Soc 102 Midterm
'Dilemmas of orientation' and the 'pattern variables' (Parsons)
"An actor in a situation is confronted by a series of major dilemmas of orientation, a series of choices that the actor must make..." "...Before the situation will have a determinant meaning... before he can act with respect to [it]"
Authority and reward: (Homans)
"As long as the superior meets or exceeds the expectations for rewards deemed acceptable by the group, then the ensuing legitimacy conferred on the superior will foster stability of the group" (198) Otherwise a state of 'imbalanced exchange' emerges "That is, the costs incurred by subordinates, both in the services they perform and in the very act of submission, must be judged fair relative to the benefits derived for obedience. "Otherwise, opposition to the superior's exercise of power may arise, and with it the potential for change in the structure of existing... relations" (198).
Norms and sanctions as social capital (Coleman)
"Effective norms can constitute a powerful form of social capital" (225). "Norms arise as attempts to limit [i.e., sanction] negative external effects or encourage positive ones." 'Closed' social structures are important for creating effective norms and sanctions for goal attainment
How is social stability routinely achieved? (Parsons)
"For Parsons, social order [is] made possible by a series of complex processes of social coordination and cultural consensus" A 'fit' must be achieved between the needs of the individual and the requirements of institutions
Human capital (Coleman)
"Human capital is created by changes in persons that bring about skills and capabilities that make them act in new ways" (223). It is "embodied in the skills and knowledge acquired by an individual... The social capital of the family is in the relations between children and parents" (228). However, "if there are not strong relations between children and parents" — if there's a lack of social capital "Whatever human capital exists in the parents, the child does not profit from it... social capital is missing The effects of a lack of social capital within the family differ for different educational outcomes The effects of a lack of social capital within the family differ for different educational outcomes." "One for which it appears to be especially important is dropping out of school" (228). "...Students who drop out... is 6 percentage points higher for children from single-parent families The social capital that has value for a young person's development... can be found... in the community...
Interlinkage of action
"Human group life consists of, and exists in, the fitting of lines of action to each other by the members of the group" (252). "Such articulation of lines of action gives rise to and constitutes 'joint action'..."; e.g., organizations While the "preponderant portion of social action... exists in the form of recurrent [repetitive and stable] patterns of joint action... "New situations are constantly arising within the scope of group life that are problematic..." (253). Members must 'work out ways of action' Repetitive joint action is the result of an interpretive process A network or an institution... functions because people at different points do something, and what they do is a result of how they define the situation..." One has to bring into one's consideration this linkage with preceding forms of joint acton" — a consideration of 'historical linkages' "...There is always some connection and continuity with what went on before" "It is the social process in group life that creates and upholds the rules, not the rules that create and uphold group life"
Nature of Human Society or Human Group Life
"Human groups are seen as consisting of human beings who are engaging in action" (246). "Society exists in action... Culture... is clearly derived from what people do... social structure... from how people act toward each other"
Robert Merton
"In contrast to Parsons, who sought to delineate a highly abstract, master conceptual schema... favored what he called middle-range theory" which "involves abstractions but are close enough to observed data... to permit empirical testing" extending Parsons's view of society as a 'system of interrelated parts'... Merton emphasized "that the components of the system may or may not be 'in sync' The various functions of a single component may not coincide — they might even conflict Because different parts of a system might be at odds with each other... " ...Even functional institutions... can produce dysfunctions or unintended consequences" 'Dysfunctions' are consequences that negatively affect the functioning of a given system
Social solidarity (SF)
"Modern societies are based on... purposiveness and functional interdependence"
What are the benefits of 'controlled action'? (Coleman)
"Norms are socially defined informal rights to control the actions of others" (215). "A norm exists only when others assume the right to affect the direction an actor's action will take." Beneficiaries "hold the right to control the actions of others" — targets "give up their rights to control their actions" The transferring of rights that is the basis of norms..." Occurs because "individuals see themselves either as benefiting if particular actions are followed or harmed if they are not" (215). There are "benefits [to] encouraging or inducing others to perform or refrain from particular actions "Actors have a single principle of action, that of acting so as to maximize their realization of interests." Norms "affect individuals' decisions about what actions it will be in their interests to carry out" (220). Trust "arises between individuals based on... the potential costs and gains... with relying on another." In order to demand for a norm to be realized... to be effective... the beneficiaries also must be able to apply sanctions... A stable system of rewards and punishments
Homans: 'Distributive justice'
"Striking a fair balance between the rewards and costs each experiences is a problem of distributive justice" (184). "Distributive justice is the perceived fairness of a distribution of rewards" (D&C 2019:528). Fairness: Exchange partners must perceive they are not paying too high a cost relative to the rewards gained 'Equity principle': Rewards are distributed among people in proportion to their contributions 'Equality principle': Rewards are distributed equally among people regardless of their contributions 'Relative needs principle': Rewards are distributed according to people's personal needs, regardless of their contributions
Nature of Objects
"The 'worlds' that exist for human beings and for their groups are composed of objects" (249). "An object is anything that can be indicated... physical objects, social objects and abstract objects" — the nature of each is determined by its meaning "...The environment consists only of the objects that the given human beings recognize and know" (249). "It is the world of their objects with which people have to deal and toward which they develop their actions." These objects are created, affirmed and transformed
Nature of Social Interaction
"The activities of the members [of society] occur predominately in response to one another..." (247). "...Social interaction is a process that forms human conduct... the activities of others enter as positive factors in the formation of their own conduct The actions of others have to be taken into account." "As [people] encounter one another they are necessarily required to take account of the actions of one another as they form their own action" (247). "One has to fit one's own line of activity in some manner to the actions of others."
