Student Development Theory
Vector 2: Managing Emotions
the ability to recognize and accept emotions, as well as to appropriately express and control them.
Perry's Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development
there are four stages of moral development: duality, multiplicity, relativism, and commitment
Schlossberg's Transition Theory
A theory that can help analyze transitions in people's lives
The Three Conditions Necessary for Sanford's Challenge and Support Theory
1. Readiness: You can't handle challenges and support without an identity 2. Challenge: The amount of challenge a student can tolerate is a function of the amount of support available. If there's too much challenge, then skills can be lost, and potential failure. 3. Support: Too much support, students lose self-reliance and independence
Effects of Validation
1. confidence in their ability to learn; 2. experienced enhanced feelings of self-worth, and. 3. believed they had something to offer the academic community
Astin's Theory of Student Involvement
Basically, the more energy (physical and psychological) you put into an activity, the more development you will get out of that activity. Energy is on a continuum, not yes/no. Therefore, engaging actively in the environment is a prerequisite for student learning and growth
King and Kitchener's Reflective Judgement Model
Built on Dewey's notion that people make reflective judgments to bring closure to situations that can be characterized as uncertain. Reflective thinking focuses on epistemological assumptions and ill-structured problems (no certain answers). Three categories of stages: Pre-reflective thinking (steps 1-3) Quasi-reflective thinking (stages 4-5), and Reflective thinking (stages 6-7) Pre-reflective thinkers do not acknowledge or even realize that knowledge is uncertain. They do not recognize the existence of real problems that lack an absolute correct answer nor do they use evidence and reasoning to reach a conclusion. Quasi-reflective thinkers realize ill-structured problems exist and knowledge claims about such problems include uncertainty. These thinkers can identify some issues as genuinely problematic. While they evidence, they have difficult drawing reasoned conclusions and justifying their beliefs. Reflective thinkers maintain that knowledge is actively constructed and claims of knowledge must be viewed in relation to the context in which they were generated. These thinkers maintain that judgments must be based upon relevant data and conclusions should be open to re-evaluation.
Vector 5: Establishing Identity
Comfort with body and appearance, gender, and sexual orientation, heritage, and has a clear self-concept
Vector 6: Developing Purpose
Consists of developing clear vocational goals, making meaningful commitments to specific personal interests and activities, and establishing strong interpersonal commitments
Kohlberg Conventional Level (Stages 3 & 4)
Conventional - the "member of society perspective"; At this level individuals identity with the rules and expectations of others, especially authorities. Stage 3 - interpersonally normative morality - Right is defined as meeting the expectations of those to whom one is close and carrying out appropriate social roles. Concern centers on maintaining a "good person" image and gaining others' approval. Shared feelings, agreements, and expectations take precedence over individual interests, but a generalized social system perspective does not exist. Stage 4 - social system morality - Individuals view the social system and made up of a consistent set of rules and procedures applying equally to all. Right is defined as upholding the laws established by society and carrying out the duties agreed upon. Individuals behave in a way that maintains the system and fulfills societal obligations.
Identity Achievement
Crisis and Commitment Achievement status comes after an extensive period of crisis (exploration) that leads to strong commitment in setting goals and establish a firm foundation. Since identity formation is secure, more exploration is common as they investigate multiple alternatives, engage in risk-taking, and clearly articulates choices
Moratorium
Crisis and No Commitment People question authority values in order to form their own identities (without commitment). People here may be sensitive, anxious, highly ethical, and flexible. Generally, people can be expected to move into Identity Achievement after this.
Commitment according to Marcia
attaching ownership to pronounced values, choices, and goals, about which people are codified and optimistic
Baxter Magolda's Theory of Self-Authorship: Stage 1 (Following Formulas)
Following formulas (usually right after high school) People follow external formulas as a way to be "successful" in their careers, relationships, and identities These formulas account for little to none of their own interests or ideas Here, people follow plans designed by other and use these as their identities. Intrapersonal Dimension: People do what they think adults do, which they learn from external sources. In other words, they try to "adult," whatever that means for that person Epistemological Dimension: Many people are influenced externally to choose a career path by others, even if it isn't what they really want to do. Young people do what they think is expected of them in their careers and rely on other people, like asking other questions on complex topics. Interpersonal Dimension: People are heavily influenced by others, including their parents, friends, society, etc. People here make seemingly independent decisions when other voices really overshadow their own.
