged and conduct electrical current DON'T refuel vehicles under power lines DON'T direct fire retardant drops onto power lines DON'T stand near power lines during retardant drops When, the line goes down—get smart! Here are some more DON'Ts: DON'T go near or attempt to move downed power lines DON'T leave a vehicle if a power line falls on it until the power company deactivates the line; if you must exit the vehicle because it is on fire or fire is approaching, jump well clear of the vehicle and hop away with your feet together

Objective Hazards

Objective hazards are hazards that firefighters have no control over. Examples of objective hazards are: - Fire-weakened timber - Lightning - Rolling rocks and logs - Changes in wind direction and speed These hazards are inherent to the fire fighting environment and you have to practice "look up, look down, and look around" to avoid them.

Back Firing

Offensive tactic associated with indirect attack; intentionally setting fire to fuels inside the control line to slow, knock down, or contain a rapidly spreading fire. The intent is for the backfire to meet the advancing fire some distance from the control line. Backfiring provides a wide defense perimeter and may be further employed to change the force of the convective column; makes possible a strategy of locating control lines at places where the fire can be fought on the firefighter's terms.

Relative Humitity

Percentage of moisture in the air compared to the maximum amount of moisture that air will hold at that temperature.

Downed Powerlines

Power lines on the ground are dangerous even if you don't touch them. When an electrical wire is on the ground, current flows in all directions from the point of contact. Voltage drops as the current flows away from that point. This is called ground gradient. Depending upon the voltage and other things such as ground moisture, this energy can extend for several feet. You could be electrocuted by walking into this field because of the differing potentials between each of your feet. Avoid this hazard by staying away from downed wires a distance of at least one span between poles until you know the power is off. When you receive confirmation the power is off, communicate the message to all at the scene.

Burning Out

Setting fire inside a control line to consume fuel between the edge of the fire and the control line. Burning out is done on a small scale in order to consume unburned fuel and aid control line construction. Burning out should not be confused with "backfiring," which is a larger-scale tactic to eliminate large areas of unburned fuels in the path of a fire or to change the direction of force of a convection column.

SAFENET

Since risk management is your job, there is a mechanism for you to document a safety concern or report a close call. It is called SAFENET and it is endorsed by Federal land management agencies. SAFENET is intended to provide: - A way to immediately report and correct unsafe situations or unacceptable risks in a wildland fire - A means of sharing safety information throughout the fire community - Long-term data that will assist in identifying trends When you complete this form, you may submit it to your immediate supervisor, the safety officer (SO), or the incident commander (IC). You can also submit it to the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) at safenet.nifc.gov, or by mail to: SAFENET PO Box 16645 Boise, ID 83715-9750 Once a form is submitted, copies are delivered to the: Person responsible for safety on the unit Regional or state fire safety officer National database at the NIFC

Hazards of Snags

Snags are standing dead trees. They present a variety of hazards to those working near them, such as: - They often smolder long after the main fire has been extinguished, so they must be cut down (felled) during mop-up. - Dead limbs can break off and fall on you in high winds or when attempting to fell a snag—use a spotter to watch for falling limbs during felling operations. - Roots on live and dead trees may have burned away and the tree may fall at any time—be alert. Stay away from snags until they have been cut down. After felling a snag, open the trunk and extinguish the fire within the trunk.

Risk Management Process: Step 1

Step 1 of the risk management process is being AWARE of the situation you're going to be working in. When it comes to managing risk in wildland fire fighting, never go on an assignment without being aware of what you're getting into. Before you begin any assignment, make sure you receive the following specific information from your supervisor: - Objectives—know your assignment and the reasons behind it - Communications—be familiar with the incident communication plan and lines of communication - Who is in charge—know the leadership structure and chain of command - Previous fire behavior—learn about previous fires in the area - Weather forecast—access local resources and stay on top of changes - Local factors—talk with the "locals" to learn important details about the incident location