The Human Being as an Acting Organism
"The human being is seen as an organism... that makes indications to others and interprets their indications" (250). "He can do this... only by virtue of possessing a self" — a type of object that one is to oneself and others The human being is an "organism that engages in social interaction with itself by making indications to itself and responding to such indications" (251). These indications are used to direct action "By engaging in self-interaction... [it] stands in a markedly different relation to [its] environment."
Nature of Human Action
"The human individual confronts a world that he must interpret in order to act..." (251). "He has to... ascertain the meaning of the actions of others and map out his own line of action in light of such interpretation."
"Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital" (Coleman)
"There is one effect of social capital that is especially important: its effect on the creation of human capital in the next generation" "Both social capital in the family and... community play roles in the creation of human capital... Social capital "adheres in the structure of relations between actors and among actors." The relationships available to actors for achieving goals The variation in the quantity and quality of social capital aids "in accounting for different outcomes at the level of individual actors..." Social capital is "an important resource that enables individuals to realize their interests" (222). E.g., Social relations provide information to facilitate action "Like other forms of capital, [it] is productive, making possible the achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be possible"
Parson's view on action (action theory)
"as involving both... individual choice and social constraint" must not be viewed in isolation must be understood as a 'process in time,' or as a system are not empirically discrete but occur in constellations we call systems assumes an actor who exerts effort in a situation in which some aspects are unalterable (conditions of action), while other aspects can be used as means to achieve goals, both the selection of means and goals are guided by norms
What is the functional necessity of stratification? (Davis and Moore)
"universal necessity which calls forth stratification in any social system" a functional response to... "The requirement faced by any society of placing and motivating individuals in the social structure" (242). 'Placement' refers to the need of filling occupational positions and 'motivation' refers to the need of instilling the desire to perform the assigned duties
B.F. Skinner: 'Operant conditioning'
'Operant conditioning' is a process of learning by which the repetition or avoidance of any behavior is due to its associated rewards and punishments Experiments with pigeons "Skinner trained his laboratory pigeons to play table tennis by reinforcing (rewarding) specific behaviors with food" (181). "The less frequently a behavior is reinforced the less frequently it will be exhibited" (181) Pigeons = humans Individuals are more likely to repeat a behavior if it is rewarded and less likely to repeat a behavior if it is punished Costs: "Costs have the effect of reducing the frequency of an otherwise rewarding behavior" (182).
Mead ideas that influence Goffman
'We divide ourselves up in all sorts of different selves with reference to our acquaintances... Different selves appear in different social situations this process is made possible by the 'taking of attitude of the other' "...Our attempts to project an image of our self [are] guided by the imagined responses of others...". "It is this controlling of what we say and do...that speaks to taking the attitude of the other"
What is at stake with impression management (Goffman)
'face' — the positive social value a person effectively claims for oneself Self-worth is negotiated in social interaction Good performances produce feelings of dignity, whereas poor performances generate feelings of shame
The individual is faced with five 'logically possible' modes of adaptation — based on the acceptance or rejection of (Merton):
(1) Cultural Goals — Accept or Reject (2) Legitimate Means — Accept or Reject Conformity (goals + means +) Innovation (goals + means -) Ritualism (goals - means +) Retreatism (goals - means -) Rebellion (goals +/- means +/-)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator:
(i) Extroverted or Introverted (ii) Sensing or Intuiting, (iii) Thinking or Feeling (iv) Judging or Perceiving
Social capital varies among three types of schools (Coleman)
(i) Public high schools, (ii) religiously based private high schools and (iii) independent private high schools "It is the religiously based high schools that are surrounded by a community based on religious organization" (229). Religiously based PrHS have the lowest dropout rates Differences are not due to the religion of the students or to the degree of religious observance." The difference is in 'intergenerational closure' "Catholic students in public school are only slightly less likely to drop out than non-Catholics evidence of the importance of social capital outside the school, in the adult community surrounding it, for this outcome of education
Incentives for compliance (Coleman)
(i) Whereby targets are rewarded by the beneficiaries for compliance, or punished for noncompliance (ii) And/or self-sanction occurs due to internally generated rewards for compliance, or punishments for noncompliance
Action frame of reference: 'Unit Act' (actions are...) (Parsons)
1. Oriented: Ends or goals 2. Situational: Physical and social objects 3. Normative: Regulated by norms and values 4. Effortful: Expenditure of energy
Tenets of the culture industry
