Sport and Entertainment management final chapters 9-21
Title IX Test of Compliance: 3 Prongs
1. Are participant numbers proportional to enrollment? -If yes, you are in compliance. -If no, go to the next prong. 2. Does the school show a history of progress? -If yes, you are in compliance. -If no, go to the next prong. 3. Does the school accommodate students' interest in sport? -If there are athletes who wish for a sport, the school may not be in compliance.
10 Most Popular Sports in the World (Playing and Watching Combined)
1. Soccer 2. Cricket 3. Field hockey 4. Tennis 5. Volleyball 6. Table tennis 7. Baseball 8. Golf 9. Basketball 10. American football
Results of Recent Drug Testing
2012 Summer Olympics: 5,000 tests, 9 positives 2014 Winter Olympics: 2,453 tests, 8 positives $10 million IOC research fund to develop new technology for drug monitoring MLB penalties for drug use—toughest in major U.S. leagues
Alcohol Abuse Among Native Americans
4 of top 10 causes of death are alcohol-related: accidents, suicides, cirrhosis of the liver, and homicides. Alcohol mortality is nearly 5 times higher than for all other races. 43% are "at risk" of serious harm from drugs or alcohol by 7th grade. A vicious cycle socially.
Issues for Special Populations
Acceptance Funding and organizational support Community program opportunities Trainers, coaches, administrators, officials Equipment Inclusion with other populations Media support
Lesbian Athletes
Acceptance of lesbian athletes has grown in the past 20 years. Still, athletes and coaches assumed to be lesbian face misunderstanding and discrimination.
Reasons For steroid Use
Accepted Medical Uses To Enhance Athletic Performance To Improve Appearance
Native American Athletes
Account for 0.9% of U.S. population. Poverty rate is 50% on reservations. Stereotypical, dehumanizing images are used for names, mascots, and logos (now limited by the NCAA). Native American Sports Council is part of the Olympic movement; North American Indigenous Games are now a big event.
Sport and Older Adults
Adults over age 55 control 70% of the net worth of U.S. households. They have twice the discretionary money of younger people. Adults over age 55 make up 29% of core fitness participants.
High School and Collegiate Sport
As competition increases, rules may become looser, and coaches and players may try to win at all cost. However, NCAA punishments for coaches for violations have increased.
Sports Traits
Assertiveness Competitiveness Physical Endurance Ruggedness Dominance
Sport Participation by Older Adults
Associations -AARP -International Council on Active Aging (ICAA) Performance sport -Masters, senior tours -In 2015, more than 10,000 athletes at the National Summer Senior Games in Bloomington-Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota
International Travel in Sport
Athletes and coaches often travel, work, and play internationally. Coaches are often hired to develop a sport outside their own country. Agents often travel to watch athlete clients. Constant touring can lead to strain and burnout.
High School Sport and Moral Development
Athletes have lower moral development than nonathletes. Female athletes score higher than male athletes, but their scores decline every three years. Intervention programs can positively affect moral reasoning.
Factors in Declining Participation
Basketball & Football are thought to present more glamorous opportunities. Lack of facilities and poor facilities. Real or perceived racism. Increasing cost of equipment & joining a league. % of white players have declined more than blacks. Latin Americans are taking these spots. "LeBron James Factor" FB and Basketball players go straight to the top pro league. Baseball players go to the minors.
Sport Participation Trends Among Older Adults
Big increase in the over-50 age group "Old age": new definition and expectations Increase in lifetime activities (e.g., walking, swimming, tennis, golf, yoga, dance) Inexpensive community programs More opportunities with set minimum age
Reasons for racial differences in sport
Biological reasons: -Not supported (e.g., Kenyans versus Ethiopians) Cultural and social reasons: -Emphasis on activities varies by culture -Sport as means of social mobility -Many athletic role models Opportunity structures: -Facilities, resources (money, programs)
Hazing Versus Bullying
Both involve an imbalance of power and status. Bullying is always marked by aggressive behavior intended to harm. Hazing may involve some of the same qualities but is less frequent.
USC History
Casey Manning Harold White Curtis Frye Carlton Heyward
Cause and effect
Cause and effect cannot be determined, because athletes may already have key positive or negative traits before participating in sport.
Sport and Change
Champion athletes have a platform—if they choose to use it. Notable examples include Muhammad Ali and Billie Jean King. Not all athletes who use the platform are successful or liked (e.g., Curt Flood).
Reducing Violence
Changes in the NHL treatment of fighting NFL studies of brain trauma Mentors in Violence Prevention program Suspensions for players accused of violent behavior?
Concussions and Sports
Children and teens are more likely than adults to be concussed and recover more slowly. Concussions doubled in the last 10 years. Two of five concussed high school athletes return to play before they have recovered. Strict concussion guidelines are needed.
