Unit 12 - Nationalism

How was the Legislative Assembly (Corps) ultimately powerless under Napoleon III?

- Elections based on UMS - but rigged! - Appearance that he's for the people - but not willing to give people... - Right to pass laws that he gives to them; unlike normal legislature...can't debate laws - only approve laws that came down from him! - Complete power over police + armed forces + civil service positions - Controlled, ultimately, the budget!

Nationalism

- Liberal concept! - Early nationalism - generally liberal + idealistic, often democratic and radical - But used by conservatives...further own agendas + strengthen state! Combine with authoritarian rule - Napoleon III in France, Cavour in Italy, Bismarck in Germany

The Great Reforms of Russia under Tsar Alexander II

Crimean War of 1853-1856 - Demonstrated to Russia - fallen behind rapidly industrializing nations of western Europe! Reveals Russia's weakness and backwardness - need to industrialize! (TURNING POINT) - Needed railroads, better armaments, and reorganization of army to maintain international position - Hardship + massive peasant rebellion - reform of serfdom needed! Reforms: Political - 1861 - abolishment of serfdom - Serfdom had led to peasant uprisings, poor agricultural output, exploitation of serfs - Emancipated peasants received half of land; needed to pay high price for it... - Land owned collectively - each peasant village jointly responsible for payments of all families in village... - Made it difficult to improve agricultural methods or leave villages - Old patterns of behavior - reform effects limited - 1864 - new institution of local government (zemstvo) - Elected by three-class system of towns, peasant villages, and noble landowners; dealt with local problems - Set local policies (road-building, education, etc.), but did not limit tsar's power or overturn his policies - Step towards popular participation - Hope of liberals - reform would lead to elected national parliament - Disappointed - who dominated them? Elites + noble landowners! - Reform of legal system - Established independent courts, equality before the law; education and policies to Jews liberalized; censorship relaxed (not removed) Economic - Transportation + industry - 1860 - government encouraged + subsidized private railway companies - Allowed Russia to export grain (Russia mostly agricultural) - ore money for further economic development - Industrial suburbs around Moscow and St. Petersburg - Class of modern factory workers formed - Who in favor? Russian nationalists + superpatriots - government's biggest supporters - Industrial development + growing proletariat - spread of Marxian thought + transformation of Russian revolutionary movement after 1890

Earlier ideas + attempts to unify Italy

Giuseppe Mazzini - Leader of Italian Risorgimento ("Resurgence") = movement to achieve Italian nationhood - Resurgence of Roman nationalism - desire to go back to greatness of Roman empire + Italian culture - Started an organization called Young Italy (1831) - sought to achieve a united Italy that would be a democratic republic - More of a radical - idealistic patriot! - The Duties of Man - urged Italians to dedicate their lives to the Italian nation - Stirred up revolution in 1848...captured Rome and declared a "New Roman Republic" - crushed by Austria and France - Conservatives - dislike nationalism...failed! But still see the sparks UMS and will of people emphasized Vincenzo Gioberti - Catholic priest; opposed the idea of a republic... - Any form of democratic, he was against! Church more conservative - Proposed a federation of Italian states under the leadership of the Pope, but rejected...

Napoleon III v. the National Assembly

Had to share power with (conservative) National Assembly - according to constitution Passed conservative measures to gain approval of Assembly - Bill - increase role of Catholic Church in primary and secondary education - Approved law depriving many poor people from voting - Why? Wanted: - Assembly to vote funds to pay personal debts - Change constitution so he could run for second term

Role of Otto von Bismarck (r. (1871-1890)