1. The content of the culture industry is not art — it is composed of 'products' and 'commodities The "culture industry remains the entertainment business... its influence over the consumers is established by entertainment. 'Business is their ideology' 2. Cultural products are homogenous, uniform, identical and formulaic "Under monopoly all mass culture is identical." Hit song structures, movie storylines and tv shows are invariable in form — full of 'ready-made cliches The culture industry is a 'highly regimented organizational system' — designed to identify and promote profit-producing creative talent 3. Culture industry has 'inhibiting' effects "The stunting of the mass-media consumer's powers of imagination and spontaneity [is due] to the objective nature of the products themselves." Control of individual consciousness' Individuals are 'taught what to expect,' 'react passively and automatically,' and become 'forcibly retarded' Loss of freedom of choice: 'Pseudo-individualization' as spurious-free choice the culture industry creates a society of imitators, engenders conformity and obstructs the development of true individuality 'Culture industry' is an instrument of domination Those who occupy institutional positions of power — members of the ruling class — use mass media and popular culture to manipulate the public The The American public is pacified and neutralized by commercial influence
'Communicative rationality' (Habermas)
A form of rationality oriented to achieving and sustaining consensus and mutual agreement It involves the critical assessment of 'validity claims' advanced by various members and groups within society (i.e., criteria for determining truth) A commitment to 'communicative rationality' will lead to 'communicative action'
"The Moral Career of the Mental Patient," by Erving Goffman
A study of the 'self' in a mental ward (i.e., 'total institution') Objective: "To try to learn about the social world of the hospital inmate, as this world is subjectively experienced by him The moral career of a given social category involves a standard sequence of changes in his way of conceiving of selves, including, importantly, his own." "The career of the mental patient falls popularly and naturalistically into three main phases... Prepatient, inpatient and expatient phases patients are subjected to a series of discrediting and humiliating interactions "Mental-hospital staff fail, in general, to [maintain] the moral neutrality claimed for psychiatric diagnosis the self resides in a social system (not within you)
What is structural-functionalism?
A theoretical paradigm that views human society as a 'social system' composed of interrelated and interdependent parts — *each performing a function* Social institutions function to fulfill societal needs
Communicative Action
Agreement and consensus can be reached among members of a society... In so far as there exist conditions that enable and promote open, noncoerced debate through the exchange of ideas and interests the existence of a 'public sphere where, ideally, private individuals can publicly congregate and freely debate political, ethical, and social issues in a noncoercive and 'undistorted' manner It is not an institution, nor an organization It is a "network for communicating information and points of view" The public sphere is an 'intermediary structure' between the 'lifeworld' and the 'system' — it is where social problems are articulated and where potential strategies for solution are debated the social space generated in communicative action embodies a critical stance that allows for the negotiation of shared meanings, the coordination of action, and the socialization of individuals
Power in social exchange (Blau)
Blau studied 'power' in social exchange "Blau stressed the significance of rewards in inducing others to accede to one's wishes" (197) "An individual is able to exercise power over others when he alone is able to supply needed rewards to them" (197). The basis of power in exchange is one of 'exclusivity' — to be a sole supplier of a valued reward A state of dependence compels submission to demands "Power results from an unequal exchange stemming from an individual's or group's monopoly over a desired resource" (198) And if power is maximized by monopolizing control over a desired resource, reward or benefit... It is diminished by the availability of alternative sources that offer similar rewards Having multiple exchange partners to source rewards lessens dependence and improves negotiating power
'Systems within systems' (SF)
E.g., Each family is its own self-contained system, but it is also a component of the larger society "How the various systems and subsystems... work together tends to be the ultimate concern for SF
Differences between Homans and Blau
Homans studied social exchange in an effort to uncover basic 'behavioralist propositions'... Blau sought to achieve a "better understanding of... complex institutions and organizations" (196). Homans identified a set of 'psychological laws' argued to govern human behavior These were formulated as a number of exchange, or behaviorist propositions: (i) Stimulus (ii) Success (iii) Value (iv) Deprivationsatiation and (v) Frustration-aggression propositions Blau's "objective was to explain the dynamics of exchange relations..." based on self-interest (199) "The theoretical problem is to derive the social processes that govern the complex structures of communities and societies from... simpler processes." Further, this interest in complex structures led Blau to analyze the mediating role of 'culture' in exchange Shared norms, values and beliefs define expectations and govern responses — value consensus makes possible "complex networks of independent exchange."
"Social Behavior as Exchange" (1958), by George Homans
Homans' theories were informed by ideas — or principles — developed in 'behavioral psychology' and 'neoclassical economics' Synthesized these to uncover general propositions The main principle incorporated from behavioral psychology is that... Humans are 'reward-seeking' and 'cost-avoiding.