Benefits and Challenges of Sport at Different Ages
Children: fast development of skills, social interaction, rule following, self-concept Youth: transitions, critical time for dropouts Adults: close relationships, self-challenge, less priority on physical activity Older adults: social and health reasons for participation
Christian Influences on Sport
Churches use sport to attract people. Catholics started the CYO; Protestants started the YMCA. Some athletes use religion to conquer fear and find deeper meaning in sport. Link between religion and sport can reinforce a desired code of conduct. Sport instills Protestant values (e.g., hard work, self-discipline, striving for success).
Government Use of Sport to Promote Unity and Identity
Cities try to attract pro sport in order to increase their attractiveness. Sport can unify strangers and provide topics of conversation. Sport can promote collective identity through apparel. Cities and countries hold special sporting events.
Influence of Youth Sport
Coach's role—to teach young athletes the rules Citizenship Through Sports Alliance
Ways to Promote Diversity in Sport
Collect and report data. Require leaders to report racism. Spur major sport organizations to include minorities at all levels. Spur media to recruit minority journalists. Get government support for programs. Adopt nondiscrimination policies.
Groups of Users
College Athletes Olympic Athletes Weightlifters Professional Athletes Adolescent Age School Children Others
Gambling on Sport: College Students
College athletes have a higher rate of problem gambling than nonathletes. In 2008, 30% of male athletes and 7% of female athletes admitted betting on sport events. Students with a gambling problem tend to have other issues (e.g., binge eating, heavy drinking, tobacco or marijuana use) Male students are more likely to gamble than female students. Nonathletes are more likely to bet at casinos. Typical gambling debts range from $100 to $5,000 or even more.
Women and Sport After Title IX
Collegiate females have fewer sport participation opportunities than males do. Females receive $183 million less than males in NCAA athletic scholarships. Females have less opportunity for careers as athletes, coaches, and administrators.
Effects of the Olympic Games
Cost and lasting effects on host city (e.g., $43 billion for 2008 Beijing Games) Financial and commercial influence on media (e.g., $2 billion spent by NBC to broadcast in 2010 and 2012, a 46% increase) Rise of elite athletes and focus on winning Shift from amateur to professional athletes
Access and Barriers to Sport (Olympic and elite level)
Cost of high-performance training Requires economic, social, and cultural capital. Top coaching and training can cost up to US$100,000 per year in some individual sports (e.g., equestrian). Costs include coaching, facilities, travel, and equipment.
Legacy of Lacrosse
Created by Native Americans. With skill, speed, agility, it's a fast-paced sport. Has grown 10% annually over past 15 years. 39 states have U.S. Lacrosse chapters, more than half a million members playing. 39.5% growth in college participation and 200% growth in high school participation.
Proposals for Change
Decrease commercialism. Eliminate nationalism. Ensure drug-free competition. Decrease size and cost of hosting the event. Increase security. Others?
Define Aggression
Definition: behavior directed toward another person and intended to dominate or master
On-Field Violence in Sport
Demands of collision and contact sports "Enforcer" roles Societal view of masculinity encouraging warrior mentality "Part of the game" Examples: Richie Incognito, Ndamukong Suh
Implications of the Americans with disabilities act for Sport
Dramatic change in sport opportunities More representation for programs for people with a disability by governing bodies than before the ADA Mainstreaming into regular sport programs More attention to variations in degree of disability
steroids scandals
East Germans Chinese Swimmers Cyclists Ben Johnson Major League Baseball Players Others
Kinds of Capital
Economic capital: financial resources (owned or controlled) that affect one's world view and opportunities Social capital: resources available based on memberships, relationships, and social and business networks Cultural capital: skills and abilities based on education and life experiences
Exploitation of Minority Athletes
Educational shortcomings may be ignored. Athletes may be promoted through grades regardless of performance. Athletes may be pressured into "easy" majors. Graduation rates are low. Pro teams and colleges want athletes in school for reasons unrelated to athletes' best interests. African American women are exploited due to both race and gender.
Sporting Behavior and Mental Toughness
Emotional control may lead to better sporting behavior. We must both learn the rules and understand the spirit of the rules.
Barriers to Good Sporting Behavior
Emphasis on winning - By coaches - By parents - In traditions and customs Lack of the necessary intellectual understanding for advanced moral reasoning
Technology
Equipment and facility improvements will result in better performances. Training methods will be improved. People will develop new drugs and performance enhancers. The process of recovering from injury will be improved.
Islam and Sport
Every action meant to glorify Allah Women banned or required to wear traditional dress but starting to have greater impact in international sport No sport prohibition for males (sport and games part of expected teachings) Muhammad Ali
Use of Sport to Promote Religion
Fellowship of Christian Athletes Athletes in Action Pro Athletes Outreach National Christian College Athletic Association
Minorities as Sport Leaders
Few collegiate coaches are minorities (per the annual race report card from the University of Central Florida). Minority owners are even fewer, though there are some (e.g., Jordan, Moreno).