How was he able to establish an integrated political and economic structure for Germany? Consider his challenges: - Pushback from: - Far left - socialists (working class rights) - Classical liberals - middle class - Catholic Church - don't want people to devote selves to foreign ruler... (farmers + peasants) - Conservatives + Junkers - Need to cater to their interests! General reforms: - Unified monetary system, established Imperial Bank and strengthened existing banks - Developed universal German civil and criminal codes - Established compulsory military service Dealings with the Catholic Church - 1870 - Pope Pius IX claimed papal infallibility (pope can do no wrong!) - Made it seem that German Catholics should place loyalty to church > loyalty to unified nation - Aim? Make Church subject to government control! - Kulturkampf (struggle against civilization) - initially sought to limit the influence of the Catholic Church (Catholic Party) - Church - impeding German civilization - backwards thing! - Take education and marriage out of the hands of the clergy - civil marriages only recognized - Jesuits are expelled from Germany - Education of Catholic priests would be under the supervision of the German government - Pretty unsuccessful - Catholics voted for Center Party (prevented passage of laws that would harm the Church) Bismarck's Rapproachment With the Catholic Church - Bismarck's change of heart (beg. in 1878): - He's a pragmatic ruler - willing to change direction if he needs to meet interests of different people! - Supported Catholic Center Party - peasants + farmers; traditionally valued Church - Advocated regional priorities (farmers in western and southern Germany): high tariffs on imported cheap grains - Now, don't have to compete with foreign products! - Won over Catholics (and conservatives - Junkers; landowners!) Ushered in an Era of Protectionism - tied to economic nationalism (appealed to...?) - Taken up by other foreign nations too... - Seeking to protect own economic interests within - don't want goods of foreign countries coming in and causing harm to own economies Attacked liberals: - Went after the Socialist Democratic Party (SPD): Marxist leaning (not as extreme) - Fear or its revolutionary language + allegiance to movement that transcended the nation-state - Advocated sweeping social legislation + the realization of a genuine democracy, and demilitarization of the German gov't - Anti-nationalist, anti-monarchical, anti-authoritarian, anti-private property, anti-capitalist... - Socialists - generally nationalist! But these are Marxist leaning...Marx - anti nationalist! Transcend nationality - Outlawed the party and restricted all socialist activities, driving the party underground - not eradicated! - Example of the use of political orchestration to achieve goals + transcend the Reichstag! BUT Bismarck ends up creating the "First Welfare State" (!) To win support of the working classes: (WHY?) - Show that government is in support of working class welfare! Win popular support - Democratic bent to changes...not just in Germany! All over Europe - Universal male suffrage by 1881 - Improved working conditions and regulated child labor - Modern social security laws established: - National sickness and accident insurance laws passed (1883-84) - Old-age pensions and retirement benefits (1889) - Accused of "state socialism" from the Conservatives!

Otto van Bismarck

Junker + staunch conservative! Flexible and pragmatic - "One must always have two irons in the fire" - Kept options open - pursued multiple policies to reach goal (to expand Prussia!) - Very aware of European affairs; attuned to what went on in political realm - Consummate politician and opportunist - An ultimate realist; a master of "realpolitik" (stressed what needed to get done using whatever means necessary) - Not a gambler/dreamer/idealist - has a goal in mind! - Bit Machiavellian... "The great questions of our day cannot be solved by speeches and majority votes—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood." - Is thinking about unification (not from liberal standpoint) - critical of liberals! Liberals - cause of division (why didn't work in 1848 + 1849) - Look to iron and blood - use of industry (iron) and violence/war (if necessary)! His political goal? To make Prussia the most powerful German state by uniting all German states under its control! - Use nationalism as a means to unite Germany/gain power for Prussia - authoritarian + conservative goal! - Not about celebrating nationalism as a liberal idea...not solely for unification! - Believed that Prussia had to control the northern (Protestant) German Confederation! Expelled Austria from all German affairs... Nicknamed the "Iron Chancellor" because he ruled without the support of Prussian parliament - ruled with an iron fist! - 1862-1866: Bismarck governed Prussia by largely ignoring Parliament; bureaucracy continues to collect $ (taxes) to build up the army - A bully...ram through the tax hikes (collect taxes), raise budget, go to war - all without approval of parliament! In his mind, he has a goal and has to get his action in order to achieve the goal with or without the help of parliament! - "Might makes right" view - very heavily opposed! - If he is willing to uphold the interest of the king, then the king has no complaints! Sits back and does nothing... Bismarck is not a political "gambler" - Only waged war when it was a last resort (all diplomatic efforts failed) - Ex. like Cavour - only sought war after alliance with Napoleon III secured! - Reasonably sure that he can succeed! Thinking ahead... - Before any war was declared, Bismarck saw to it that : - Prussia only ever would fight one power at a time, on no more than one front - Focus efforts on one particular enemy/opponent - Opponents were diplomatically isolated - no allies!

