TEXTBOOK: Ch. 18: The Rhetoric
*Arrangement*
*________________* - a canon of rhetoric that pertains to a speaker's ability to organize a speech
*Introduction*
*__________________* - part of an organizational strategy in a speech that includes gaining the audience's attention, connecting with the audience, and providing an overview of the speaker's purpose
*Forensic rhetoric*
*___________________* - a type of rhetoric that pertains to speakers prompting feelings of guilt or innocence from an audience
*Epideictic rhetoric*
*_____________________* - a type of rhetoric that pertains to praising or blaming
*Audience analysis*
*_______________________* - an assessment and evaluation of listeners
*Deliberative rhetoric*
*___________________________* - a type of rhetoric that determines an audience's course of action
-Interpretive/Hermeneutic -Critical
Approach to Knowing:
*Metaphor*
* ________________* - a figure of speech that helps to make the unclear more understandable
*Body*
*_________* - part of an organizational strategy in a speech that includes arguments, examples, and important details to make a point
*Style*
*__________* - a canon of rhetoric that includes the use of language to express ideas in a speech
*Topics*
*__________* - an aid to invention that refers to the arguments a speaker uses
*Glosses*
*___________* - outdated words in a speech
*Ethos*
*___________* - the perceived character, intelligence, and goodwill of a speaker
*Delivery*
*____________* - a canon of rhetoric that refers to the nonverbal presentation of a speaker's ideas
*Pathos*
*____________* - emotional proof; emotions drawn from audience members
*Logos*
*____________* - logical proof; the use of arguments and evidence in a speech
*Syllogism*
*_____________* - a set of propositions that are related to one another and draw a conclusion from the major and minor premises
*Memory*
*_______________* - a canon of rhetoric that refers to a speaker's effort in storing information for a speech
*Civic spaces*
*______________* - a metaphor suggesting that speakers have "locations" where the opportunity to persuade others exists
-Rhetorical
Communication Tradition:
*Conclusion*
*______________* - part of an organizational strategy in a speech that is aimed at summarizing a speaker's main points and arousing emotions in an audience
*Sophists*
*______________* - teachers of public speaking (rhetoric) in ancient Greece
*Invention*
*______________* - a canon of rhetoric that pertains to the construction or development of an argument related to a particular speech
Invention Arrangment Style Delivery Memory
Aristotle's Canons of Rhetoric: CANON: -_________________ DEFINITION: -Integration of reasoning and arguments in speech DESCRIPTION: -Using logic and evidence in speech makes a speech more powerful and more persuasive. CANON: -____________________ DEFINITION: -Organization of speech DESCRIPTION: -Maintaining a speech structure— Introduction, Body, Conclusion— bolsters speaker credibility, enhances persuasiveness, and reduces listener frustration. CANON: -_________ DEFINITION: -Use of language in speech DESCRIPTION: -Incorporating style ensures that a speech is memorable and that a speaker's ideas are clarified. CANON: -_______________ DEFINITION: -Presentation of speech DESCRIPTION: -Delivering an effective speech complements a speaker's words and helps to reduce speaker anxiety. CANON: -_____________ DEFINITION: -Storing information in speaker's mind DESCRIPTION: -Knowing what to say and when to say it eases speaker anxiety and allows a speaker to respond to unanticipated events.