Foreclosure
No Crisis and Commitment People accept the values of authority figures and experience few crises. Their reluctance could result in their failure to establish a true life purpose. Generally, people here follow the rules, maintain conventional relationships, and demonstrate inflexible thinking.
Diffusion
No Crisis and No Commitment People either refuse or are unable to firmly commit and have not experienced significant crisis. They tend to submit to the external and tend to conform, have trouble with intimacy, are easily manipulated, and lack cognitive complexity.
Kegan Orders of Consciousness: Orders 0-2
Order 0: applies to newborn infants; when the infant cannot see or experience something, it does not exist. Order 1: children develop order 1 meaning making around age 2; they realize they have control over their reflexes and become aware of objects in their environment as independent from themselves. Order 2: "Instrumental Mind", individuals are able to construct "durable categories" (classifications of objects, people, or ideas with specific characteristics); thinking becomes more logical and organized, feelings are more enduring and they relate to others as separate and unique beings. Individuals develop a sense of who they are and what they want. Support at this stage requires confirmation of the person the child has become. Challenge to develop further involves encouragement to take into consideration the expectations, needs, and desires of others.
Kegan's Order of Consciousness: Order 3
Order 3: "Socialized Mind", cross-categorical thinking (the ability to relate one durable category to another) characterizes this order. Thinking is more abstract, individuals are aware of their feelings and the internal processes associated with them, and they can make commitments to communities of people and ideas. Acceptance by others is crucial in this order, so individuals pay particular attention to how others perceive them. Support is found in mutually rewarding relationships and shared experiences, while challenge takes the form of resisting codependence and encouraging individuals to make their own decisions and establish independent lives.
The Four Aspects of Marginality
attention (feeling noticed), importance (feeling cared about), ego-extension (someone would feel proud of you or sympathize with your failures), dependence (the feeling of being needed), and appreciation (the feeling other appreciate individual efforts)
Kegan's Order of Consciousness: Order 4
Order 4: "Self-Authoring Mind", cross-categorical constructing (the ability to generalize across abstractions, also labeled systems thinking) emerges in order 4. Self-authorship is the focus. Individuals have the capacity to take responsibility for and ownership of their internal authority and establish their own sets of values and ideologies. Relationships become a part of one's world rather than the reason for one's existence. Support at this stage is evident in acknowledgement of the individual's independence and self-regulation. Significant others who refuse to accept relationships that are not intimate and mutually rewarding encourage individuals to develop further.
Kegan's Order of Consciousness: Order 5
Order 5: "Self-Transforming Mind", this order is infrequently reached and never reached before the age of 40; individuals see beyond themselves, others, and systems of which they are a part to form an understanding of how all people and systems interconnect. They recognize their commonalities and interdependence with others. Relationships can be truly intimate in this order, with nurturance and affiliation as its key characteristics; only rarely do work environments and long-lasting adult intimate partnerships provide these conditions.
Vector 3: autonomy to interdependence
People develop instrumental independence that includes self-direction, problem-solving ability, and mobility. They come to recognize the importance of interdependence and awareness of interconnectedness with others.
Chickering's Theory of Identity Development
People move through the vectors at different rates and may deals with issues related to more than one vector at a time. Not rigidly sequential and not intended to be stages, although the vectors build on each other, leading too great complexity, stability, and integration. What are the seven vectors? CEIRIPI
Kohlberg Postconventional Level (Stages 5 & 6)
Postconventional - labeled the "prior to society perspective"; Individuals separate themselves from the rules and expectations of others and based their decisions on self-chosen principles. Stage 5 - human right and social welfare morality - Laws and social systems are evaluated based on the extent they promote fundamental human right and values. The social system is understood as a social construct freely entered into to protect members rights and ensure the welfare of all. Stage 6 - morality of universalizable, reversable, and prescriptive general ethical principles - Morality involves equal consideration of the points of view of all involved in a moral situation. Decisions are based on universal generalizable principles that apply in all situations. Kohlberg was unsuccessful in empirically demonstrating the existence of Stage 6. Very few individuals reach Stage 6; MLK is an example of one individual who did.