Great Britain

Like France, experienced economic prosperity and expanded democracy after 1865 under two primary parties: - Tories (Tory Party) - Conservative party Benjamin Disraeli - Argued for aggressive foreign policy, expansion of the British Empire, and reluctantly supported democratic reforms - Whigs (Whig Party) - Liberal Party under William Gladstone - Supported Irish Home Rule, free trade, extension of democratic principles while opposing imperialism - Influence of other Political Thinkers - John Stuart Mill - On Liberty (1859) - influential work on the necessity to increase democracy + utilitarianism - Britain in late 19th century - generally viewed as peaceful + successful political evolution with two-party parliament leading from classical liberalism to democracy! Expansion of the franchise (the vote): - Reform Bill of 1832 (got rid of rotten boroughs, included industrialized regions and cities; all wealthy middle class members—almost all men over 21 who resided in urban centers) - Cleaning up! Better living conditions - Moving in this direction (UMS) - not enough yet - 2nd Reform Bill of 1867 (under Disraeli - his "Leap in the Dark") - Extended vote to all middle-class males + best-paid workers - Why leap in dark? Disraeli - Conservative...this is more liberal move! - Wants to gain more support of people + grow Tory party - 3rd Reform Bill of 1884 (under Gladstone) 2 million agricultural voters added to the franchise - Most men have UMS! - Civil Service reforms introduced in 1870: open competitive exams for gov't positions - Reduced regulation of trade unions (1875) - Built upon findings of Edwin Chadwick (chapter 23); health and sanitary findings - Gov't regulations for improved sanitation During 1880's - 1890's, new groups emerged seeking to extend further democracy: - Included women's suffrage advocates, anti-imperialists, socialists, and anti-nationalists (see supplementary info) - Fabian Society (1883) among the most significant: advanced a form of revisionist Marxism - Sought political democracy and economic socialism - 1893, Keir Hardie and his Independent Labor Party rapidly became a vocal 3rd party. - Attracted trade unionists, socialists, and those who thought that Conservative and Liberal Parties had no genuine interests in the needs of the general public - Rise of Social Welfare Legislation before WWI: (meant to guarantee each citizen with a decent standard of living) - People's Budget (1909) under David Lloyd George (Liberal Party) - Posed in same way that Bismarck responded against criticisms of "State socialism" Results? - Extensive social welfare measures passed between 1906 and 1914 - Liberal Party - raised taxes on rich (People's Budget) - helped government pay for health insurance + unemployment benefits + old-age pensions + other social measures - Integrating urban masses socially + politically!

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

Patriotic war with France - bring south German states into unity! - Diplomatic pretext - relative of William I (Leopold, a Hohenzollern) might become king of Spain - Upset the balance of power - Ems telegram - manipulated document by Bismarck - Actual reason - leaders of Second Empire in 1870 provoked by Bismarck + afraid of Prussia's power... War - France - unprepared...no match for Prussia - Diplomatically isolated! Bismarck figured that out beforehand - Vs. the whole of Germany...not as militarily strong as Prussia is... - German forces defeated French at Sedan on September 1, 1870; Louis Napoleon captured - Declare the 3rd Republic of France!! The pendulum swings directly left once again... - After five months (January 1871) France surrenders - Severe penalty - immense debt, cede rich eastern province of Alsace + part of Lorraine - Not taken well by the French (all classes)...relations ruined! South German states joined the new German Empire! William I proclaimed Kaiser William I of the Second Reich (empire) in Hall of Mirrors at Versailles - Throw salt in the wound... - Like in constitution - king + ministers had ultimate power in German Empire, lower house of legislature elected through UMS Effects? - Patriotic feelings in Germany - Bismarck's genius, invincible Prussian army, solidarity of king and people in unified nation - From weakest of Great Powers (after Austria, Britain, France, Russia) -> most powerful state in Europe in less than a decade! - Semi-authoritarian nationalism - "New conservatism" - based on alliance of propertied classes + sought active support of working classes - In the end, Prussian leadership of German unification...victory for the conservatives! - While liberal ideas were used for the means, it's a Prussian king for a united state - empire - Symbolizes the triumph of authoritarian/conservative, militaristic values over liberal, constitutional sentiments! - Celebration of nationalism, but from a very different perspective!