Inpatient phase
Hospitalization is a form of institutionalization Subjects of 'total institutions' are isolated from wider society — patients are stripped of their civilian identities and access to the outside world is intentionally restricted Behavior is heavily controlled and regulated a systematic 'stripping' of identity equipment — a removal of resources that had previously enabled the defense of self The patient is stripped of... *Free movement *Privacy *Personal possessions *Social support one begins to learn about the limited extent to which a [dignified] conception of oneself can be sustained when the usual setting of supports for it are suddenly removed Hospital staff use the case record to point out to the patient "that he is not what he is claiming to be, and that in fact he is a failure as a person show the ways in which the patient is 'sick' and the reasons why it was right to commit him and is right currently to keep him committed
stimulus proposition (Homans)
If a present situation resembles a past situation in which an individual's action was rewarded, the more likely the person is to repeat the action
Frustration-Aggression Proposition (Homans)
If an individual does not receive an expected reward or receives an unexpected punishment, the individual will become frustrated and angry
'Cultural hegemony' (FST)
In modern times, "societies may be even more seamlessly controlled through the dissemination of mass media... by engineering popular consensus through the power of persuasion" (Grazian 2017:50). Mass media may serve to disseminate propaganda
'Theories of the middle range' (Merton)
It's a particular approach to theory construction, aimed at developing empirically testable hypotheses "Bounded by subject matter, constituted from propositions containing observables, high on the falsifiability scale, but allowing for generalization." E.g., Merton studied reference groups, role conflict, social mobility and deviant behavior
How does this analytical scheme (Unit Act) assist in the practice of sociological theorizing? (Parsons)
It's an "indispensable logical framework in which we describe and think about the phenomena of action." Analytical scheme enables the sociologist to know — in advance — the universal elements of action
Exchange and Power in Social Life (1986), by Peter Blau
Like Homans, "Blau argued that... interaction is shaped by a reciprocal exchange of rewards, both tangible and intangible" (196). 'Intrinsic rewards' (satisfying in and of themselves) and 'extrinsic rewards' (detachable from association) "The central task of sociology is to uncover the basic forms of interaction through which individuals pursue their interests or satisfy their desires" (197). "...Much of human happiness has its source in the actions of other human beings" (203). We form exchange relations in the pursuit of rewards
"The New Forms of Control," from One-Dimensional Man (1964), by Herbert Marcuse
Marcuse's analysis is informed by an idea — a theory — discussed by Horkheimer and Adorno: "The power of the culture industry resides in its identification with a manufactured need... A totalitarian society is one that (i) creates false needs and (ii) inundates its people with the products and services that promise satisfaction Totalitarian societies are not to be defined solely in terms of their 'political organization' ... Economic and cultural systems can be dictatorial The power of the culture industry is one of 'implanting needs' — the fulfillment of which furthers the 'prevailing societal institutions and interests False needs: "Perpetuate toil, aggressiveness, misery and injustice" — yet their satisfaction might be most gratifying to the individual True needs: "The only needs that have an unqualified claim for satisfaction are the vital ones — nourishment, clothing, lodging at the attainable level of culture" All liberation depends on consciousness of servitude However, "individuals identify themselves with the existence which is imposed on them...". "The people recognize themselves in their commodities
Frankfurt School Theorists critique on Marx's belief in reason
Marx was a captive of the Enlightenment faith that science can reveal truths that are liberating." FST abandoned the Enlightenment dream that reason could help to liberate humanity Reason and science had became tools of oppression The modern era is one of technological rationality It was not the exploitation inherent in capitalism that was responsible for the oppression of humanity... ...But rather the forms of thought, and in particular, the totalitarianism of reason and rationality" Distorted consciousness — 'irrationality of rationality' — stands in the way of realizing a perfected social order Formal rationality has forged it's own world-view 'Subjective' vs. 'objective reason' and 'technological' vs. 'individualistic rationality' (which are concerned with procedural efficiency) "Subjective reason is the guiding mentality of the bureaucrat... technological rationality is marked by the scientific approach to all human affairs" "Technology and science had reneged on their promise to usher in a just and reasonable world." Modern society continues to be "plagued by inequality, oppression, destruction and poverty." Further, "technological advances have produced evermore lethal and destructive weapons..." The root of the inhumanity of the modern condition was not a lack of economic or scientific development." "...Rather, it was the result of technological or instrumental rationality coming to form the basis of the dominant ideology" (87). Ideology becomes 'commonsense,' 'taken-for-granted' New forms of 'technocratic' domination Frankfurt School theorists developed a "critical social philosophy that attacked scientific enterprise...
Incidents of 'symptomatic' significance (Goffman)
No segment of his past or present need be defined, then, as beyond jurisdiction and mandate of psychiatric assessment Misadventures, misbehaviors and mistakes — all incidents that serve to incriminate Based on this information... Staff develop a 'collective agreement' regarding how the patient should be handled and treated The patient is confronted with a 'kind of collusion against him' — leading to a change in the patient's self-understanding "The patient must 'insightfully' come to take, or affect to take, the hospital's view of himself." Must adopt the attitude of the hospital staff Moral career of the mental patient involves a 'new way of conceiving of self' — "taking the form of a strong belief in the psychiatric perspective."
