the origins and spread of Homo sapiens-anatomically modern humans - from c. 400,000 to 12,000 years ago

the caves of Skhul and Qafzeh

ESR and luminescence dating of burials indicate that robust modern humans were present in Israel by 110,000-90,000 years ago,

Homo neanderthalensis

evolved slowly from at least 400,000 years ago in Europe and western Asia (early pre-Neanderthals), and earliest Homo sapiens somewhat later in Africa, both in the context of similar technological transitions, termed Lower to Middle Paleolithic in Europe and Early to Middle Stone Age in Africa. two species last shared a common ancestor, H. heidelbergensis, around 600,000-500,000 years ago.

anatomically modern H. sapiens

from Africa took place by 100,000 years ago, possibly followed by a major population bottleneck, i.e., a significant reduction in human numbers to perhaps as low as 10,000 individuals.

Gravettian Portable art and other art

particularly carving on mammoth ivory, is abundant across Europe, and may reflect the social importance of art and symbolic activity in the context of climatic deterioration toward the Last Glacial Maximum (Gamble 1991). The iconic "Venus" figurines are part of this Gravettian artistic flowering. Cave painting and engraving continues, with hand prints and stencils and human figurines alongside herbivores, as well as complex, multi-phased panels such as the dappled horses and associated hand stencils of Pech Merle, France, which have been dated directly by radiocarbon to 25,000-24,000 years ago

The Multi-Regional Evolution Hypothesis

predicted that modern human fossils should appear at broadly the same time throughout the Old World; that fossils transitional in form between earlier Homo ergaster or H. heidelbergensis and modern humans should be found in all or most inhabited regions; and that patterns of continuity should occur there also.

Border Cave, again in South Africa Anatomically Modem Humans (group3)

yielded a number of fossils that on the basis of ESR dates are certainly greater than 50,000 years ago; some of these are dated by luminescence to between 230,000 and 145,000 years ago - earlier than other group 3 examples (Grim and Beaumont 2001), although there is still some uncertainty over their stratigraphic provenience.

Omo (Kibish) in Ethiopia [4.10,4.11] Transitional Homo sapiens(group2)

yielded a partial skeleton, including several cranio-dental fragments (Omo I) and, possibly, an almost intact cranial vault (Omo II). On geological grounds Omo I is dated to at least 100,000 years ago (Day 1986; Rightmire 1989). It is probable that Omo II is of broadly similar age, although some doubt as to its provenience exists, and Philip Rightmire (2001) has suggested that it may be older. When compared to more recent Homo sapiens, Omo I and II are transitional in nature. Omo I has a number of distinctly modern characteristics, such as a chin, small brow ridges, and a rounded occipital region, but other features more closely resemble H. ergaster. Omo II, which is the more complete of the two specimens, has a long, low braincase with a strongly curved back of the cranial vault, which are archaic features linking this fossil to H. ergaster; but it also possesses a broad, flattened frontal bone and thin brow ridge, which link it to H. sapiens.

Leslie Aiello (1993) distinguished clearly between four main hypotheses

1) an African replacement hypothesis, which argues that modern humans arose in Africa, dispersed from there, and replaced existing Homo species elsewhere, with little or no hybridization between the groups 2) an African hybridization and replacement hypothesis similar to the former, but in which hybridization is variable but more significant 3) an assimilation hypothesis, in which gene flow, admixture, and the effects of the already existing population on an incoming African population are significant 4) a multi-regional evolution hypothesis, which denies the primacy of Africa in the origin of modern humans and instead emphasizes long-term population continuity and gene flow.

Cave of Hearths at Makapansgat in South Africa Anatomically Modem Humans (group3)

A jaw was found here, which bears the hint of a chin (Stringer and Gamble 1993).

The Gravettian represents innovations in subsistence, mortuary activity, organization in the landscape and on site, artistic endeavor, projectile technology, and other non-utilitarian aspects of behavior that together have led some to view it as a golden age

A number of burins (flakes and blades with chisellike edges) and end-scrapers attest to the working of skins and organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler.The small dimensions of some of these weapon tips suggest that the bow and arrow may have been invented at this time, although this is unproven, alongside the javelin thrown with the aid of a spear thrower (the "atlatl").