*Arrangement* subject; proof; "demonstrating" introduction; body; conclusion *introduction* emotionally *body* *conclusion*
Arrangement: A second canon identified by Aristotle is called arrangement. *____________________* pertains to a speaker's ability to organize a speech. Aristotle felt that speakers should seek out organizational patterns for their speeches to enhance the speech's effectiveness. Artistic unity among different thoughts should be foremost in a speaker's mind. Simplicity should also be a priority because Aristotle believed that there are essentially 2 parts to a speech: stating the ________ and finding the ________, or what he calls "_______________________ it" At the time, he felt that speakers were organizing their speeches haphazardly, making them less-effective speakers. Aristotle, however, is very clear in his organizational strategy. Speeches should generally follow a threefold approach: ________________, _______, and __________________. The *_____________________* should first gain the audience's attention, then suggest a connection with the audience, and finally provide an overview of the speech's purpose. Introductions can be quite effective in speeches that are intended to arouse _______________. Gaining attention by incorporating emotional wording is an effective persuasive technique. Consider Camille's introductory words. She obviously captures the audience's attention by personalizing a very difficult subject. She then suggests her relationship with the topic, followed by an overview of her speaking purpose: "Jake McCain was killed by someone he didn't know. Jake was a wonderful man and the person who killed him never knew that. Yet, Jake's death could have been prevented. You see, he was killed by someone who was drunk. The driver may have a future, but Jake will never have a chance to see his grandchild grow up or see his sister get married. I know about Jake McCain: He's my uncle. Today, I wish to discuss the dangers of drunk driving and identify how you can avoid becoming one of the many thousands who get behind a wheel after drinking too much." Arrangement also includes the body and conclusion of the speech. The *__________* includes all of the arguments, supporting details, and necessary examples to make a point. In addition to the entire speech being organized, the body of the speech also follows some sort of organizational structure. Aristotle states that audiences need to be led from one point to another. Finally, the *___________________* or epilogue of a speech is aimed at summarizing the speaker's points and arousing emotions in the audience. Conclusions should be arrived at logically and should also attempt to reconnect with listeners. Camille's conclusion clearly demonstrates her desire to leave her listeners with a message: "So I leave you today after examining the prevalence of drunk driving, the current laws associated with this behavior, and what you and I can personally do to help rid our society of this terrible and overlooked part of being a college student. The next time you go and have a drink, don't forget to give your keys to a friend. Or get a cab. I'm sure your family will thank you. Do it for me. Do it for my Uncle Jake." We can feel Camille's passion for a topic that is both personal and personally difficult.
culture "canons"
As a speaker, you might (unwittingly) incorporate syllogisms to persuade your audience. However, in an often complex and convoluted society, drawing such a clear conclusion from preliminary premises may not be appropriate. Syllogistic reasoning may undercut a point you're making. For example, it is usually difficult to draw a clear conclusion when dealing with the behaviors of close friends or family members. Personality, relational history, and timing all intersect to make drawing a simple conclusion quite difficult. Further, syllogistic reasoning is, like many issues in this book, impacted by ____________. Audience members do not always share a speaker's logical progression of ideas. Therefore, speakers need to be cautious in expecting audience members to draw conclusions in similar ways. Syllogisms are a critical part of the speaking process for Aristotle. Speakers use them to enhance effectiveness in their speeches. In addition, speakers also incorporate other techniques that are labeled "______________".
audience proofs
Assumptions of the Rhetoric: To this end, let's examine 2 primary assumptions of Rhetorical Theory as proposed by Aristotle. You should be aware that Rhetorical Theory covers a wide range of thinking in the communication field, and so it is nearly impossible to capture all of the beliefs associated with the theory. Nonetheless, Aristotelian theory is guided by the following 2 assumptions: 1. Effective public speakers must consider their __________________. 2. Effective public speakers employ a number of __________ in their presentations.
Aristotle
Based on the writings of ___________
-Public/Rhetorical
Communication Context:
"communication skills" listening democracy beyond globe democratic public speaking public speakers; audience; speech
Contemporary life provides us scores of opportunities to speak in front of others. Politicians, spiritual leaders, physicians, custodian supervisors, and investment brokers are examplars of the types of people who spend much of their time speaking to others—in both formal and informal ways. Especially as members of the academy, and whether by choice or by accident, we find ourselves speaking in the classroom, in our organizations, with our professors, on our dorm floors, among many other locations. Studying public speaking and communication in general is important in U.S. society for several reasons. First, for over a decade now, the National Association of Colleges and Employers has identified "___________________________" as paramount to securing and maintaining a job. Second, public speaking, by definition, suggests that as a society we are receptive to ______________ to views of others, even views that may conflict with our own. Deliberation and debate in the United States are hallmarks of a ________________. Third, when one speaks before a group, the information resonates ___________ that group of people. For instance, when a politician speaks to a small group of constituents in southwest Missouri, what she says frequently gets told and retold to others. When a minister consoles his congregation after a fatal shooting at a local middle school, the words reverberate even into the living rooms of those who were not present at the service. Finally, effective communication is identified as paramount in communication among individuals from various parts of the ________; it is not just a topic that resonates solely in the United States. Clearly, effective public speaking has the ability to affect individuals beyond the listening audience, and it is a critical skill for us as citizens of a __________________ society. Despite the importance of public speaking in our lives, it remains a dreaded activity. In fact, some opinion polls state that people fear public speaking more than they fear death! Comedian Jerry Seinfeld reflects on this dilemma: "According to most studies, people's number one fear is public speaking. Number two is death. Death is number two. Does that seem right? This means to the average person, if you have to go to a funeral, you're better off in the casket than doing the eulogy". Public speaking is not so funny to people like Camille Ramirez. She must work through not only her anxiety about speaking before a group, but also her anxiety about discussing a very personal topic. For Camille, having a sense of what to speak about and what strategies to adopt are foremost in her mind. Based on her classmates' reactions, her speech remains effective. Camille may not know that the reasons for her success may lie in the writings of Aristotle, published more than 25 centuries ago. Aristotle is generally credited with explaining the dynamics of ____________________. The Rhetoric consists of 3 books: one primarily concerned with _____________________, the second focusing on the _______________, and the third attending to the ___________ itself. His Rhetoric is considered by historians, philosophers, and communication experts to be one of the most influential pieces of writing in the Western world. In addition, many still consider Aristotle's works to be the most significant writing on speech preparation and speech making. In a sense, Aristotle was the first to provide the "how to" for public speaking. Lane Cooper (1932) agrees. More than 80 years ago, Cooper observed that "the rhetoric of Aristotle is a practical psychology, and the most helpful book extant for writers of prose and for speakers of every sort". According to Cooper, people in all walks of life—attorneys, legislators, clergy, teachers, and media writers—can benefit in some way when they read Aristotle's writings. That is some accolade for a man who has been dead for over 2,500 years! To understand the power behind Aristotle's words, it's important first to understand the nature of the Rhetoric. In doing so, we will be able to present the simple eloquence of rhetorical theory. First, in order for you to understand the historical context of the theory, we present a brief history of life in Aristotle's day followed by a discussion of his definition of rhetoric.
*delivery* voice natural
Delivery: Thus far we have concentrated on how a speech is constructed. Aristotle, however, was also interested in how a speech is delivered. In this case, *______________* refers to the nonverbal presentation of a speaker's ideas. Delivery normally includes a host of behaviors, including eye contact, vocal cues, pronunciation, enunciation, dialect, body movement, and physical appearance. For Aristotle, delivery specifically pertains to the manipulation of the ______. He especially encouraged speakers to use appropriate levels of pitch, rhythm, volume, and emotion. He believed that the way in which something is said affects its intelligibility. Aristotle believed that delivery could not be easily taught, yet it is crucial for a speaker to consider. He also taught that speakers should strive to be _________ in their delivery. Speakers should not use any vocal techniques that may detract from the words and should strive to capture a comfortable presence in front of an audience. In other words, speakers should avoid being "gimmicky" in their presentations and strive for authenticity. The canons of rhetoric are incorporated into a number of different persuasive speeches. Our exploration of Aristotle's Rhetorical Theory concludes with a discussion of the 3 types of rhetoric.
communication apprehension
Heurism: Few would argue that Aristotle's Rhetoric is one of the most heuristic theories found in communication. Scholars in political science, medicine, English composition, and philosophy have studied Rhetorical Theory and incorporated Aristotelian thinking in their research. The theory has spawned a number of subareas in the communication discipline, such as ________________________, and has generated research. In fact, much of the writing in public speaking is based on the writings of Aristotle. Some interesting research has discussed the deliberative rhetoric of an African American activist. Much of the discussion related to preaching in churches can be directly attributed to Aristotle's thinking. Aristotelian proofs have been employed to student umbilical cord blood banking, and in the analyses of environmental reports. Aristotle's theory will continue to resonate with scholars across disciplines and in a variety of contexts.
logical consistency; heurism; test of time
Integration, Critique, and Closing: Aristotle's Rhetoric remains an influential theoretical foundation in communication studies. You can pick up any public speaking text and find discussions on delivery, organization, and style. Students of public speaking have benefited greatly from the words and values of Aristotle, and for this reason the theory will resonate deeply for years to come. The evaluative criteria for communication we wish to discuss center on 3 primary areas: _____________________, ___________, and __________________..