Complementarity of expectations relating to social stability (Parsons)
Order and stability are indicative of complementary systems — continuity exists as a result of shared expectations regarding roles and goals Consensus is achieved through the processes of socialization, internalization and institutionalization When socialization is successful, internalization occurs: "Cultural meanings become part of the self" — beliefs, values and norms are adopted as one's own "Institutionalization is a parallel process of culture becoming part of the institutional order..." Ideally, these processes serve social integration Continual process of managing discrepancies and conflicts
The main principle incorporated from neoclassical economics is that... (Homans)
People exchange valued goods "Economists study exchange carried out under special circumstances and with a most useful built-in measure of value. However, 'exchange' is not strictly economic... "Homans saw exchange processes not as the exclusive domain of the economic marketplace, but as an integral part of all social life." Exchange occurs in non-economic settings, involving material (tangible) and nonmaterial (intangible) goods "Social behavior is an exchange of goods, material goods but also non-material ones, such as the symbols of approval or prestige" (195) We are all 'buyers' and 'sellers' in social life... Entering into social relationships for the purpose of exchanging things of value
Jurgen Habermas
Second generation 'Frankfurt School': Assistant to Theodore Adorno at the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, Germany The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (1962), The Theory of Communicative Action, Volumes I & II (1981) While a 'critical theorist'... He became "particularly disillusioned by the earlier critical theorists rejection of the public sphere... as a possible arena for democratic, progressive change." enduring faith in the power of reason and critical reflection... argued that 'rational consensus' is an indispensable fact of social life Therefore, what is fundamental to social organization is language and communication The public sphere, communicative rationality, and communicative action are all indispensable for the creation and maintenance of a democratic society
Why do we attempt to 'control the conduct of others' through impression management?
Self-interest (offensive motivation) We are cunning, calculating actors striving to portray ourselves in the most favorable light possible in order to maximize rewards There is a 'profitability' to strong performances Self-protection (defensive motivation) "The self is a sacred object... it must be treated with proper ritual care and in turn must be presented in a proper light to others"
Blau and The role of culture in exchange
Social exchanges take place within a normative order — therefore, norms factor into the decision-making process of 'seeking rewards' Sanctions (i.e., costs) function to enforce conformity At times, the costs of nonconformity may be judged to outweigh the rewards of nonconformity Normative understandings also concern notions of justice, fairness and legitimacy Conceptions of 'fairness' intervene when calculating rewards and costs The cost of inequality must be judged to be 'fair' relative to the rewards derived
Organic analogy (SF)
Social institutions are to a society what organs are to a physical body — each serves a vital purpose Healthy social institutions make for healthy societies — free of instability and disorder (social instability is a 'symptom' of dysfunction or 'sickness')
Dramaturgical sociology
Social life is a theatrical production — it involves frontstages, back-stages, scenes, performances, props, and most importantly, audiences Knowing which 'self' a person is obliged to perform requires a 'definition of the situation' (e.g., scene)
Merton's theory of deviance
Strain theory Sociologists define 'deviant behavior' as any behavior departing from the range of conduct regarded as normal — i.e., nonconforming behavior What causes individuals to engage in deviant or nonconforming behavior?: deviance results when there is a disconnect between the cultural and social realms". The feeling of 'frustration' — due to structural pressure — that motivates deviant or nonconformist conduct. considered a normal response to structural strain This faulty relationship has negative consequences: While every society offers its members (1) cultural goals and (2) legitimate institutional means... The structure of society is such that not everyone has the same opportunities to be successful Lack of accessible, legitimate institutional means for achieving 'cultural goals' may produce strain
How do structural functionalists account for the existence of conflict and disorder?
Symptomatic of dysfunctions within a system or between systems Disorder is typically 'institutional' in nature — basic social institutions are failing to function properly
James Coleman
The Foundation of Social Theory (1990) "laid the intellectual groundwork for rational-choice theory." "It is Coleman's leading role in the development of rational choice theory... that established him as a key contemporary theorist" (213). "Rational choice theories share with exchange theories a view of the actor... ...As a rational, purposive agent motivated by maximizing rewards or realizing his interests" (213). Thus, RCT also makes interest-oriented actions of individuals a central explanatory principle RCTs situate the "strategic decisions of individuals... within the context of group dynamics." Group properties — e.g., norms — "orient and constrain individuals' decisions and behavior" (214). Social constraint does not rule out behavioral choices, as preferences will be pursued within parameters They "explore how interaction between rationally motivated individuals can produce..." Trust, norms, networks, social capital, corporations, etc. In fact, "Coleman introduced a number of concepts to explain... the formation of groups... and group or corporate decision making" (214)
Deprivation-Satiation Proposition (Homans)
The more an individual receives a reward, the less valuable this reward becomes, and the less likely the individual will perform the behavior so rewarded
The Success Proposition (Homans)
The more often an action is followed by a reward, the more likely an individual will repeat the behavior
Value Proposition (Homans)
The more valuable a particular reward is to a person, the more often the individual will perform a behavior so rewarded
Back-stage (Goffman)
The part of the social world where people feel free to express themselves in ways that are suppressed in the front stage" "Here the performer can relax; he can drop his front, forgo speaking his lines, and step out of character *Behavior is influenced by the type of audience*
Front-stage (Goffman)