United States Influence of World Sport
Football, baseball, basketball, volleyball, and lacrosse were uniquely from the United States. Interchange between athletes, coaches, and officials of these sports and of the traditional English sports promoted the globalization of both U.S. and English sports.
Growth of the Paralympics
For athletes with (for example) amputation, visual impairment, cerebral palsy, spinal cord injury, MS, dwarfism 1960 inaugural Games in Rome: 400 athletes from 23 countries Now second-largest sport event in the world 2012 London Games: 4,000-plus athletes
Special Olympics
For athletes with intellectual disability, cognitive delay, learning disability, or vocational problems 185 countries 1.7 million athletes Began with 1,000 athletes at the 1968 Chicago Games. Goals: Help participants improve fitness, develop skills, and enhance confidence and self-image. The Special Olympics World Games are held every four years.
Paralympics in the United States
Founding as division of USOC in 2001 Start-up funding of $23 million for 18 sports Mission - To be the world Paralympic leader by developing elite programs - To promote excellence in the lives of persons with a disability
Sporting Goods and Globalization
Free Trade Agreements (GATT & NAFTA) Corporations are taxed at much lower rate when they move products from country to country. It is cost-effective to sell large amounts of goods in wealthy countries and locate production facilities in labor-intensive poor nations.
History of Women and Sport
Historically, women were not allowed to be physically active outside of chores. Until the mid-1800s, women were often excluded from participation or ridiculed for it. Female participation increased slowly in physical activity and individual sports Women were prohibited from participating in the modern Olympics until 1920. Female sport greats include Glenna Collett-Vare, Helen Wills Moody, Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias, Jackie Joyner-Kersee, and Billie Jean King.
Four Perspectives on Politics and Sport
How government uses sport to improve citizens' quality of life How sport can reinforce the status quo How nations sponsor international teams to promote patriotic pride The politics of sport institutions
Reasons or Myths for Not Participating for women
Lack of interest Harmful to health Only "ladylike" sports appropriate Undeserving (quality inferior to men) Social stigma associated with presumed lesbianism Gender verification practices Social attitudes about gender roles
Issues of Globalization
Less nationalistic displays and more commercial displays. Some corporations have larger economies than some countries. International sports are used as a means to promote the interests of corporate capitalism.
Who Controls Sport?
Local communities: power held by administrators, boards of directors (parents, politicians) National level: power held by people who control an organization's money -Often members of the upper or upper-middle class -Often white males
Concussions and the NFL
Long-term effects can include dementia, depression, and Alzheimer's disease. NFL legal settlement involves 18,000 retired players.
Potential Issues With Drug Use
Long-term health risks (e.g., female infertility) Bad example for youth athletes Rejection of sport by fans, parents, kids Marginalization of non-using athletes Withdrawal of corporate financial support Futile if bar is raised by genetic engineering
Androgenic
Masculinizing Effects - Growth of Facial Hair - Growth of Body Hair - Deepening of the Voice
Is Class Mobility Possible in Sport?
May be an unrealistic expectation. Only 0.2% of high school athletes play professionally. Best opportunity to advance is through education.
Olympic Promotion of Nationalism
National committees pick athletes to represent their countries. Ceremonies include flags and anthems. Athletes wear nation-specific uniforms and march behind their flags. Governments use Olympics to promote political causes (e.g., 1936 Berlin Games in Nazi Germany).
Special Populations in the United States
Nearly 57 million U.S. residents have at least one mental or physical disability. Nearly 110 million U.S. residents are over 50. These populations are sometimes excluded or otherwise discriminated against. Like the general population, they gain quality-of-life benefits from physical activity.
Strategies for Good Sporting Behavior
Parents teach values to kids at a young age. Coaches and officials prohibit play if rules are not followed. Parents and coaches model good behavior Fans decrease rowdiness and alcohol use. Professional athletes and organizations serve actively as positive role models. We all reward good behavior!
Female Gender Role Expectations
Passive Gentle Delicate Submissive
Define Race, Ethnicity, Racism, and Minority Group
Race: social category constructed to describe people with genetic similarity Ethnicity: cultural heritage of a group Racism: belief in superiority of one race over another Minority group: in the United States, any group except whites
Violence Against Women
Rape culture at universities -One in five women is raped. -Rape is committed by a rising proportion of athletes and men at military academies. Title IX and sexual violence cases Domestic abuse and athletes Sense of entitlement?