invention *Invention* *Topics* *civic spaces*
Invention: The first canon is ______________. This term can be confusing because invention of a speech does not mean invention in a scientific sense. *______________* is defined as the construction or development of an argument that is relevant to the purpose of a speech. Invention is discovering all the proofs a speaker plans to use. Invention is broadly interpreted as the body of information and knowledge that a speaker brings to the speaking situation. This stockpile of information can help a speaker in his or her persuasive approaches. Suppose, for instance, you are presenting a speech on DNA testing. Invention associated with this speech would include appeals woven throughout your speech (e.g., "DNA helps living organisms pass along information to their off- spring," "DNA is the fundamental blueprint for all life," or "DNA testing has proven to be instrumental in capturing rapists"). In constructing your arguments, you may draw on all these examples. Aids to invention are identified as topics. *____________*, in this sense, refer to the lines of argument or modes of reasoning a speaker uses in a speech. Speakers may draw on these invention aids as they decide which speaking strategy will persuade their audiences. Topics, therefore, help speakers enhance their persuasiveness. Speakers look to what are called *_______________*, or the metaphorical locations where rhetoric has the opportunity to effect change, "where a speaker can look for 'available means of persuasion'". Recall, for instance, Camille's decision to talk about drinking and driving in her public speaking class. As she speaks, she defines her terms, looks at opposing arguments, and considers ideas similar to her own. That is, she identifies a "location" in her speech where she is able to adapt to an audience that may be losing attention. Camille does whatever it takes to ensure that she has the chance to persuade her audience.
contradiction unorganized critical passive
Logical Consistency: Critics of Aristotle's theory have taken issue with some tenets of the theory. For instance, Aristotle has been criticized for _____________________ and incoherence. Charles Marsh (2006), for instance, reports on one critic who undercut the notion of ethos as proposed by Aristotle: "In a society so small, where everyone knew one another, how could [Aristotle] think—was he really that dumb—that a person of bad character could hoodwink the other leaders of society?" Lord (1994) contends that in developing his theory, Aristotle blasts his contemporaries for focusing too much on the audience's emotions. Although Aristotle encourages speakers to avoid focusing on emotions while making their points, he proceeds to do just that when he stresses the importance of presenting emotions and invoking audience passions (pathos) during a speech. This makes the theory somewhat inconsistent. John Cooper (1996) challenges Lord's critique. He argues that Aristotle was simply responding to the Sophists' messages of the day. Because most of the speeches in ancient Greece were directed to judges and rulers, Aristotle indicated that speakers should try to elicit feelings of pity in the courtroom. To do that, Aristotle felt that speakers should try to view judges in congenial ways. Further criticism of the logical consistency of the theory has been offered. First, scholars agree that the Rhetoric is a rather _________________ undertaking; in fact, the theory is assembled from Aristotle's lecture notes (Neel, 2013). It is not surprising, then, that Aristotle seems to discuss topics in a random and arbitrary manner. At times, Aristotle introduces a topic and then drops it, only to return to it later. His terminology is especially problematic for some scholars. You may not find this too earth-shattering, but recall that researchers need clear foundations of terms before they can embark upon testing or clarifying theory. Larry Arnhart (1991) concludes that Aristotle defined his terms in less than precise ways so that audiences (readers) would have a broader understanding of his words and ideas. Arnhart believes that this conscious decision to remain unclear does not mean that Aristotle's thoughts should be discarded. Finally, the logical consistency is further challenged by an examination of how Aristotle views the audience. Critics charge Aristotle with ignoring the __________ nature of listeners. For instance, Jasper Neel (1994) states, "Aristotle makes clear that the introduction [of a speech] has nothing to do with the 'speech itself.' It exists only because of the hearer's weaminded tendency to listen to what is beside the point". Eugene Ryan (1984) is more blunt: "Aristotle is thinking of listeners who have some difficulty keeping their minds on the speaker's business, are easily distracted, tend to forget what has gone on before, [and] are not absorbed with abstract ideas". From these writers, we get the impression that Aristotle perceived audiences to be incapable of being discriminating listeners or critical thinkers. It's important to note, though, that Aristotle was writing at a time when people were rather_________ listeners; they did not watch the evening news and did not have access to information about world events. Furthermore, when one considers that the Rhetoric is based on lecture notes and that students back then were not accustomed to openly challenging their mentors, Aristotle's view of the audience is not so implausible.
*memory* memorized
Memory: Storing invention, arrangement, and style in a speaker's mind is *______________*. In contrast to the previous 4 canons, Aristotle does not spend significant time delineating the importance of memory in speech presentation. Rather, he alludes to memory in his writings. Throughout the Rhetoric, for instance, Aristotle reminds us to consider a number of issues prior to the presentation (e.g., examples, signs, metaphors, delivery techniques, etc.). He further notes that to speak persuasively, a speaker has to have a basic understanding of many of these devices when constructing and presenting a speech. In other words, speakers need to have __________________ a great deal before getting up to speak. Today, people interpret memory in speech-making differently from Aristotle. Memorizing a speech often means having a basic understanding of material and techniques. Although other rhetoricians like Quintilian made specific recommendations on memorizing, Aristotle felt that familiarizing oneself with the speech's content was understood. When Camille presents her speech on drinking and driving, for example, she has some parts of her speech committed to memory and other parts overviewed on notes.