The part of the social world where social performances are idealized and conform to the 'stereotyped expectations' of audiences
'One-dimensional man' (Marcuse)
The person characterized by the absence of 'critical thinking' — negative thinking — and the will to resist the powers of introjection and conformity Nonconformity now appears to be socially useless and the refusal 'to go along' appears neurotic Today this private space [an inner freedom apart from public opinion] has been invaded and whittled down by technological reality." "The loss of this dimension, in which the power of negative thinking — the critical power of Reason — is at home, is the ideological counterpart to... the process in which advanced industrial society silences and reconciles the opposition"
Goffman argues
The process by which a self is achieved involves an actor choosing to perform an identified self while other persons either ratify the performance or not 'Selves' and 'identities' must be endorsed by others The 'self' is a performed character — it is the dramatic product of our interactions with various audiences "The characteristic issue, the crucial concern, is whether it will be credited or discredited" Self-identity is realized in performance — others must ratify performances to validate identity-claims
'Colonization of the lifeworld' (Habermas)
The process by which system steering media curtail the potential for free and open communication System steering media and instrumental logic replace the consensual negotiation of shared meanings and consensus — i.e., 'totally administered' society In such a society, "social relationships are increasingly mediated by power and money... And the interpersonal debates and discussions within the lifeworld come to have less and less impact on the constitution of the system" (132). 'Impersonal' systems of domination Solution: through the construction of an 'ideal speech community' (i) All persons capable of speech can participate (ii) All persons have equal rights to give reasons for a position (iii) No person can be denied the right to participate
'Impression management' (Goffman)
The strategic actions 'performed' by a person to convey an acceptable and favorable image of oneself to others Individuals are 'actors' — playing 'parts' in the various 'scenes' of everyday life for attentive 'audiences
Habermas as a 'critical theorist
There exist forces that threaten the public sphere and thus the possibility for communicative action "The 'system' comprises a society's political and economic structures that are responsible for the organization of power relations..." "The democratic potential inherent in the public sphere is subject to distortion from at least two sources." "Money and organizational power are capable of manipulating the process of public opinion..." (140). Mass media is capable of manipulating public opinion
'Steering media': Power and money (Habermas)
These have a distorting influence on the democratic potential of the public sphere Money and power manipulate the process of public opinion formation; e.g., interest groups, think tanks, and lobbyists Mass media: Gatekeepers of information A 'profit-driven' agenda can manipulate public opinion by determining what is newsworthy based on marketability (e.g., infotainment, spin, etc.) Media conglomerates set "the topics and viewpoints that are disseminated to a mass audience" Mass media is used to promote 'secret policies' The public sphere is unscrupulously transformed into "a market for the sale of prepackaged opinions.
Dialectic of Enlightenment, by Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno (1944)
This treatise offers a scathing critique of the nature and effects of the 'culture industry' " Television, film, radio, music, magazines, newspapers, books and the advertisements that sell them" The promise of the Age of Reason was to cultivate a society of 'free thinkers Yet modernity is distinguished by the absence of 'free thought' and 'free thinkers' The culture industry poses an ideologically oppositional force — a dialectic — to true individuality Geared toward entertaining and pacifying the masses," it fosters conformity and 'mass deception 1. The content of the culture industry is not art — it is composed of 'products' and 'commodities The "culture industry remains the entertainment business... its influence over the consumers is established by entertainment. 'Business is their ideology' 2. Cultural products are homogenous, uniform, identical and formulaic "Under monopoly all mass culture is identical." Hit song structures, movie storylines and tv shows are invariable in form — full of 'ready-made cliches The culture industry is a 'highly regimented organizational system' — designed to identify and promote profit-producing creative talent
Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) and Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979)
Three leading exponents of critical theory — now considered members of the 'first generation' of 'Frankfurt School' theorists Institute for Social Research, Frankfurt, Germany a history of dramatic, often shocking, changes separates Marx and the Frankfurt School." Frankfurt School theorists inhabited a different world Nazi and Soviet nightmare of social barbarism and mass terror the critical theorists developed a framework that at once extends and departs from central Marxist ideas FST inherited Marx's basic conception of society: Human society is composed of individuals and groups competing over scarce and valued resources Social institutions, cultural systems and social groups — i.e., society — are to be analyzed in terms of power, domination and social control abandoned analyses of economic conditions Ideological control and the irrationality of reason Superstructure reflects the ruling class's interests Marx's critique of 'ideological power' was of most significance in shaping their theoretical framework
What was Parsons' objective as a social theorist?
To develop a metatheoretical framework for "analyzing the basis of all social action and social organization" To produce an all-encompassing classification system that captures the totality of social reality
George Homans (1910-1989) and Peter Blau (1918- 2002)
Two traditions of exchange theory: 'Individualistic' and 'collectivistic' "Social behavior is guided by rational calculation of an exchange of rewards and costs" (180). Social exchange theory views human behavior and the relationships existing between people... As the outcome of rational actors making choices to maximize rewards (and minimize costs) Major strength of social exchange theory is in making interest-oriented action an explanatory principle. Homans' "interest lies in explaining why people behave as they do in realizing their values and not why they value the things that they do" (186). "Our problem is not why they hold certain values... ...But given that they do hold them, what do they do about them" (186).