Napoleon III's foreign policy struggles

- Algeria - Charles X - already taken over (established colony) - Crimean War - Conflicts with Austria (Italian unification struggles) - Colonial possessions in Africa - Southeast Asia - Failed attempts to take over Mexico (why we started celebrating Cinco de Mayo...) - Collapse of 2nd Empire due to Franco-Prussian War (1870) and the capture of Napoleon III War - way to distract people from internal conflicts... - Use foreign conflicts to decrease tension between classes, but was unsuccessful!

Economic successes in Napoleon III's Second Empire

- Encouraged new investment banks and massive railroad construction (heart of Industrial Revolution) - Fostered general economic expansion - program of public works (ex. rebuilding Paris to improve urban environment) - Profits of businesses prospered - Wages of workers kept up with inflation - satisfied the proletariat...greater rights! - Unemployment declined

How did Napoleon III rise to power?

1848 - President of the 2nd French Republic - Executive power who shared power with the legislature - Butts head with Assembly - they didn't comply with his will! Wanted them to pay for his personal debts... 1851 - Plebiscite #1 - 92% vote to make LN President for 10 yrs Plebiscite - national referendum Manipulates the vote...but why did he have it in the first place? Wanted to look like a democratic + legitimate ruler! 1852: Plebiscite #2 - 97% vote to make LN Hereditary Emperor (!) - Voted by many common people - peasants and workers - Appeared strong and forward-looking; agreed with interests - Serve all people no matter wealth + reformer - Linked to citizens by direct democracy - uncorrupted by politicians or legislatures

Bismarck's taming of the parliament

After the war, the Prussian parliament passed a bill of indemnity (1866) that would retroactively legalize the taxes that he had collected illegally since 1862 (!) How did he win over the liberals? - Pulls through on the unification! Successfully united northern German states and the south! - Both have same political end of unification (even though different reasons) - Approve of Prussia's military position! Won over by Bismarck's military successes Bismarck further proved that Napoleon III's political approach worked - idea that nationalism (initially liberal idea) and authoritarianism could go hand in hand! Middle class accepted monarchial authority/aristocratic superiority - Values of aristocratic Prussian army officer replaced middle-class liberal

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III)

As Louis Napoleon - President of the 2nd French Republic, 1848-1852 - Radical riots of June days - elected with strong executive powers - Protect middle classes/peasants! Fear of socialists by middle class and peasant property owners - Napoleon I - Napoleonic legend created after 1820 by Romantics - deified him; elevated him to near godlike status! Since he shared the name, maybe he would be just as great? As Napoleon III - Emperor of the 2nd French Empire, 1852-1870 Beliefs: - Government should represent the people + help them economically - Politicians typically represented special-interest groups (particularly middle class) - Instead, have a strong + authoritarian, national leader like Napoleon I - Vision of national unity and social progress - State - duty to provide jobs and stimulate economy; would benefit all classes

Crimean War (1853-1856)