*style* *glosses* simplistic *metaphor*
Style: The use of language to express ideas in a certain manner is called *_______*. In his discussion of style, Aristotle includes word choice, word imagery, and word appropriateness. He believes that each type of rhetoric has its own style, yet style is often overlooked. He notes that strange words or *____________* (e.g., antiquated words and phrases, such as "colored person" or "girl Friday") should be avoided. Speaking in terms that are too ______________ will also turn off an audience. To bridge this gap between the unfamiliar and the too familiar, Aristotle introduces the notion of *__________________*, or a figure of speech that helps to make the unclear more understandable. Metaphors are critical devices to employ in speeches, according to Aristotle, because they have the capacity to change the perceptions and the minds of listeners. Style can be better understood through an example from Camille's speech on drunk driving. If Camille were concentrating on style, her speech would have the following passage: "Drinking is often viewed as a means to release. After a very long day at work or at school, there may be nothing better than having a cold beer. So they say. Yet, too often, one beer turns into two, which by the end of a few hours, has turned into a six-pack. And the result can be tragic: How many times have you watched your friend or family member get into a car after a six-pack? This person can be as dangerous as a bullet, unleashed from a gun that is randomly pointed at someone. If you must drink, it's not only your business; but, it's my business, too." Camille's words evoke some strong imagery; mentally, we can recreate the scene that she has laid out. Her word choice is unmistakable in that she uses familiar words. Finally, she uses the compelling metaphor of a bullet.
*syllogism*
Syllogisms: A Three-Tiered Argument: We noted that logos is one of the 3 proofs that, according to Aristotle, create a more effective message. Nestled in these logical proofs is something called syllogisms. The term requires clarification because there is some debate among scholars on its precise meaning. Communication scholars have studied the Rhetoric and its meaning for years and have attempted to untangle some of Aristotle's words. We look here at the term syllogism, defined as a set of propositions that are related to one another and draw a conclusion from the major and minor premises. Typically, syllogisms contain 2 premises and a conclusion. A *______________* is nothing more than a deductive argument, a group of statements (premises) that lead to another group of statements (conclusions). In other words, premises are starting points or beginners used by speakers. They establish justification for a conclusion. In a syllogism, both major and minor premises exist. Symbolically, a syllogism looks like this: A→B B→C Therefore, A → C
Plato truths practical logical; realistic; rational *Sophists* logic persuasion instincts audience
The Rhetorical Tradition: The son of a physician, Aristotle was encouraged to be a thinker about the world around him. He went to study with his mentor, ________, at the age of 17. Aristotle and Plato had conflicting worldviews; therefore, their philosophies differed as well. Plato was always in search of absolute __________ about the world. He didn't care much whether these truths had ____________ value. Plato felt that as long as people could agree on matters of importance, society would survive. Aristotle, however, was more interested in dealing with the here and now. He wasn't as interested in achieving absolute truth as he was in attaining a _________, __________, and ____________ view of society. In other words, we could argue that Aristotle was much more grounded than Plato, trying to understand the various types of people in Athenian society. Because he taught diverse groups of people in Greek society, Aristotle became known as a man committed to helping the ordinary citizen—at the time, a land-owning male. During the day, common citizens (men) were asked to judge murder trials, oversee city boundaries, travel as emissaries, and defend their property against would-be land collectors. Because there were no professional attorneys at that time, many citizens hired *____________*, teachers of public speaking, to instruct them in basic principles of persuasion. These teachers established small schools where they taught students about the public speaking process and where they produced public speaking handbooks discussing practical ways to become more effective public speakers. Aristotle, however, believed that many of these handbooks were problematic in that they focused on the judicial system to the neglect of other contexts. Also, he thought that authors spent too much time on ways to arouse judges and juries: "It is not right to pervert the judge by moving him to anger or envy or pity—one might as well warp a carpenter's rule before using it," Aristotle observes. Aristotle reminds speakers not to forget the importance of _______ in their presentations. The Rhetoric could be considered Aristotle's way of responding to the problems he saw in these handbooks. Although he challenges a number of prevailing assumptions about what constitutes an effective presentation, what remains especially important is Aristotle's definition of rhetoric: the available means of _______________. For Aristotle, however, availing oneself of all means of persuasion does not translate into bribery or torture, common practices in ancient Greece, where slavery was institutionalized. What Aristotle envisions and recommends is for speakers to work beyond their first ___________ when they want to persuade others. They need to consider all aspects of speech making, including their ______________ members. When Camille prepared for her speech by assessing both her words and her audience's needs, she was adhering to Aristotle's suggestions for successful speaking. For some of you, interpreting rhetoric in this way may be unfamiliar. After all, the word has been tossed around by so many different types of people that it may have lost Aristotle's original intent. For instance, Jasper Neel (1994) comments that "the term rhetoric has taken on such warm and cuddly connotations in the postmodern era" that we tend to forget that its meaning is very specific. For people like Neel, we must return to Aristotle's interpretation of rhetoric or we will miss the essence of his theory. Politicians often indict their opponents by stating that their "rhetoric is empty" or that they're all "rhetoric, with little action." These sorts of criticisms only trivialize the active and dynamic process of rhetoric and its role in the public speaking process. Indeed, rhetoric is an "art of using language" and therefore, simply because someone talks or chats aimlessly does not mean that person is using rhetorical discourse. Consider this important caveat as you review this chapter.