United States Olympic Committee
Receives no funding from U.S. government. Does receive funding from private sponsors and donations. Membership categories -Sport-specific national governing bodies -Paralympic sport organizations -Affiliated and community-based organizations
Rule Breaking in Sport
Rules are learned. Rule breaking results in consequences, such as penalties and suspensions.
USOC Structural Changes
Scandals, then government intervention Until 2004, 100 board members; now smaller committees, annual reporting Current goals -Develop athletes at the grassroots level. -Provide access to elite training programs. -Support Olympic athletes' training and competition.
Access and Barriers to Sport (community Leagues)
Serve more children at modest expense. Offer training even in traditionally upper-class sports.
Sponsorship
Sponsorship ranges from top IOC sponsors to those attracted by the host country. McDonald's is a top IOC sponsor and has paid up to $200 million for eight years.
Electronic Media
Sport action will be viewed on demand. Fantasy teams and leagues will be interactive. Online sport wagering will grow. Athletes will be more accessible to fans through social media. Giants (e.g., ESPN) will continue to grow.
The IOC and Physical Activity
Sport can help us create a safer, more tolerant, and more peaceful society. Three core values of the Olympic movement are excellence, friendship, and respect.
Sport and Society
Sport distracts from difficult times (distraction = passivity). Sport helps maintain status quo (male dominance, traditional values). Sport can also change society (Jesse Owens, Arthur Ashe). Sport can promote politicians (photo ops, athletes-turned-politicians).
Media Effects on Globalization of Sport
Sport fan base is increased by the Internet and by satellite and cable broadcasting. Sport caters to the TV industry to get big money for TV broadcast rights. Results in huge revenue for international events and potential for domestic leagues to expand their fan bases.
Sport and Development
Sport in this context includes physical activities such as the following: Strength training Running and walking Swimming Pilates Yoga
Sport as a Positive Force in Equality
Sport success is linked to self-confidence (role models can be positive). Sport offers a way out of poverty for some. Integration is often easier in sport. School-based sport programs are free. Unique travel possibilities raise awareness. Sport encourages a healthy lifestyle.
Nike Social Movement Objectives
Subsistence wage. Safe working conditions. Freedom to organize. Respect for the human rights of Nike workers.
Use of Religion by Coaches, Owners, and Organizations
Team unity Moral code for athletes Religious role models for players (for example other players and coaches) Prayer events, Christian outreach at Olympics Informal prayer at school events Faith nights in minor leagues
Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids
Testosterone - Primary Natural Male Hormone Also present in females in lesser amounts
Social Changes
The Civil Rights Movement increased diversity in sport, but minority opportunities still lag. Female participation has increased, but educational and athletic leaders need to embrace Title IX. Women must be recruited and nurtured in sport leadership roles Latina and Hispanic girls and women need to be integrated into lifelong physical activity. As women age, they look to extend their participation in physical activity and sport. Age-group competition opportunities will continue to grow for older adults LGBT individuals need to be welcomed into sport and leadership positions. People who have a disability need continuing opportunities in sport and physical activity.
Gambling Facts From the NCAA
The Internet has made it easier to gamble. Student athletes are viewed as easy "marks." The NCAA prohibits athletes and athletic department personnel from any type of sport wagering.
Anabolic
Tissue-Building Effects - Increases in Muscle Cell Size - Increases in Strength?
USOC Mission Statement
To assist in finding opportunities for every American to participate in sport, regardless of gender, race, age, geography, or physical ability.
Use of Prayer by Athletes
To cope with uncertainty and anxiety To put life and sport into perspective To build meaning in sport participation
Rational Rule Breaking
To help the team (or individual) win Because "everyone is doing it" As acceptable behavior when a rule is considered bad
Use of Religion by Athletes
To justify commitment to high performance To reduce pressure and uncertainty To enhance bonds between teammates To guide moral decision making
Globalization of Modern Sport
Traditions began with Greek civilization. Sport expanded with the British Empire. Nationalism emerged. Dominance is shifting toward developing countries in certain sports (e.g., soccer, cricket, table tennis).
Program Resources for Promoting Good Sporting Behavior
True Competition (www.truecompetition.org) National Sportsmanship Day Colorado's sportsmanship program Josephson Institute of Ethics (www.charactercounts.org)
Pursuit of Medals
U.S. dominance since USSR breakup U.S. baseball failure to qualify for 2004 Games (baseball and softball now dropped from Olympics) U.S. basketball no longer automatic gold China and other Asian countries vying for top medal slots
Use of Sport to Promote Social Values
U.S. view of sport as teaching mainstream values Capitalism: competition, hard work, winners Socialism: teamwork, fitness, friendship Potential to integrate people from diverse backgrounds in areas of conflict
USOC's Athlete Development
USOC oversees identification of athletic talent, but no single system is in place. Training facilities are spreading from a few Olympic centers to smaller sites. USOC provides support and materials to develop coaching.