Chronology of the European Upper Paleolithic: a simplified diagram showing the major periods.

Aurignacian 40,000 years ago Gravettian 30,000 years ago Solu rean Magdalenian 20,000years ago Azilian 10,000 years ago

The Aurignacian If the Initial Upper Paleolithic emerged between 55,000 and 35.000 years ago, it is with the Aurignacian from around 35.000 years ago that it reached its first flourish, with sophisticated stone and organic technologies, organized production of personal ornamentation, and art

By 35,000 years ago the Aurignacian was well established throughout much of Europe, and by around 31,000 years ago it is found on the northern European plain, for example in Belgium and Britain. From this time, evidence of the manufacture of beads and other jewelry from teeth and mammoth ivory, and the circulation of these and marine shells over several hundred kilometers, attest to the presence of established exchange networks. Although its abundance over flake technology is occasionally exaggerated, true prismatic blade technology (in which blades were struck off from the top of a core around its periphery, leaving a prismlike core) was widely employed, and a variety of bone and antler tools such as points, awls, needles, and more enigmatic pieces indicate the fashioning of elaborate clothing and use of sophisticatedweaponry. Tailored clothing such as leggings and coats would have been far more effective in dealing with severe climates than the simpler furs and hides probably worn by the Neanderthals, and may have been a significant factor in the expansion of Upper Paleolithic populations into northern regions such as Siberia. One Belgian cave, Goyet, has provided evidence of the domesticated wolf ("dog"), which may have been developed out of captured wild wolves for traction and possibly for assistance in hunting. Art is present in the form of engraved ivory and bone, and painted and engraved cave walls. Examples of such Aurigna- dan art indude figurines in mammoth ivory from Hohle Fels Cave in southwest Germany, animal carvings from the Vogel- herd Cave in southern Germany, the lion-anthropomorph carvings on mammoth ivory such as that from nearby Hohlen- stein-Stadel Cave [4.37-4.40], engravings of vulvae (especially common in France), and possibly some of the paintings of Chauvet Cave [see box: Four Sites with Upper Paleolithic Art, p. 160]. On the other hand, there are no convincing indications of burial of the dead or sophisticated dwelling structures, which suggests that although something of a behavioral revolution had taken place, this process was ongoing and far from complete at this time.

Group 1 Earliest

Early Stone Age (more than 250,000 years ago) Homo heidelbergensis, Homo leakeyi Low braincase, broad and robust facial skeleton, thick bones, keeled forehead, large brow ridges

transitional traits

Elements of both primitive and modern human morphology. Example of this: H. sapiens fossils dating to c. 250,000-125,000 years ago show his

These three groups

H. sapiens - earliest, transitional, and anatomically modern - are linked on the basis of recognizable human traits that clearly develop from the earliest appearance of the species in a single lineage.

Java (Sangiran, Trinil) and China (Hexian, Yuanmou, Zhoukoudian)

Homo erectus populations were present on Java (Sangiran, Trinil) and in China (Hexian, Yuanmou, Zhoukoudian) from at least i million years ago and down to 500.000 years ago

Jebel Irhoud, cave in Morocco Transitional Homo sapiens(group2)

In North Africa, five different specimens with a mixture of archaic and modern traits were recovered. ESR dates on apparently associated faunal remains suggest an age for these of between 190,000 and 90,000 years ago, and biostrati- graphic data support this (Hublin 2001). The cranium and calvarium from this site (Irhoud 1 and 2 respectively) display a remarkable array of archaic and modern features, and were seen by some as evidence of African Neanderthals, but this view has now been discredited (Hublin 1993; 2001). Irhoud 1 is a large skull with an endocranial capacity somewhere between approximately 1300 cc and 1480 cc, and is modern in shape. It possesses a large, broad face similar to the Israeli Skhul and Qafzeh specimens of group 3 (see below), and in many respects falls within the range of variation of early modern humans. In a number of ways, Irhoud 2 is even more advanced, and it is probable that the two come from the same population. A broken juvenile mandible (Irhoud 3) and a humerus mid-shaft (Irhoud 4) are also within modern human size range. Importantly, none of the Irhoud fossils bear any traits that are unique to the Neanderthals.