transactional centered *audience analysis*
The first assumption underscores the interpretation of communication that we presented in Chapter 1: Communication is a __________________ process. Within a public speaking context, Aristotle suggests that the speaker-audience relationship must be acknowledged and even primary in the speaking process. Speakers should not construct or deliver their speeches without considering their audiences. Speakers need to be audience _______________. They should think about the audience as a group of individuals with motivations, decisions, and choices and not as some undifferentiated mass of homogeneous people. The effectiveness of Camille's speech on drinking and driving derived from her ability to understand her audience. She knew that students, primarily under the age of 25, rarely think about death, and, therefore, her speech prompted them to think about something that they normally would not consider. Camille, like many other public speakers, engaged in *_______________________*, which is the process of evaluating an audience and its background (e.g., age, sex, educational level, etc.) and tailoring one's speech so that listeners respond as the speaker hopes they will. Aristotle believed that audiences are crucial to a speaker's ultimate effectiveness. He observes, "Of the three elements in speech-making—speaker, subject, and person addressed—it is the last one, the hearer, that determines the speech's end and object". Each listener, however, is unique, and what works with one listener may fail with another. Expanding on this notion, Carnes Lord (1994) observes that audiences are not always open to rational argument. Consider Camille's speech on drinking and driving. Her speech may have worked wonderfully in the public speaking classroom, but she might have different results with a group of alcohol distributors. As you can see, understanding the audience is critical before a speaker begins constructing his or her speech.
proofs ethos; pathos; logos *Ethos* trustworthy *Logos* *Pathos* sufficient logos syllogisms
The second assumption underlying Aristotle's theory pertains to what speakers do in their speech preparation and their speech making. Aristotle's _______ refer to the means of persuasion, and, for Aristotle, 3 proofs exist: __________, ___________, and ________. *__________* refers to the perceived character, intelligence, and goodwill of a speaker as they become revealed through his or her speech. Eugene Ryan (1984) notes that ethos is a broad term that refers to the mutual influence that speakers and listeners have on each other. Ryan contends that Aristotle believed that the speaker can be influenced by the audience in much the same way that audiences can be influenced by the speaker. Interviewing Kenneth Andersen, a communication ethicist, Pat Arneson (2007) relates Andersen's thoughts about Aristotle and ethos. Ethos, according to Andersen, is "something you create on the occasion". To that end, a speaker's ethos is not simply something that is brought into a speaking experience; it is the speaking experience. Melissa Waresh (2012) contends that ethos must necessarily take into consideration the relationship between speaker and audience. She states: "Ethos is character. Character implicates trust. Trust is based on relationship. Relationship persuades". Aristotle felt that a speech by a ________________ individual was more persuasive than a speech by an individual whose trust was in question. Michael Hyde (2004) contends that Aristotle felt that ethos is part of the virtue of another and, therefore, "can be trained and made habitual". *__________* is the logical proof that speakers employ—their arguments and rationalizations. For Aristotle, logos involves using a number of practices, including using logical claims and clear language. To speak in poetic phrases results in a lack of clarity and naturalness. *__________* pertains to the emotions that are drawn out of listeners. Aristotle argues that listeners become the instruments of proof when emotion is stirred in them; listeners judge differently when they are influenced by joy, pain, hatred, or fear. Let's return to our example of Camille