Conflict occurs due to (Parsons)
a divergence in expectations — or shared understandings — amongst actors
Homans view on social interaction
as exchange for the purpose of maximizing rewards: "Individuals design their conduct such that the value of the rewards gained in an exchange are greater than the costs incurred in forgoing the rewards associated with an alternative line of behavior" (182) "People tend to choose actions that produce good profits and avoid actions that produce poor profits or generate costs" (523). Behavioral rationale: Reward-seeking, cost-avoiding "In this framework, all interaction occurs through a relation — a connection between two people... With people contributing benefits and potentially deriving them from the interaction" (D&C 2019:522). " Because people are self-interested... the relative payoffs of relations shape interaction." Result: Pairing of individuals of 'roughly equal value' "Since people seek the best possible value in a potential mate, but are constrained by their own assets..." "This process is assumed to result in the pairing of individuals of roughly equal value". Learning through rewards and punishments
Repetitive Joint action (Blumer)
exists by using the same recurrent and constant meanings "Play and fate of meanings are what is important." "Play and fate of meanings are what is important." "The meanings that underlie established... joint action are themselves subject to pressure as well as to reinforcement... challenged as well as affirmed..." any instance of joint action, whether newly formed or long-established... Has necessarily arisen out of a background of previous actions of the participants" (254). "New... joint action always emerges out of and is connected with a context of previous joint action
Corporate actors (Coleman)
groups or social organizations — also engage in decision making
Symbolic Interactionism first premise (Blumer)
human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them Meaning is central to the formation of behavior "Human beings interpret or 'define each other's actions instead of merely reacting...". "Their 'response' is... based on the meaning which they attach to such actions." "Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation... by meaning
Symbolic Interactionism third premise (Blumer)
individuals do not merely apply 'already established meanings' "Meanings play their part in action through a process of self-interaction 'We interpret the world to ourselves' and devise appropriate lines of responsive conduct
Greatest concern for critical theorists (FST)
loss of individual freedom Horkheimer: 'Imitation,' 'strict conformity,' 'complete assimilation' and the 'decline of the individual' People's "minds are closed to dreams of a basically different world... dwindling away of individual thinking.
Talcott Parsons
most influential American sociologist from the 1930s-1950s credited with with influencing three generations of sociologists — including Robert Merton inspired oppositional theoretical paradigms: Symbolic Interactionism and Ethnomethodology
Erving Goffman (1922-1982)
produced a number of works that have made their way into the canon of contemporary sociology" (255). An intellectual maverick who forged his own approach he is often considered a symbolic interactionist, but he says 'empiricist' and 'social psychologist'' His work drew on the ideas of Emile Durkheim, George Herbert Mead, W. Lloyd Warner and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown fascination with the interplay between 'social interaction' and 'selfhood' is decidedly Meadian
Symbolic interactionism basic ideas, or 'root images'...
refer to the following matters: "Human groups or societies, social interaction, objects, the human being as an actor, human action, and the interconnection of lines of action Nature of Human Society or Human Group Life Nature of Social Interaction Nature of Objects The Human Being as an Acting Organism Nature of Human Action Interlinkage of Action
'Manifest functions' and 'Latent functions' (Merton)
refer to those positive effects that are brought about consciously and purposefully refer to those positive consequences that are unintended, often implicit and hidden (e.g., Hopi rain dance reaffirms group identity)
Social system (Parsons)
refers to "a complex arrangement of interconnected social roles... or social obligations
'Lifeworld' (Habermas)
refers to a realm of existence informed by shared meanings, values, and beliefs individuals draw from custom and cultural traditions to construct identities, negotiate... definitions... and create social solidarity" ...Action is oriented to mutual understanding
Trust (Coleman)
refers to the belief in the reliability of someone "Actors place trust in both the judgement and performances of others, based on rational considerations of what is best, given the alternatives." Trustors' and 'trustees' make decisions based on the assessment of the benefits and costs of 'trustworthiness "It is advantageous to the trustor to place trust in a person when [there is] possible gain for doing so..." Once trust is placed, "the [trustee]... accrues additional resources paid by the trustor..." (214) "Thus, it is to the advantage of the trustee to be trustworthy in order to reap possible future benefits." "...The decision to place trust in another involves the same rational calculations that are involved in deciding whether or not to place a bet..." (214) Both entail knowing how much can be lost... how much can be gained... and the chances of winning." "Like trust, Coleman sees norms emerging on the basis of actors' rational considerations." "Decisions to adhere to and enforce norms... are conditioned by the relative costs and benefits derived from doing so" (215).
Personality system (Parsons)
refers to the emotional drives, wants and needs of the individual
Cultural system (Parsons)
refers to the values, norms and beliefs "which guide the choices made by actors
'System'
refers to those institutions — political and economic — that exist to organize complex activities for the allocation of resources At the systems level, the emphasis is on instrumental control and efficiency" (i.e, bureaucratic admin) Lifeworld-system dynamic is the crucial dynamic
The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959) Goffman
reveals the essential elements of the 'interaction order': Situational definitions, expressions, performances, tactics, etc. Obligatory: "All participants are obliged to abide by the moral rules" of the interaction order There is a 'structure' to social encounters The interaction order prevails despite variations in participants' personality characteristics
total institutions (Goffman)
subjects — or patients — are intentionally isolated from wider society Institutionalization entails restricted access to the outside world, severe regulation of behavior and a 'stripping' of civilian identity This is done to transform the inmate's subjectivity Ex: mental hospitals, military barracks, prisons, etc
Symbolic Interactionism second premise (Blumer)
the meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one's fellows Two traditional accounts of meaning: (i) Meaning is intrinsic and (ii) meaning is an expression of 'psychological elements' It arises in the "process of interaction between people Meanings are seen as "social products, as creations that are formed in and through the defining activities of people as they interact.