Dar-es-Soltan, Morocco Anatomically Modem Humans (group3)

Individuals may still have been robustly built at this time, as suggested by theses remains, which are clearly modern but in a number of ways resemble the earlier Jebel Irhoud population, and are intermediate between these and remains from North African sites such as Taforalt, Afalou, and Nazlet Khater, dating to less than 50,000 years ago.

"Venus" Figurines

It was during the middle Upper Paleolithic (Gravettian), however, that the creation o f female figurines flourished, one or two millennia either side o f 25,000 years ago. Black Venus o f Dolnf V&stonice in the Czech Republic, the Venus o f Willendorf in Austria, and the "Dame a la Capudie" from the Grotte du Pape at Brassempouy, in southwest France, have become icons ofthe European Paleolithic. Figurines were carved from mammoth ivory, soft stones such as steatite, and even limestone in the case ofWillendorf. Scholars have often pointed to the emphasis on breasts and hips/buttocks, and the lack of attention to the extremities o f the legs, arms, and heads, Early in their discovery these figurines were seen as examples of cause-and-effect magic, i.e., with functions relating to fertility or childbirth.

Neanderthal male Picture in book

Long clavicle Wide scapula with more muscle attachments along rear edge Large shoulder joint Large and wide rib cage Large elbow joint Bowed and short forearm Large hip joint, rotated outwards Hand with strong grip and wide fingertips Rounded, curved and thick- walled femur shaft Large and thick patella Short, flattened and thick- walled tibia Large ankle joint Wide and strong toe bones

Group 3 Modem

Middle Stone Age (early Upper Pleistocene, c. 125,000-70,000 years ago) Homo sapiens As Group 2, also considerable reduction in facial projection, brow ridge size, and tooth size

Group 2 Transitional

Middle Stone Age (late Middle/early Upper Pleistocene, c. 250,000- 125,000 years ago) Homo helmei, Homo sapiens Share characteristics with Group 1, but display in addition some modern characteristics, e.g. distinct chin, small brow ridges, rounded occipital

Neanderthal Behavior

Neanderthals were also skilled workers of organic materials, such as antler and bone. the shaping of such materials into points and other forms was probably common, as found, for example, at Salzgitter-Lebestedt in Germany and Buran- Kaya III, Crimea, in Ukraine woodworking was probably a habitual Neanderthal activity Neanderthals commonly constructed simple hearths for warmth, light, and cooking Some Neanderthal groups buried certain of their dead, at least on occasion, and most scholars agree that there are at least 20 clear examples of interment in shallow graves,

Shanidar Cave in Iraq and Dederiyeh Cave in Syria

Neanderthals were buried elsewhere in deposits perhaps as late as 45,000 years ago here.

at Kebara, Amud, and possibly Tabun caves [4.31, 4-32] in Israel

Neanderthals were buried unaccompanied here. between 60,000 and 50,000 years ago

decimation of Neanderthal populations

Recently, it has been argued that two significant ecological disasters - the severe cold con ditions precipitated by a Heinrich Event, a massive discharge of ice off the north polar glaciers into the Atlantic, and the eruption o f a volcano in the Flegreian Fields near Naples, Italy, which deposited vast amounts ofash (ignimbrite) across several thousand kilometers of Europe - may have played a significant role in the decimation of Neanderthal populations

Willandra Lakes, Kow Swamp, and

Scholars who believe the fossil record of Australia represents two biologically different human populations have hypothesized that Sahul Land was colonized in two waves, an earlier originating in the Homo erectus population of Java, and a later originating in the gracile populations supposedly from China, although in Australia it is now clear that no taxonomic difference can be drawn between the human fossils from Willandra Lakes, Kow Swamp, and

What is mtDNA and why is it important?