to illustrate these 3 Aristotelian proofs. The ethos that Camille evokes during her presentation is important. Relating a personal account of her relationship with her Uncle Jake and describing his subsequent death at the hands of a drunk driver bolster perceptions of her credibility. Undoubtedly, her audience feels that she is a credible speaker by virtue of her relationship with Jake and her knowledge of the consequences of drinking and driving. Logos is evident in Camille's speech when she decides to logically argue that although drinking is a part of recreation, mixing it with driving can be deadly. Using examples to support her claims underscores Camille's use of logical proof. The pathos inherent in the speech should be apparent from the subject matter. She chooses a topic that appeals to her college listeners. They most likely will feel for Camille and reflect on how many times they or their friends have gotten behind the wheel after having a few drinks. The proofs of Aristotelian theory, therefore, guide Camille's effectiveness. Each of these 3—ethos, logos, and pathos—is critical to speech effectiveness. But each, alone, may not be _____________. Keep in mind Kenneth Burke's belief that according to Aristotle, "an audience's confidence in the speaker is the most convincing proof of all". For Aristotle, ________ is much more than offering evidence in a speech. He delineates this proof in more detail in his writings. In his discussion, he notes that speakers who consider logos must necessarily consider _____________________. We now turn our attention to this critical Aristotelian principle.
ceremonial social issues here; now ethos virtues; values Plato courage; justice; law funeral Eulogies
The second type of rhetoric, epideictic, is also called __________________ speaking. Speeches during Aristotle's time were given in public arenas with the goal of praising, honoring, blaming, or shaming. Epideictic rhetors include people, events, organizations, or nations in their speeches. These speeches usually focus on _____________ because, according to Aristotle, people are interested in the ______ and ____. Epideictic speaking cannot be separated from __________, Aristotle stated. He believed that by understanding the need to praise or blame, epideictic speakers understand the importance of their own character. For instance, a speech criticizing prison conditions may not resonate deeply with an audience if the speaker is on death row for rape and murder. At times, there are speeches that simply are generic in nature and yet, the target of blame is implied. In 2012, for instance, the Sandy Hook Elementary School killings of more than 20 school children and staff resulted in many epideictic speeches about the need for stricter gun laws and the lax oversight of semiautomatic weapons. While many speeches did not name the National Rifle Association by name, it was clear that many speakers were blaming this organization for its influence on restricting gun legislation. Epideictic speaking is greatly informed by the study of __________ or ________— a theme that Aristotle borrowed from ______. The epideictic speaker must be able to relate the virtues of the topic to a diverse audience. Aristotle felt that ___________ and _________ ranked above all virtues, but virtue is defined according to the _____ of the land. Epideictic rhetoric is exemplified in ____________ practices in our country. ___________, which are commonplace at many funerals, usually laud the life of the deceased. Commenting on contemporary values, the epideictic speaker at a funeral frequently compares the virtues of the dead person with those of society. For instance, after the death of his grandmother, one of your authors was asked to give the eulogy at the funeral. During his speech, he talked about his grandmother's uplifting spirit and how she rarely complained about her ailments or about her financial situation. He evoked images of contemporary society in his speech, noting how unusual it is today for someone to refrain from self-centered complaining. His speech centered on a prevailing virtue of his grandmother—her selflessness—and also commented on society as a whole.