King & Kitchener's RJM (Prereflective Thinking)
Pre-reflective thinkers do not acknowledge or even realize that knowledge is uncertain. They do not recognize the existence of real problems that lack an absolute correct answer nor do they use evidence and reasoning to reach a conclusion.
Kohlberg Preconventional Level (Stages 1 & 2)
Preconventional - when individuals have not yet come to understand societal rules and expectations; their perspective is concrete and individually focused. Stage 1 - heteronomous morality - Individuals justify actions based on avoidance of punishment and the superior power of authorities. They do not consider the rights or concerns of others. Stage 2 - individualistic, instrumental morality - Individuals at this stage follow rules, if it is in their interest to do so. They understand that other people have needs and interests that may conflict with their own, so right is defined by what is fair and equal exchange or an agreement. They maintain a pragmatic perspective, which ensures satisfaction of their own needs and wants, while minimizing the possibility or negative consequences to themselves.
King & Kitchener's RJM (Quasi-reflective Thinking)
Quasi-reflective thinkers realize ill-structured problems exist and knowledge claims about such problems include uncertainty. These thinkers can identify some issues as genuinely problematic. While they evidence, they have difficult drawing reasoned conclusions and justifying their beliefs.
Relativism
Realizes that not all opinions are valid, backed by evidence, and must be viewed in context
Commitment
Realizes that uncertainty is part of life and must have evidence and viewed in context.
King & Kitchener's RJM (Reflective Thinking)
Reflective thinkers maintain that knowledge is actively constructed and claims of knowledge must be viewed in relation to the context in which they were generated. These thinkers maintain that judgments must be based upon relevant data and conclusions should be open to re-evaluation.
Duality
Right/wrong; black/white
Sanford's Challenge and Support Theory
Sandord says balancing challenges and supports for students in key for student development. Differentiation and integration occur as a student understands themselves as unique.
Baxter Magolda's Theory of Self-Authorship: Stage 3 (Self-Authorship)
Self-Authorship Defining Characteristics: One's internal voice grows strong enough to supersede external influence. The internal voice becomes the coordinator and mediator of external influence. Intense self-reflection and interaction with others helped participants gain perspectives on themselves and begin to choose their own values and identity. Intrapersonal Dimension: People use self-reflection as a way to understand themselves and inform their inner voice. SA sometimes achieved through multiple experiences and disappointment SA sometimes achieved through crises Interpersonal Dimension: People renegotiate their relationships, especially with parents, coworkers, and significant others. Epistemological Dimension: Here, people decide what to believe through examining ideas one constructs, merging them with existing knowledge, naming the outcome and claiming for oneself. After beliefs are established, they live out one's beliefs. People are also aware of the uncertainty of establishing beliefs ("I have authority, but I'm not an expert")
Self-Authorship Theories
Self-Authorship integrates the three domains of development - psychosocial identity, cognitive structural, and moral - into one integrative developmental process. Two main theorists: Kegan & Baxter Magolda
The Four Ss of Transitions according to Schlossberg
Situation (how and why did this transition occur); Self (What is the person like (demographics, psychological resources); Support (Who can this person rely on?); Strategies (How can this person cope with the transition?)
Baxter Magolda's Theory of Self-Authorship: Stage 2 (The Crossroads)
The Crossroads Here, people begin to realize the external formulas they were using are not leading to the results they expected and therefore, find little satisfaction in their careers and some struggles to find personal happiness. As such, people let go of their external formulas and begin to replace them with their internal voice. People realize in this stage that they need to find meaning within themselves. By the end of this stage, people generally feel more confident and a sense of direction they did not have before. Interpersonal Dimension: People struggle to value past experiences and the emerging voice and, therefore, struggle to establish their own beliefs. Epistemological Dimension: After following external formulas, people are exhausted, unhappy, and often want to do other things. They are searching for meaning in career contexts. They are attempting to integrate the emerging internal voice with one's work, how one engages in one's work, and the parental/societal expectations about successful work lives. Interpersonal Dimension: Here, people often realize that they have only been trying to please others, and not themselves. People being to assert their own needs and often place little focus on relationships (sometimes leading to break up, divorces, etc.).