Sport as Builder of Character and Morals
Values can be learned through sport socialization. Factors related to sporting behavior include the following: -Sport type -Performance level -Position played
Performance Sport: United States
Youth participation will increase among those who can afford it. Schools will invest more in college athletic programs but still face financial struggles. Professional sports will continue to dominate; more may develop true world championships.
Capital affects
which sports we watch, play, and succeed in.
The Olympic Charter and Social Responsibility
"The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of humanity, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human dignity." IOC initiatives to achieve this goal: -Bringing sport to rural and underdeveloped communities -Aiding local economic development -Rehabilitating war victims -Helping prevent HIV/AIDS -Bringing hope and joy to refugee camps
Advances made against racism in sport
- In 1947, Jackie Robinson broke through the color barrier and was named MLB Rookie of the Year. - By the 1950s, black sport participation percentages mirrored the black population percentage. - Today, blacks are overrepresented in basketball and football but underrepresented in most sports.
Characteristics of Allowable Sports for Females
Aesthetically pleasing (ice skating, diving, gymnastics) No bodily contact with opponents (bowling, archery, badminton, volleyball, tennis, golf, swimming, running) Action controlled to protect the athletes from overexertion (running short distances, basketball where offense and defense didn't cross half-court)
Access and Barriers to Sport (high school sport)
Affluent schools win more championships. Can afford better facilities, equipment, and coaches. Participants start earlier and receive more training.
African Americans and Baseball
After the color barrier was broken, the number of African American players are at the lowest level since 1960. Jackie Robinson. Branch Rickey.
Gambling on Sport: Fans
All but two U.S. states allow some type of gambling. Some $2.5 billion is bet illegally each year on March Madness. Roughly $85 million is bet legally each year on March Madness through Las Vegas. The NCAA and professional sport leagues oppose legalized gambling.
Asian American Athletes
Along with Latinos, fastest-growing U.S. minority population Different path from African Americans and Latinos—sport not used as means to economic, social, or educational goals Different sporting choices due to culture and perhaps body type
American Influence on World Sport
American colleges and professional leagues attract many of the top athletes worldwide. American sports in top ten worldwide include volleyball, basketball, and baseball. Athletes and families will go to extremes for a chance to play in American leagues. United States offers financial and cultural attraction for international athletes.
Using Sport for International Understanding
Athletes of all ages have international competition opportunities. International travel and competition increase appreciation of multiple cultures. Interactions between coaches increase world outlook between individuals.
Role of U.S. Government in Sport
Designates the USOC but does not provide its funding. Intervenes to address scandals or social issues in sport (e.g., MLB steroid use and drug testing). Helps regulate event security Protects citizens' rights. Promotes equal opportunity. Protects the public's financial interest.
Types of Deviant Behavior
Deviant behavior: Behavior that is beyond "normal" behavior; can be good or bad Not conforming to the group's rules and norms Overconforming to the group's expectations
Benefits of Sport and Physical Activity
Fun Better health Social integration Moral development Personal development Cognitive development
Social Theories and Change
Functionalist: Sport can be changed from the inside. Conflict: Participation sport programs allow more people to participate. Feminist: Women will assume more leadership positions in sport. Interactionist: Athletes will force changes from the bottom up. Critical: Educators can take the lead in determining the value and place of sport in society.
Pre-civil war sport
Games and sports played among slaves encouraged by plantation owners for control purposes. Mainly boxing and horse racing. Black boxers used for entertainment of white "masters" and their friends. Blacks used as jockeys, but not trainers. African Americans in subordinate roles.
Social Issues in Women's Sport: Media and Images
Gender: conflict over orientation labels Athletic apparel -Advances in sport bras (Chastain 1999 celebration) -Shoes not updated Objectification of athletes -Female athletic body is now seen as sexy. -Females may be judged only on looks, not talent.
High School Athlete Survey
Girls more committed to honesty, fair play Baseball, football, and basketball players more inclined to bad behavior Poor coach behavior reported by 25% to 33% Hazing, stealing, cheating okay with majority Inflicting pain okay with 60% of males
Barriers to Participation: K-College
Girls starting sport participation later than boys and dropping out sooner. Girls of color and those from low-income families typically end their participation in organized sport sooner than peers who are white or from middle- or higher-income families. Title IX challenges: -Colleges and universities cutting men's teams—unintended consequences -Football dominance in colleges and universities—85 scholarships for 22 positions
Girls and Sport After Title IX
Girls still have fewer opportunities than boys. Girls still generally get inferior facilities, equipment, coaching, and publicity. Less than 2/3 of African American and Hispanic girls play a sport, whereas more than 3/4 of Caucasian girls do.