Steps for Risk Managment

Step 1—Situation awareness Step 2—Hazard assessment Step 3—Hazard control Step 4—Decision point Step 5—Evaluate

Risk Management Process: Step 2

Step 2 of the risk management process is hazard ASSESSMENT. As a beginning firefighter, you have the professional responsibility to begin to learn how to identify hazards. As your expertise grows, you will become more and more skilled at assessing hazards. To help you with this responsibility: - Estimate the potential fire behavior hazards—use the look up, down, and around indicators - Identify any tactical hazards—use the 18 "Watch-out!" situations - Determine if any other safety hazards exist—make sure you have gone through the Hazards on the Fireline Topic - Consider severity v. probability—do not attempt actions that have significant risks for little benefit In the field, use the hazard assessment checklist in your IRPG.

Risk Management Process: Step 3

Step 3 of the risk management process is hazard CONTROL. Just as there are rules of engagement for doing battle, there are rules of engagement on the fireline. These rules provide the primary hazard control mechanisms for all operations on the fireline. You already know these hazard control tools as the 10 Standard Fire Fighting Orders. There are also four key operational components of the standard fire fighting orders that must always be in place when you work on the fireline. If you've studied the Watch Out and LCES Module of this course, you've already learned these four components as LCES: - Lookouts - Communications - Escape routes - Safety zones

Risk Management Process: Step 4

Step 4 is the DECISION point. However, since you won't be making tactical decisions right away, look at Step 4 as your time to ask questions. By applying the previous risk management steps, you should already be aware of the incident's hazards, but use these questions at the decision point to know how to respond to these hazards: - Are controls in place for identified hazards? - Are selected tactics based on expected fire behavior? - Have instructions been given and understood? If you're still unsure or you remain concerned about your safety, be persistent and communicate with your supervisor. Do not initiate any action until you can answer yes to each of these three questions. Questions for your own knowledge can be asked at the after-action review or post-fire critique.

Risk Management Process: Step 5

Step 5 of the risk management process is to EVALUATE. You and your supervisor, as well as the others on your crew, have the responsibility to continually evaluate risks presented by human factors and the situation itself. Regarding human factors, determine if performance of any individual or crew is negatively influenced by: - Low experience levels - Distractions from primary tasks - Fatigue or stress reactions - Unsafe or hazardous attitudes When evaluating the situation itself, ask: - What aspects of the situation are changing? - Are strategies and tactics working? Continual evaluation of human factors, situations, and previous decisions help keep you out of harm's way.

Subjective Hazards

Subjective hazards are hazards that firefighters have control over. Examples of subjective hazards are: - Condition of equipment - Decision to turn back - Correct use of tools - Wearing all personal protective equipment (PPE) Since you have control over these hazards, you should be able to work to eliminate them. Most of this course is designed to help you learn how to control subjective hazards.

Safety for Backfiring

Supervisors should keep these guidelines in mind: - Establish an anchor point from which backfiring operations are both initiated and terminated - Assign personnel to backfiring operations only if they are trained and authorized by the IC or Operations Section Chief - Use only certified aircraft and approved equipment when backfiring with aerial ignition devices

How to Attack Downed Powerline

The distance the fire has burned from the downed line will determine if you will attack the fire: - If the fire has spread away from the downed lines a distance equal to one span between poles or towers, fight the fire just like any other wildland fire - If the fire has not yet burned that far from the downed wire, delay the attack until the fire has burned the span distance In other words, you can safely work around the power lines whenever you can operate at least one span distance from them. Notify all incoming personnel of the downed line

Wind Speed and Direction

The rate and direction of the fire's spread are mostly functions of wind speed and direction. Because wind speed and direction can change rapidly, wind-induced fire behavior can also change rapidly. Look for: - Approaching thunderheads with dark clouds beneath - Increased spotting - Sudden calm or changes in speed or direction - High clouds moving fast in a direction different from surface wind