Background: - The Ottoman Empire - known as "The Sick Man of Europe"; gov't was weak, corrupt, and inefficient - Losing territory: Greece - independence in 1830 (helped by Europeans), Algeria by French - Divide up the Ottoman Empire - European powers scrambling! Upset balance of powers - Russia claimed right to protect all Orthodox Christians living in the Ottoman Empire; France was protector of the Catholics - squabbling over region in Palestine...still under Turkish control! - In the 1850's, both France and Russia claimed jurisdiction over certain holy places in Palestine Causes: - Napoleon III took firm stand against Russia (under Nicholas I) and gained support of Britain WHY? - Russia starts to try to gain land from Ottomans...trying to gain a warm water port on Mediterranean! Looking to expand as well - France + Britain opposed that...upset the balance of power - Block Russia (a naval power) - might gain power of Black Sea + Mediterranean...secure their naval ports! - Ottoman Turks, backed by France and Britain, resisted Russian claims in the Palestine dispute War breaks out: - Most of fighting happened on the Crimean peninsula - Full scale war begins in 1854: Russia v. Ottoman Empire, France, Britain, Piedmont-Sardinia - Called the "most unnecessary war in history" fought inefficiently and wastefully - Most memorable military action was the 11-month siege of Sevastopol (Russian naval base) End of War and Results: Russia was defeated - Treaty of Paris (1856): - Russia gave up its claims to protect Christians in the Ottoman Empire and give back all territories claimed in the war (Balkans...) - Russia forbidden to build up a navy in the Black Sea - All the major powers agreed to respect the political integrity of the Ottoman Empire Who benefitted and who lost big? - Russia lost...didn't claim anything! - France - costly, didn't gain land...lost! Overall Significance of the Crimean War? - Establishment of modern field hospitals and nursing staffs more men died of disease than combat): Florence Nightingale, creation of the Red Cross - Marked a transition from traditional to modern warfare: high casualty rates due to new technologies - Signified the failure of the Concert of Europe - upsetting balance of power - Weakening conservative forces - paving the way for unification in Italy and Germany! Most important!!

Danish War (1864)

Cause: - Schleswig and Holstein - large German population - Argument that they should not be part of Denmark and rather German states! - Ask Austria for help... Results: - Gains with Austria - Schleswig - Prussia - Holstein - Austria - Use this war to provoke war with Austria! - Helps basic goal of unifying Germany!

Northern phase of Italian unification

Cavour - realistic and practical in his approach to nationalism - Not going for crazy/idealistic goals out of reach... - Realpolitik - "politics of reality" - Looked to unite northern Italian states to increase the power of P-S! Take back Lombardy and Venetia... - But to do so, he would need an ally to fight Austria... Treaty of Plombières (1858) - Ask France to help...succeed in convincing Napoleon III to offer support against Austria (in exchange for lands Nice + Savoy) - Also - only started the war after securing Napoleon III's support...you'll see a lot of these kinds of power plays BUT there's a change of heart!!! - Napoleon stops supporting... - 1859 - Austria attacks Sardinia; France comes to Sardinia's aid! After Franco-Sardinian victory...Napoleon III abandons! Criticism from French for supporting the Church's enemy - Fear of Prussia...could be brought into this (with Austria)! French don't want to go to that length... - Cavour gets pissed off - steps down as Prime Minister - In the end, P-S gains Lombardy, but not Venetia Other northern Italian states (Parma, Modena, Romagna, and Tuscany) are encouraged to join P-S - Series of plebiscites in 1860 to join P-S under Victor Emmanuel's rule, which France acknowledged in exchange for Nice and Savoy from P-S - Lots of these liberal nationalists - Why does France gain Nice + Savoy? Strengthens P-S to have all these northern states come under their leadership! - Compensation for this shift in power - politics!

Tsar Alexander III

Conservative reactionary: " Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Russification!" - Opposed all of the changes... - Russification - aggressively enforcing Russian culture on ethnic minorities - Encouraged anti-Semitism: pogroms resulted in severe persecution of Jews; forced migration to the Pale - Destroy buildings/businesses - supported by Russian Government BUT under him, industrialization continues in 1890's Count Sergei Witte (Financial Controller) - Inspired by Friedrich List - More important than Alexander III himself - the one who really aggressively heads the efforts to westernize Russia - Aggressively courted western capital & advanced technology to build great factories - Resulted in rise of a small Russian middle-class (far smaller than western Europe) - By 1900, catching up! But not quite industrialized as most other places - High protective tariffs to build industry - Gold standard of "civilized world" - strengthen Russian finances - Encouraged foreigners to build factories in Russia - Russia 4th in steel production (behind U.S., Germany & Britain) - Russia exported half the world's refined petroleum - Industrialization contributed to spread of Marxist thought and the transformation of the Russian revolutionary movement after 1890 (as industrial workers felt exploited) - Despite economic and social reforms, economic problems still staggering by 1900

Overview: liberal accomplishments and negatives by end of 19th c.