Native American Issues
Giving up their "Indianness". Real or perceived racial bias at college. No ethnic support system in college. Poor academic preparation. College degrees don't help on the reservation. Fear of failure. Distance running. Basketball.
U.S. Social Trends That Will Affect U.S. Sport
Global trends (e.g., terrorism, global economy) Increase in number of older athletes Protection of citizens' rights Protection of sport investments Expansion of sport management Record breaking due to scientific advances Changing attitudes toward gambling Increase in coaching compete
Sport as Opiate of the Masses
Governments use sport to distract citizens from societal inequities. Sport is used to rally citizens for a united cause in both developed and developing countries.
Latino and Hispanic Athletes
Great diversity among Latino groups Most male Latino and Hispanic athletes recognized for baseball and soccer
History of Religion and Sport
Greek festivals honored gods. Roman emperor Theodosius I banned the Olympics due to pagan elements. The Puritans saw sport as a leisure pursuit that should be avoided. Muscular Christianity, however, approached physical fitness as a virtue.
Hazing in Sport
Hazing is any action that inflicts mental or physical harm or anxiety or demeans or degrades—regardless of intent or consent. Hazing is seen by some as a rite of passage. About 75% of college athletes report having been hazed. All athletes are at risk.
Participation Sport
Health struggles will continue to increase. Development programs will use sport as a vehicle to achieve social goals. The connection will become clearer between physical activity and health and quality of life. Growth will continue in community programs, extreme sports, and college sport clubs. Funding challenges will persist, including competition with performance sport programs for money and facilities Activities, such as electronic entertainment, will continue to compete for people's time. Commitment will be needed to attract sport dropouts and increase physical activity among young people.
Define Hispanic and Latino/Latina
Hispanic: all people whose ethnic heritage is traced to a Spanish-speaking country Latino or Latina: person of Latin American heritage
Nationalism Versus Economics
Historically, international competition was driven by national pride. Drivers are shifting toward economic model. -Corporate sponsors of countries, teams, and events -2004 U.S. Olympic team sponsored by Roots (Canadian clothing company) -Large income from TV network sponsorship
Political Structure of Olympic Movement
IOC oversees 202 national Olympic committees (NOCs). NOCs promote Olympic principles and determine how to select and send athletes. NOCs leverage nationalism. Like all human organizations, Olympics are inherently political.
Examples of Rule Breaking
Illegally modifying equipment Committing a foul Faking injury to cause a time-out Participating in a brawl Taking other disallowed actions for strategic advantage
Women as Sport Leaders
In 1980, 90% of women's teams were coached by women; in 2012, 43% (near all-time low). Only 20% of college ADs are women. Only 37% of the USOC are women.
Spending in College Sport
In 2012, men's athletics accounted for 74% of overall expenses at D-I FBS schools. These schools spent more on football than on all women's teams combined. In 2012, spending on D-I women's teams averaged less than half that on men's teams.
The Olympic Games
Increase communication between countries. Attract huge audiences worldwide. Promote cultural awareness. Standardize rules (often worldwide) in certain sports.
Emotion and Sport: Fans
Increased excitement and arousal with tailgating and alcohol use Hooliganism
Anabolic Steroids
Increased muscle size, speed, and power BALCO scandal Increased drug testing
Social Issues in Women's Sport: Physical Activity Benefits
Increased self-esteem Decreased drug use Decreased chance of unwanted pregnancy Increased graduation rate Sport was a helpful experience for four out of five women executives.
Potential Funding Sources for Sport Development Programs
International groups (e.g., UNESCO, IOC) Multinational corporations Government groups Social organizations (e.g., community centers, schools, recreation departments, faith-based organizations) Charitable organizations
Off-Field Violence
It is unclear whether on-field violence leads to off-field violence. Alcohol increases the incidence of violence; athletes are more prone to binge drinking. Some sports may not cause violent off-field behavior but attract more-violent people. Challenges to manhood can arise off the field.
Judaism and Sport
Jewish boxers dominant in early 1900s Many Jewish basketball players in 1940s Baseball (Hank Greenberg, Sandy Koufax) Olympics (Mark Spitz, Kerri Strug, Sarah Hughes) Successes in many other sports
Social Mobility in Sport: Educational Opportunities
Need to stay academically eligible to play. May earn athletic scholarship (sport helps build social and cultural capital). College athletes may have more opportunities than nonathletes. Business leaders often attribute their success to lessons learned in sport.
Host City: Why the Cost?
New stadiums and athletic facilities Cost overruns Direct operating expenses, including security Infrastructure improvements Repayment of construction debts after the Games
Sporting Behavior
Newer term (replacing sportsmanship) to remove gender bias Ethical behavior involves the following: -Participation for the pleasure of a hard-fought contest -Refusal to take unfair advantage -Courtesy toward one's opponent -Graciousness in both winning and losing
Global Status of Women in Sport
Not all countries are progressive (e.g., female participation is still often prohibited in Arab countries). White, middle-class athletes are the most supported in developed nations.