360 Degree Perspective

Up: - Weather and smoke movement (Thunder and Lightning, can be a danger up to 40 miles (64 km) before cloud, use 30/30 rule: when the interval between a ground flash and the thunder it produces is less than 30 seconds, take precautions against being struck for at least 30 minutes after the thundercloud passes.) - Rocks or burning materials rolling into unburned fuel below - Overhead power lines - Aircraft flying overhead and performing airdrops - Tree limbs weakened by fire and burning or burned-out snags Down: - Downed power lines - Poor footing - Unseen ditches, holes, or drop-offs - Snakes and critters - Fuels that cause changes in fire behavior - Fire downslope from your position Around: - Looking around can alert you to approaching vehicles as well as to changes in the fire's behavior that might threaten you. - Also, look around when working on the fireline to be sure there is at least 10 feet (3 m) between you and other crew members.

Characteristics of an Unsuccessful Team

When a team becomes unsuccessful, chances are you'll find one or more of these characteristics in play: - Deteriorating effectiveness of communication - Developing attitudes or conflicts that cause members to take sides - Demonstrating a poor work ethic - Disrespecting other team members - Failing to strive for improved performance - Failing to learn new tasks - Blaming others for poor performance - Putting individual needs before team needs

Carry a Hand Tool

When carrying tools: - Hold hand tools at the balance point - Carry hand tools at your side, close to the body, and parallel to the ground - Maintain a distance of at least 10 feet (3 m) between yourself and other firefighters

Steps After Warning of an Approaching Fire

When the warning is given of an approaching fire, these personal survival techniques might save your life: - Stay with your crew and follow orders - Know the locations of escape routes and safety zones - Don't try to outrun a fire, especially uphill or in thick brush—run laterally or downhill if you must run at all - Try to get to the fire flanks or into the burned area

When Encountering Downed Powerlines

When you encounter downed power lines, observe these guidelines: - Be on the lookout for danger—heavy smoke might obscure electrical wires that are dangling or on the ground - Assume all lines are energized - Advise communications or dispatch to announce that power lines are down - Control the scene by marking the lines with flagging tape or cones and make sure everyone stays far away - Call for the power provider to respond

Chain Saw Safety

When you work around chain saws follow these safety rules: - Wear hearing protection - Maintain the same distance between firefighters when carrying chain saws as any other tool—at least 10 feet (3 m) - Maintain a distance from sawyers equal to at least twice the height of the tree being cut - Keep away from the moving chain - Look up, look down, look around

Safety for Backfiring and Burning Out

Whether backfiring or burning out, supervisors need to: - Ensure an adequate number of skilled people and supervisors are assigned to the firing team, based primarily on the size of the area to be contained - Maintain constant radio communications with adjacent forces - Clearly identify escape routes and safety zones before starting operations - Assign personnel to monitor and secure the area behind the drip torch operator to look for spot fires that might trap crews or compromise the control line - Use the chain of command before continuing if firing is not igniting all available fuel along the control line -Stop or modify firing if it becomes too intense for crews to control and do not resume firing until intensity diminishes and you regain control

Turndown

You can "turn down" an unsafe assignment—in fact it can be argued that you have a responsibility to do so. A turndown (also called refusal of risk ) is a situation where an individual firefighter or supervisor has decided that he or she cannot carry out an assignment as given and is unable to negotiate an alternative solution. Individual firefighters or supervisors may turn down an assignment when: - There is a clear violation of written safe work practices - Environmental conditions clearly make the work unsafe - They lack the necessary qualifications or experience - Defective equipment is being used If you turn down an assignment, it is best to document the turndown by following guidelines found in the IRPG.

Situational Awareness

You need to employ the fundamental principle of situational awareness (SA) while working on an incident. Situational awareness is: - Gathering information by observation and communication - The foundation of all the decision making - An ongoing cycle Be an active thinker and observer on the fireline. Stop and reevaluate and make careful, informed decisions—especially when you're tired or unsure.