Stands for mitochondrial DNA. is ideal for human evolutionary research because it is not influenced by natural selection date for the specific origins of Homo sapiens. Almost all coalescence data available to us today, especially mtDNA and Y chromosomes, cluster between around 270,000 and 200,000 years ago. Therefore, most studies point to recent coalescences that strongly suggest a single center origin, and the greatest amount of genetic diversity is found in Africa; this indicates that if coalescence occurred in one region only, it was probably south o f the Sahara.

sites: Die Kelders Cave and Equus Cave in South Africa Anatomically Modem Humans (group3)

Teeth have been found at a number of sites the latter of which yielded a fragmentary mandible with dimensions close to those of modem people (Grine and Klein 1985). While the information they can provide is understandably limited in scope, the dimensions and morphology of such isolated teeth do not fall outside modern ranges.

The Out of Africa Hypothesis

The single origins hypothesis predicts that the earliest fossils of modern humans will be found only in Africa, and that transitional fossils will also be found only in this region.

Gravettian Behavior

The Aurignacian had come to an end in all areas of Europe by around 28,000 years ago. It was succeeded across most of the continent by more regionally distinct groups that shared general characteristics over a large area. This general techno complex is referred to as the Gravettian; it lasted from at least 29,000 years ago down to 21,000 years ago in some regionssemi-sedentism, elaborate burial, and projectile technology, which separate it from the early Upper Paleolithic Aurignacian. The Gravettian represents innovations in subsistence, mortuary activity, organization in the landscape and on site, artistic endeavor, projectile technology, and other non-utilitar ian aspects of behavior that together have led some to view it as a golden age (Roebroeks et al. 2000). Technologically, the Gravettian employed prismatic blade technology IN central Europe site complexes such as Pavlov and Dolni Vestonice I and II in Moravia have yielded hundreds of bones of mammoth, bison, and reindeer, and complex patterning of artifacts sug gestive of highly organized campsites. At both site complexes, simple firing ofloess (silt) obtained from the banks ofthe Dyje, either deliberately as small animal figurines, perhaps as part of a ritual, or accidentally, has left us impressions of sophisticated cordage, basketry, and textiles dating to as early as 27,000 years ago (Adovasio et al. 1996). At another camp, Predmostf, three crania have been identified as domesticated wolves ("dogs") [4.49], which have also been found on Russian sites of broadly similar age (Germonpre et al. 2011). Similarly, complex sites may be found on the terraces of the River Don in Russia, such as the numerous localities at Kostenki. At Kostenki I, a number of semi-subterranean dwellings, apparently roofed with mammoth ribs and furs, were organized in an oval, in the center of which a series o f nine hearths

Taramsa, Egypt Anatomically Modem Humans (group3)

The child from, which dates to between c. 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, is more similar to these Epi- paleolithic (final Upper Paleolithic) samples than to the earlier specimens (Vermeersch et al. 1998).

Bodo Earliest Homo sapiens

The cranium was recovered in 1976, in deposits containing Acheulean tools that were dated by the argon-argon method to between 670,000 and 600,000 years ago. It possesses a number of features characteristic of H. ergaster, such as a low braincase, broad and robust facial skeleton, relatively thick bones, a "keeled" forehead (i.e., with a central bulge), and a massively constructed brow ridge.

Four Sites with Upper Paleolithic Art

The discovery of Cosquer Cave: entered underwater;reminds us that many sites have probably been lost due to the erosive processes of the sea Coa Valley:indications that Upper Paleolithic art was probably very widespread in the landscape, and the tendency for art to survive in caves is probably due to very lucky preservation. ChauvetCave:Compositional groupings of grazing herbivores and predatory carnivores are probably scenes from life. A number of hearth charcoal fragments and two depictions (the "confronting rhinos," and a bison and an aurochs) have been dated to between 30,000 and 33,000 years ago. Because of this, the Chauvet drawings have been seen as possibly the earliest evidence of painted art known Creswell Crags (gorge): around a dozen simple engravings on the walls of Church Hole and Robin Hood caves