Baxter Magolda's Theory of Self-Authorship: Stage 4 (The Internal Foundation)
The Internal Foundation Defining characteristics: The framework that one has internally constructed becomes solidified and comprehensive system of beliefs. People then make life decisions based on this foundation. People are open to growing and new experiences because their internal belief system offers security. Overall acceptance of life as it unfolds. People know what is on the immediate horizon, accept it, and know it will change eventually. People know they can't control the outside world, but they can control how they make meaning of the outside world. Intrapersonal Dimension: The "authentic self" has been finally revealed. One feels competent and confident to make decision in their life. No external influence Careers are not longer identities, they are part of one's identity. Interpersonally Grounded: Responsibility to others is internally chosen instead of accepted from the outside Consider consequences of actions, but does not allow external pressures to override internal foundation. Epistemological Dimension: Knowing seems almost intuitive, facts and feelings are used to make decisions.
Kegan's Orders of Consciousness Theory (General)
The focus of Kegan's theory is the "evolution of consciousness, the personal unfolding of ways of organizing experience that are not simply replaced as we grow but subsumed into more complex systems of mind." Kegan argued that the expectations of adult life - parenting, partnering, and working - require fourth order meaning making, and many adults have not attained that level. Rather than demanding that people think in a way that is impossible, they would benefit more from support to help them reach self-authorship.
Multiplicity
There are conflicting answers to most questions and so authorities don't matter (just your own opinion)
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
There are three levels of moral reasoning, each composed of two stages, and they represent a different relationship between the self and society's rules and expectations. Preconventional - when individuals have not yet come to understand societal rules and expectations; their perspective is concrete and individually focused. Conventional - the "member of society perspective"; At this level individuals identity with the rules and expectations of others, especially authorities. Postconventional - labeled the "prior to society perspective"; Individuals separate themselves from the rules and expectations of others and based their decisions on self-chosen principles.
Marcia's Ego Identity Statuses
There are two critical variables in identity formation: exploration/crisis and commitment
Baxter Magolda's Theory of Self-Authorship (Dimensions of Development & Stages)
Three dimensions of development: Intrapersonal (Who am I?) Epistemological (How do I know?) Interpersonal (How do I relate to other people?) Stages Self-Authorship: 1) Following Formulas 2) The Crossroads 3) Self-Authorship 4) The Internal Foundation
Marginality (according to Schlossberg)
a sense of not fitting in that can lead to self-consciousness, irritability, and depression. People wonder if they matter to anyone. Members of minoritized groups often feel marginality as a permanent condition.
Vector 4: Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships
acknowledge that experiences with relationships contribute significantly to the development of a sense of self. Includes intercultural and interpersonal tolerance and appreciation and the capacity for healthy and lasting relationships
Validation according to Rendon
an enabling, confirming, and supportive process initiated by in- and out-of-class agents that foster academic and interpersonal development
The Three Types of Transitions according to Schlossberg
anticipated transitions; un-anticipated transitions; non-events (anticipated, but did not occur)
Cognitive Structural Theories
examine the epistemological and intellectual development, including how people think, reason, and making meaning of their experiences
Identity Statuses according to Marcia
explain how young adults experience and resolve crises. They are not permanent and not progressive. What are the four statuses? FMID
Schlossberg's Mattering and Marginality
focuses on those who are experiencing transitions and whether they feel they can depend on and feel important to somebody during that transition
Vector 7: Developing Integrity
humanizing values, personalizing values, and developing congruence. (Moving away from a rigid, moralistic thinking to a more humanized value system in which other's interests are balanced with one's own interests).
Vector 1: Developing Competence
intellectual competence (adequate knowledge and critical thinking); physical and manual skills (physical well-being and artistic/manual activities), and interpersonal competence (communication, leadership, working together)
Validation Theory by Rendon
often used for first-generation, low-income, or minority students. This theory is often used to promote the success of these students in HE environments. Basically, more validation = richer academic and interpersonal experiences
Exploration of Identity according to Marcia
questioning values and goals defined by authority figures and weighing various identity alternatives. Exploration may be exciting at first, but can produce much anxiety
Psychosocial Identity Development Theories
these theories examine the contents of development; that is, the important issues people face as their lives progress, such as how they define themselves, their relationships, and what they do with their lives. Ex. Marcia's Ego Identity Statuses and Chickering's Theory of Identity Development