Developmental Possibilities for Sport
Not development in traditional sense (athlete development, economic development). Growing area that recognizes sport as social capital has opportunities to improve lives for social and personal development for all populations, especially disenfranchised. Body of research, programming growing.
Use of Sport to Promote Religious Schools
Notre Dame (football) Gonzaga (basketball) Brigham Young University (football)
Access and Barriers to Sport (Team sport)
Often run and subsidized by the community. Allows most kids to play (makes coaching more affordable).
Equal Pay for Equal Play
Only recently have all four tennis Grand Slams offered gender-equal prize money. LPGA purses lag far behind PGA purses (and tennis and golf are success stories!). Per Forbes, only one woman (Maria Sharapova) ranked among the top 50 highest-paid athletes in 2014. Women give same endorsements for less pay.
Methods of Administration for steroids
Orally (Swallowing) Sublingually By Injection (Intramuscularly) Topically
Nationalism and Sport
Patriotic symbols and colors at international competitions National anthem played before games Army-Navy college football game Historic Olympic boycotts
Spectatorship
Pay-per-view and Internet viewing will continue to revolutionize fan experiences. Growing spectatorship will increase participation unless undercut by boom in electronic spectatorship. Some will try to legalize sport gambling. Competition will increase for fans' time and commitment.
Violence
Perception that athletes are more violent than other people Perception fed by media exposure and occasional leniency given to accused athlete offenders Sport as mirror of society in violent acts and acceptance of violent acts
Gambling in Sport
Perennial issue for sport organizers: If the public doubts the integrity of the game, the game's popularity declines. Athlete examples: Chicago "Black Sox," college basketball, Pete Rose Referee examples: Tim Donaghy (NBA), 2006 World Cup, soccer match fixing
Issues for Athletes
Personal adjustment of migrating athletes. Rights of athletes as workers in various nations. Impact of talent migration on the nations from and to which athletes migrate. Impact of athlete migration on patterns of personal, cultural, and national identity formation.
Sport and Politics
Politicians congratulate successful athletes. Championship teams visit the White House. Some athletes become politicians (e.g., Bill Bradley). National sport boards and the NCAA operate as political organizations.
Kohlberg's Six Stages of Moral Development
Preconventional 1. Punishment and obedience 2. Pleasure or pain Conventional 3. Good boy or girl 4. Law and order Postconventional 5. Social contract 6. Principled conscience
Types of Drug Used by Modern Athletes
Prescription and OTC: Promote healing, mask pain, carry long-term risk. Stimulants: Increase arousal and energy; have been in use for decades. Anabolic steroids: Increase muscle size, speed, strength, and ability to train soon after exhaustion. Others: Include HGH, doping, amino acids.
Media Coverage of Women's Sport
Prime-time Winter Olympics coverage in 2014 was nearly even: 45% focused on males, 41% on females (new high for women). Newsroom coverage of women's sport still lags behind that of men's sport (accounts for less than 10%).
Sport as Negative Force in Equality
Pro sport is an unrealistic career goal. College graduation rate for black male athletes in 2013 was 52%, which was less than in 2009. Black female athletes graduated at a 63% rate in 2013, which was less than in 2009. Black families are eight times more likely than whites to pressure children into sport.
Sporting Behavior at Different Levels
Professional athletes are role models who influence youth athletes. Media and coaches tend to emphasize winning and competition. Athletes need to be taught fair play, moral development, and character. Participation sport tends to be more balanced.
What is Title IX?
Prohibits discrimination in federally supported education programs. "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance." Passed as part of the U.S. Education Amendments of 1972. Before Title IX, participation rates and financial support were lopsided. -In sport, 3.7 million boys versus 0.3 million girls -For every U.S. dollar spent on programs, 99 cents for boys and 1 cent for girls Confusion arose but was resolved by lawsuits and official clarifications.
How Sport Can Contribute to Peace Building
Security Rebuilding of economies and traumatized populations Political structure and open communication Reconciliation in torn societies Second International Forum of 2011
Global Consumption of Sport
Shoe wars (Adidas, Reebok; Nike domination) Increase in casual dress through sport apparel industry Corporate use of labor in developing countries (e.g., Nike) Sponsorship of countries and teams Corporate television sponsors
Effects of Steroid Use
Short-Term vs. Long-Term Physical and Physiological vs. Psychological Long-Term Effects not very well documented. Many short-term effects are reversible when use ceases.