Herto, in Ethiopia's Middle Awash region

The discovery of two adult and one child's crania has significantly increased support for an African emergence of modern humans (White et al. 2003). The crania were recovered from deposits beneath those dated by argon-argon to between about 160,000 and 154,000 years ago (Clark et al. 2003), which would appear to give them a minimum age. They display a variety of traits inherited from earlier African H. ergaster populations as well as clearly modern traits, and they lack any unique derived traits characteristic of the chronologically later Neanderthals. To emphasize the transitional nature of the Herto population, these have been classified as Homo sapiens idaltu, and it is suggested that they occupied an intermediary position in the regional evolution from H. rhodesiensis to anatomically modern H. sapiens. Archaeological associations are both Acheulean and Middle Stone Age, as one would expect for fossils of such age.

Florisbad in South Africa [4.8,4.9] Transitional Homo sapiens(group2)

The partial cranium found in 1932 at Florisbad was originally classified as H. helmei by T. F. Dreyer Between 150,000 and 120,000 years old and originally classified as Homo helmei, it bears a number of affinities with later Homo sapiens and is an exemplar of "transitional" forms. Damaged by hyena chewing, the fossil seems to have been part of a carnivore accumulation that became incorporated into vertical spring vents; tooth fragments have been dated by electron spin resonance [see ESR Dating box, p. 107] to between 300,000 and 100,000 years ago. A direct ESR determination of an associated hominin tooth dates the specimen to 300,000-200,000 years ago (Grim et al. 1996).

cranium from Broken Hill (Kabwe) [4.6] Earliest Homo sapiens

This remarkably complete cranium has been dated biostratigraphically (i.e., based on the presence of fossils of known age in the stratigraphic layers; between c. 700,000 and 400,000 years ago, and was originally classified as Homo rhodesiensis ("Rhodesian Man"). Historically, it was seen by some as an African Neanderthal, although this can be ruled out today. It does, however, possess certain traits of H. ergaster, in combination with a number of advanced characteristics that link it with later specimens, such as the morphology of its nasal aperture, palate, and jaw region, and the proportions of the rear of the skull. Given its age and its apparent association with postcranial remains (the skeleton below the skull), most of the attributes of which are within the range of modern humans, it is best seen as another example of the varied emergence of modem human characteristics in Africa.

Mitochondrial DNA and the Theory of an Early African "Coalescence"

Thus they form a relatively reliable molecular clock that, assuming a rough mutation rate can be ascertained, will provide estimated dates for the period at which a particu lar phenotype (set of genes possessed by a particular group) appeared; this appearance is known as coalescence. Mutations accumulate in mtDNA some 10 times faster than

The Magdalenian

Weapons: Flints were often heat-treated to improve their fracture mechanics, and pressure flaking was employed to create a variety of leafshaped weapon tips. These seem to have been produced to tight design specifications in terms of size and weight, probably reflecting the demands of hafting and aerodynamic efficiency of atlatl-propelled javelins ART: Cave art is mainly known from Franco-Cantabria (southwest France and northern Spain), although examples are known from Italy, Germany, and Britain, suggesting that it was probably a widespread phenomenon in caves and also in open locations. Portable art is remarkably abundant and diverse across Europe in this period, and included exquisitely carved animal heads and engraved and notated bones from the Pyrenees and southern France, stylized female carvings from Germany, engraved "batons" of bone and antler that may have functioned as spear shaft straightellers, line players for fishing or more spiritual functions, atlatl crooks for throwing javelins, and a host of other highly decorated pieces

SITE: Klasies River Mouthon the southern coast of South Africa

a general stratigraphic sequence up to 16 m (52 ft) deep. The sequence reflects periods of occupation that began shortly after c. 125,000 years ago and occurred again around 110,000, before 90,000, and before 60,000 years ago (dated by ESR and luminescence). sites consist largely of shells, charcoal, and ash. Hearths are so common in the Middle Stone Age levels that the controlled use of fire must have been practiced routinely. The whole sequence is rich in faunal remains, from small terrestrial vertebrates, including reptiles, to large herbivores, and a variety of marine resources including fish and (rare) amphibians. site suggest that the gathering of plant food was important in this period. a weapon tip was found embedded in a vertebra of giant buffalo carnivore gnaw marks are rare on the faunal assemblages, and patterns of humanly induced damage are highly suggestive of hunting