Mead's ideas that contributed to Blumer symbolic interactionism
the nature of the self, the importance of the symbol, and the cause of human action are foundational The self is both subject and object, active and passive — an I and a Me ... the self... actively creates the conditions to which it responds "Internalized conversation... constitutes thinking. To think — to converse — one must acquire a system of significant symbols (i.e., language) Words are symbols whose primary purpose is to define, establish and communicate 'meaning' Human beings live in a symbolically constituted reality — objects are known by their meanings action is informed by meanings Behavior is responsive (not reactive) — it is guided by definitions and interpretations of reality "The person who responds [to gestures; e.g., the shaking of a fist] organizes his response on the basis of what the gestures mean to him"
Five basic 'pattern variables' (Parsons)
the pattern variables are the categories for the description of [societal] value orientations... in various forms integral to all three systems [social, personality and cultural]" value orientations... may be interpreted as imposing a preference... to one alternative over the other preferred predispositions and expectations affectivity / affective-neutrality: emotional impulses are gratified / emotional impulses are inhibited self- orientation / collectivity-orientation: action is based on the actor's own interests, needs, and goals / action is based on what is best for the collectivity universalism / particularism: action is based on general standards or universal laws and moral rules / action is based on the priority and attachment that actors place on relationships and situations acription / achievement: action based on given attributes / action based on performance specificity / diffuseness: action based on specific criteria or roles / open guidelines for action Ex: Q: Who should be lawfully allowed to consume alcohol? Ascription vs. achievement: Legal consumption of alcohol is determined by an 'ascribed' status It is based on age — 21 years of age — not on the basis of achievement (i.e., performance)
'Copresence' (Goffman)
the presence of two or more people — initiates the interaction order (i.e., protocol): When an individual enters the presence of others... She or he strives to influence the perceptions of others by engaging in the 'arts of impression management
'Conjoint norms' and 'disjoint norms' (Coleman)
the same individuals are both the beneficiaries and the targets of the norm (e.g., using soft or quiet voices when in Powell Library) some of the individuals are beneficiaries while others are the targets Prescriptive norms "encourage proper behavior and the positive consequences they produce"; proscriptive norms "discourage improper behavior and the negative consequences that follow it"
AGIL Scheme (Parsons)
there are four 'functional imperatives' or requirements encountered by all action systems There are four basic problems that a society, group, or individual must confront in order to survive Each subsystem must handle these same four survival problems Adaptation = Societies must secure material resources for their members (Economic system) Goal Attainment = Societies must create goals and opportunities for their members (Political system) Integration = Societies must engender social solidarity and belonging among their members (Social system) Latent Pattern Maintenance = Societies must motivate their members through common values (Cultural system) Ex: Family
Behaviors are structured by three systems (Parsons)
they undergird all action and social life (i) Social System: Role-obligations (ii) Personality System: Need-dispositions (iii) Cultural System: Value-orientations These systems are analytically rather than empirically distinct — they are not physically separate entities They constitute a 'simplified model of society' which can be used to explain the organization of action Provides a framework for conducting social analysis "Lays out the basic concepts that would unify and guide sociologists in analyzing social systems A systems approach... would... propose a multidimensional explanation analyzing the interrelations between the personality, social and cultural systems The study of the social system Ex: a baseball team
The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (1962) Habermas
traced the historical development of this social space Beginning in the 18th century, a variety of public forums for public debate proliferated in Western Europe: Clubs, lodges, cafes, coffee houses, literary saloons, etc. These establishments constituted a new social space and context for public debate and critical discourse Press: Journals, newspapers, political treatises This public sphere — which accompanied the rise of capitalism — assisted in the transformation of the feudal order A culture of 'rational agreements' emerged Free citizens, property holders, traders, merchants and members of new sectors could participate in public debates Role of reason: The flourishing of rational discourse assisted in developing a free and just society
Goffman core beliefs
was less attuned to the cognitions than to the interactions that constitute 'selves' exploring how social arrangements... the 'interaction order'... shapes the organization of the self" The essence of the self is found... in interaction Each individual is responsible for the demeanor image of himself and the deference image of others, so that for a complete man to be expressed, individuals must hold hands in a chain of ceremony looks to the 'scene' within which individuals orient their actions to one another both the dynamics of social encounters and the image of one's self are dependent on the willingness of others to 'go along' with the definition of the situation
Herbert Blumer (1900-1987)
— a student of George Herbert Mead's — synthesized the ideas of several scholars to form the paradigm of 'symbolic interactionism' Symbolic Interactionism (1969) was written to establish a 'reasoned statement' of this theoretical approach set out the central theoretical and methodological principles that continue to shape much of the work in this field