Consequences of On-Field Violent Behavior
Shortened career (and reduced earnings) Pressure to return from injury Concussions: recent change in perspective Negative publicity for teams, leagues, organizations Poor behavior modeling
Leadership Positions
Small % of African Americans in leadership positions. Al Campanis Marge Schott Coaching positions in college & pro. NFL minority hiring policy. BCA policy. Executive Positions. Plight of African American Women.
Performance Sport: International
Soccer participation and spectatorship will increase—in the United States and globally. The Olympics will become more professional. Female sport will continue to grow. Drug-testing programs will be expanded.
Popularity of Sport Worldwide
Soccer: World Cup most-watched sport event in world (2010 U.S. viewing up 22%) Basketball: 92 non-U.S. NBA players from 39 countries in 2013-2014 Baseball: 30% of players international in MLB
Economic and Class Divisions
Social class: category of people with similar positions based on economic level, social interaction, education, and occupation Social stratification: assignment of class based on societal inequalities (e.g., in power, prestige, and wealth)
Two Types of Character
Social—teamwork, loyalty, work ethic, perseverance Moral—honesty, fairness, integrity, responsibility
Performance Enhancers
Some athletes use steroids or other drugs. -Increased use and scandals (e.g., Alex Rodriguez, Ryan Braun) -Random drug testing in the Olympics and some professional leagues (MLB congressional hearings) Usage is not a new phenomenon but does get more media exposure now.
Development of Moral Values
Some theorists hold that behavior is based on moral development. Kohlberg proposed an age-related progression of stages.
Stacking
Some unusual distributions of whites and blacks in certain sport positions cannot be explained by random distribution. - Whites in "thinking" and "outcome control" positions - Blacks in speed positions
Development Programs for Children and Youth
Stand-alone sport and physical activity programs (skill-focused, foundational) At-risk prevention programs (e.g., YMCA, Boys & Girls Clubs, Up2Us) Academic enrichment and sport programs (safe haven combining school and sport) Academic development and sport (sport as vehicle to develop academic skills)
History of the Ancient Olympics
Started with one footrace in Greece in 776 BCE to honor Zeus. More sports were added over time. Held every four years until 393 CE, when a Christian emperor banned pagan worship. Reborn in Athens in 1896 with 14 participating countries.
Emotion and Sport: Athletes
Stress of competition Being consumed by emotion Optimal levels of arousal and intensity Role of anger
Existing High-Performance Sport Ethic per Coakley
Striving for excellence Competing to win Sacrifice Love of the game Commitment to team Playing with pain and adversity
Peace Initiatives Through Sport
The Sport for Development and Peace International Working Group works with governments to develop sport systems. Strong societies depend on tolerance and friendship among disparate groups. Sport provides a safe place to face conflict in a structured environment.
International Outreach Through Sport
The WHO emphasizes conditions and diseases that can be addressed through physical activity. More than 60% of adults worldwide do not engage in sufficient physical activity.
Politics
The art and science of governing, influencing policy, or controlling a government Despite negative connotations, a dominant component of any culture
Eating Disorders in Sport
Types are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, disordered eating, and compulsive exercise. Up to 33% of female athletes report having an eating disorder (more than nonathletes). The percentage for male athletes is 10%. Athletes' discipline and determination can lead to eating disorders if taken too far. Eating disorders have increased since Title IX was enacted (more female participants). These disorders can be encouraged inadvertently by coaches and parents. Female athlete triad: -Disordered eating -Amenorrhea -Osteoporosis
Role of U.S. Government in Physical Activity and Health
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention -Links research on physical activity and quality of life. -Sets recommendations for physical activity. Kids: at least 1 hour of daily aerobic activity Adults: least 150 minutes of weekly moderate-intensity activity 1950s: President's Council on Youth Fitness 1961: President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Now: President's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition (for people of all ages)
Americans with Disabilities Act
U.S. law enacted in 1990 to eliminate discrimination in several areas: Employment Government Public accommodation Telecommunication Transportation
Social Class and Sport Opportunity: Middle and Lower Classes
Upper-middle class -Includes professionals (e.g., lawyers, managers, physicians). -Members have many sport opportunities. Middle class -Members make careful decisions about expenses. -Members have many opportunities in community and school-based team sport. Lower class -Members play team sports available and subsidized in the community. -Individual sports such as bowling and pool are popular with this social class.
Conflict Between Sport and Religion
Violent nature of some sports How athletes overcome internal conflicts, justify dedication to sport, and validate sport experience Separate beliefs Questions of meaning and value
Social Class and Sport Opportunity: The Upper Class
Wealthy (with disposable income) Exclusive memberships used to build social capital Able to afford exceptional coaching and sport experiences Highest rates of sport participation Exclusive sports (e.g., golf, tennis, polo, sailing, horseback riding, skiing) More likely to use health and fitness equipment