Elandsfontein farm near Saldanha Bay in South Africa Earliest Homo sapiens (group1)

a hominin calvarium (skull cap) [4.7] was discovered in 1953, associated with Acheulean stone tools. It shares some primitive characteristics with Homo ergaster, and compares closely to the Broken Hill cranium (Rightmire 2001). As it shares some traits with both modern humans and the Neanderthals, it could represent their last common ancestor, although according to Richard Klein, evidence of disease in the bone makes it difficult to evaluate this specimen with confidence.

period from around 29,000 to 21,000 years ago, often referred to as the mid-Upper Paleolithic

brought to an end by the severe conditions of the Last Glacial Maximum, marks a number of behavioral innovations, such as semi-sedentism, elaborate burial, and projectile technology,

Sale in Morocco Earliest Homo sapiens(group1)

cranium recovered here, which has been dated on geological and biostratigraphic grounds to c. 220,000 years ago (Hublin 2001), also possesses a number of derived, modern traits, despite having several characteristics of Homo ergaster, including a cranial capacity of c. 930 cc, and best fits in this group of earliest Homo sapiens.

Early Neanderthals

developed by 150,000 years ago

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

does not reside in the cell's nucleus and comes only in small, two-strand rings. This DNA encodes for only 37 genes.This DNA is ideal for human evolutionary research because it is not influenced by natural selection.

Early H. neanderthalensis (late pre-Neanderthals) and early H. sapiens

established distinct populations by at least 300,000 years ago. Alongside this is a possible early appearance and slow evolution of some "modern" behavior in Africa and, arguably, late in the Middle Paleolithic of Europe.

The burial of a four-year-old child, probably male, at Lagar Velho, Portugal [4.42],

has been cited as evidence of local interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans. Evidence produced in support of this view includes traits such as hyper- arctic body minimize heat loss), which are Neanderthal-like, in the context of a fully modern body (Zilhao and Trinkaus 2002), although the growth pattern of early modern humans is poorly understood and hyperarctic body proportions need hardly be indicative of a genetic relationship between the twoproportions (with short limbs relative to trunk, to

Malakunanja rock- shelter in northern Australia, and burials at Lake Mungo, near the Darling River in southeast Australia

have been held to suggest that colonization occurred before this watershed Recent re-evaluations of the dating of these sites, however, have revised their age to around 40.000 years ago.

the Israeli caves of the Mugharet es-Skhul and Jebel Qafzeh Anatomically Modem Humans (group3)

have yielded the remains of over 20 individuals, many of whom seem to have been buried in simple graves [4.14] and at Qafzeh with the use of red ocher. Consensus for the dates of these remains is 110,000-90,000 years ago, on the basis of ESR and luminescence dating

Mumba in Tanzania, and even earlier at such South African sites as Howieson's Poort, where they appear mixed with Middle and Late Stone Age lithics [4.16].

he hallmark of the Later Stone Age of Africa, appeared as early as 65,000 years ago

Lake Ndutu, at the western end of the main gorge at Olduvai, Tanzania Earliest Homo sapiens(group1)

hominin cranium was discovered in 1973 here (associated with an Acheulean industry). Philip Rightmire (2001) suggests that the age of the Ndutu material may be close to 400,000 years ago, on the basis of a tentative correlation with the Masek Beds geological formation in Olduvai Gorge. Although fragmentary, the endocranial capacity of the Ndutu cranium has been estimated at around 1100 cc, and enough of the brow ridge survives to reveal that it was fairly projecting, although not particularly thick; morphologically, it is similar to the fossils from Elandsfontein and Broken Hill.