political relevant personal identification
The third type is deliberative rhetoric, also called ___________________ rhetoric, and it was the focus of much of Aristotle's comments on rhetorical discourse. As we mentioned earlier, deliberative rhetoric is associated with the future—what an audience will do or think as a result of a speaker's efforts. Deliberative speaking, then, requires the speaker to be adept at understanding how his or her thoughts are aligned with those of the audience. The deliberative speaker should be prepared to consider subjects that are _____________ to the audience and to which the speaker can personally relate. Aristotle identified 5 subjects on which people deliberated in his day: revenue, war and peace, the defense of the country, commerce, and legislation. Today's list of deliberative topics might include health insurance, taxes, relationships, education, and civil rights. Deliberative speakers might try to raise interest in these topics, and once interest is piqued, they might find that listeners are more prone to being persuaded. Larry Arnhart (1981) comments that the deliberative rhetorician needs to know not only the actual subject of deliberation but also the elements of human nature that influence deliberation. There are a number of topics, therefore, which are suited for deliberation and others that are not. Aristotle focused on what deliberative speakers can say to an assembly (a body of legislators, for example), and today this deliberative oratory continues. Consider the following example. When asked to give a short presentation to her state's legislative committee on health insurance, Beverly, a 64-year-old mother of 4, spoke about the health insurance of elderly people. As the caretaker of her 90-year-old mother-in-law, a patient in a local nursing home, Beverly knew precisely the kinds of persuasive strategies to use with the group of politicians. Her speech focused on the difficulties of being old and how these problems are amplified by not having enough insurance. She asked the legislators to consider their own aging parents in their discussions. She outlined 5 points of action for the committee to follow. 3 of the points could be undertaken immediately: establishing a task force, interviewing elderly citizens, and setting up a toll-free number to solicit citizen concerns and complaints. The remaining 2 required funding from the legislature. At the conclusion of her brief speech, Beverly was satisfied that her suggestions would not be ignored. Aristotle would have approved of Beverly's rhetoric. Her recommendations were doable (the committee enacted 3 of the five), and she made her experiences relevant to her audience by asking the group to think about their own parents. This approach elicited ______________________, which is an important tactic in deliberative speaking. By eliciting these feelings, Beverly knew that she would be able to get her audience to agree with her thinking.
available means of persuasion
Theory at a Glance: The Rhetoric: Rhetorical Theory centers on the notion of rhetoric, which Aristotle calls the _______________________________. That is, a speaker who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider 3 rhetorical proofs: logic (logos), emotion (pathos), and ethics/credibility (ethos). Audiences are key to effective persuasiveness, and rhetorical syllogisms, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are used in persuasion.
forensic; epideictic; deliberative *Forensic rhetoric*; justice *Epideictic rhetoric* *Deliberative rhetoric* past; present; future judicial; courtrooms guilt; innocence judges legal behaviors character status; morality motivation "moral habits"
Types of Rhetoric: You will recall that during Aristotle's time citizens were asked to take part in a number of speaking activities—from judge to attorney to legislator. It was in this spirit that Aristotle identified different speaking situations for citizens to consider when conversing on trade, finance, national defense, and war. He denoted th3ee types of rhetoric, or what he called 3 types of oratory: ________________, _______________, and ________________. *____________________* pertains to establishing a fact; at the core of forensic rhetoric is ___________. *_____________________* is discourse related to praise or blame. *___________________* concerns speakers who must determine a course of action—something should or should not be done. The 3 types refer to 3 different time periods: forensic to the ______, epideictic to the __________, and deliberative to the __________. We discuss these 3 rhetorical types next and illustrate them in Figure 18.1. Forensic oratory, or ___________ rhetoric, specifically refers to speaking in _______________. Its intent is to establish _______ or _______________; in Aristotle's day, forensic speakers directed their presentation to courtroom __________. Aristotle examined forensic rhetoric within a _________ framework, and thus many of his beliefs on the law are found in the Rhetoric. Amelie Rorty (1996) notes that forensic speaking requires focusing on arguments that tap into judges' psyches, including their beliefs about why certain criminals act the way they do and which types of circumstances tempt people to break the law. Because past actions are frequently indicative of a person's current behavior, forensics orators rely on previous ___________________. Aristotle recognized that a person's ________________ is critical in forensic rhetoric. He interprets character as both _________ (i.e., whether a person is young or old, rich or poor, fortunate or unfortunate) and ___________ (i.e., whether a person is just or unjust, reasonable or unreasonable). If people act voluntarily, Aristotle argued, the choices they make have consequences. To establish guilt, the forensic speaker needs to establish __________________ for doing wrong. In speaking before an audience, then, speakers will invoke what Aristotle called the "__________________" of a person. Examples of forensic rhetoric abound in our society. Forensic speakers have played prominent roles in U.S. courtrooms. Attorneys, in particular, have effectively and persuasively used their forensic rhetoric over the years. One of the most memorable forensic presentations in history took place in the closely watched trial of football legend O. J. Simpson. Prosecutors tried to implicate Simpson's morals by playing a tape recording of a 911 call in which Simpson could be heard yelling at his wife and by showing pictures of her beaten body to the jury. More recent forensic efforts by prosecutors include the legal proceedings of corruption charges by former Illinois governor, Rod Blagojevich, the Bernie Madoff investment scandal, and the trial of home décor guru Martha Stewart, who was found guilty of lying to government agents about stock trading. In all these cases, forensic speaking was used to undercut the moral integrity of the defendant and to establish guilt.