Classic Neanderthals

in Eurasia by 70,000 years ago.

skull shape

similarities of modem humans alive today,

Blombos Cave, South Africa

situated 35 m (115 ft) above sea level on the southern Cape shore of the Indian Ocean, has yielded spectacular evidence of an early emergence of modem behavioral elements in Africa Stone tools:these lanceolate bifacially worked Stillbay points, which were possibly hafted as weapons, were found in Middle Stone Age levels

nuclear DNA

takes the form of the double helix of around 3 billion base pairs. This DNA encodes (i.e., provides the molecular blueprint for) around 100,000 genes (sequences of base pairs)

Early Upper Paleolithic shell beads

the beads, from Ugagizli, are made from the shells of a Mediterranean species and come from layers probably dating to before 40,000 years ago.

Mitochondrial DNA and the Evolution of Homo neanderthalensis

the three mtDNA sequences suggest very strongly that Neanderthals were dissimilar genetically to Homo sapiens. Whether this difference is enough to demonstrate that the two could not produce fertile offspring, however, is open to discussion The current consensus is that Neanderthals were a distinct species. Archaeology and the Emergence of"Modern" Behavior in M iddle Stone Age Africa After 100,000 years ago, the archaeological record reveals evidence for a number of behavioral patterns that differ signifi cantly from those of earlier times [Table 4.3]. These are usually seen as indicative of "modern" forms ofbehavior, and the broad coincidence of these traits with the biological emergence of anatomically modern Homo sapiens has suggested to many that a new cognitive threshold had been crossed at this time by our own species. Traditionally, the emergence of modern behav ior, as reflected in the Upper Paleolithic record of Europe and the Late Stone Age of Africa, has been seen as a relatively late phenomenon, and probably one that occurred outside Africa. The relatively intense amount of excavation and research in Europe, and the rich archaeological record that some European regions have yielded, have led to the notion that a European "human revolution" occurred when modern humans estab lished themselves in these relatively northern regions and spread out from there, perhaps even back into Africa. Although the Upper Paleolithic in Europe seems to have appeared relatively suddenly around 40,000 years ago, a number of scholars have come to question both the suddenness o f the transition, and whether all elements that are recognized as part of the late Upper Paleolithic/Late Stone Age appeared together at one time and in one place. s

The Tabun caves:

these are situated on a wave- cut cliff at the foot of Mount Carmel (left). Major sedimentary units C and D (seen above) contained rich Middle Paleolithic assemblages with pronounced use of the Levallois technique. Neanderthal remains were found in Layer C.

Dali, Jinniushan, Xujiayo, and Maba

these four Chinese sites have yielded fossils bearing a variety of characteristics found in H. erectus and H. sapiens, in deposits dating to between 200.000 and 90,000 years ago

Characteristic Cranial Features of Anatomically Modern Humans

• Cranial capacity usually in excess of 1350 cc (though admittedly this is variable) • Relatively vertical frontal bone (forehead) • High and parallel-walled cranial vault • Rounded occipital region (the back of the head) lacking a prominent horizontal bulge (the occipital torus) and with a relatively flat angle of the cranial base (basicranial angle) • Non-continuous brow ridge expressed more clearly in males • Relatively flat, non-projecting face "tucked in" below the expanded frontal region of the braincase • Distinct chin

Archaeological Evidence for Modern Human Behavior after 100,000 Years Ago

• Increased typological diversity and standardization of artifacts • Greater frequencies of artifact/assemblage change over time • Shaping of organic materials such as bone, antler, and ivory by carving into formal categories of implements such as needles, awls, and harpoons • Jewelry of pierced shells and carved organics, often transported in the landscape • Incontrovertible figurative and non-figurative art • Clear organization of space, including dwelling structures and elaborate hearths • Transport of lifhic raw materials over longer distances, occurring more frequently • Broad-spectrum economies incorporating small terrestrial animals, marine resources, vegetal resources, and often requiring trapping and processing technologies such as grindstones • Storage • Prey selectivity in large mammal hunting • Occupation of more difficult environments