Constitutional governments - Firmly established national state (with growing mass loyalty) - UMS - almost universally accepted by 1914! - Ordinary people felt that they mattered (could influence government to some extent); part of the system - More voting...women make more gains (post-WWI) - More common to have representative assemblies taking part in government process Working class benefits increase - Rise of the welfare state (Germany first) - state looking out for interests/benefit of the people! - Laws to alleviate general problems - Spread of public education + literacy - Free trade promoted + economic liberalism - Middle class values expressed (!!) Age of Mass Politics - everyone more involved in politics + political process, people getting more say in governments - Rise of multi-party politics - tailor to interests of multiple groups/populations - Governments represented people more responsively - Leverage - individual parties could obtain benefits for supporters - Giving loyalty to newly formed states - nationalism! Negatives? - Manipulate national feeling through war + nationalism! - Create sense of unity - Divert attention away from underlying class conflicts - Used antiliberal + militaristic policies - manage domestic conflicts - Increased international tensions... - Extreme nationalism - create popular animosity against imaginary enemies (anti-Semitism)

Unification of Germany

Creation of the North German Confederation, under Prussia's control - Resistance from southern German states - Prussia + north - Protestant; south - Catholic! - Also closer proximity to Italy + Austria - more hesitant... Constitution for North German Confederation - Each state - own local government; king of Prussia president of confederation - Chancellor (Bismarck) responsible for only president - Federal government (William I and Bismarck) controlled army and foreign affairs - Legislature with members of lower house elected by UMS - Results? - Opened possibilities to popular participation - Move past middle class, directly to the people! (like Napoleon III) - Ultimate power in hands of Prussia + Prussian king/army... Hmmm...how to get them to join? - Goes to war with France - nothing that helps to unify a group of people more than war! - Secures military alliance with southern states - All Germans - fighting a non-German state! - Anything happens to you, we got your back...

Feminism

Despite expansion of suffrage to almost all adult men, women still did not have the right to vote in any European country by 1914 In some western nations between 1850 and 1914, women won the rights to control property, divorce, and gain custody of her children Championed the cause of birth control: female control over reproductive rights Viewed widely as unorthodox/not mainstream - Not very unified - different classes didn't identify/align with others - Attach to other movements - Enlightenment, abolitionism (expanding rights) Most advanced women's suffrage movement was in Great Britain Moderates: believed women would gain the vote only when legislatures because convinced they were responsible enough for political activity (led by Millicent Garrett Fawcett of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) - Gradual approach - use legal means! Radicals: believed that their goals could only be accomplished through disruptive, militant, political tactics (i.e. Emmeline Pankhrst - founded Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) - Destroyed RR stations, store windows, works of art - Arson - Chained themselves to gates in front of Parliament - Led hunger strikes in prisons - Emily Davison - died by throwing herself in front of the King's horse in a 1913 horse race

Kaiser Wilhelm II (r.1888-1918)

Entertain the socialists - try to gain favor of all... - Undoes everything that Bismarck achieved! So Bismarck resigns in 1890..."Dropping the Pilot" Following Bismarck's dismissal: - By 1912 , the SPD became the largest party in the Reichstag (exactly what Bismarck feared!) - But KIM: SPD's actions are NOT radical because... - In the Reichstag - say in government! Use legal channels to make reforms...no need to resort to radicalism

How did Napoleon III's political system fail in the 1860s?

Goals: - To reorganize Europe on principle of nationality - To gain influence + territory for France and himself while reorganizing - Problems in Italy + increasing power of Prussia - Criticism from Catholic + nationalist supporters - Middle-class liberals - wanted less authoritarian regime! Response to critics? Aggressively liberalized empire! - Assembly - greater powers - Opposition (republicans, monarchists, liberals) candidates - greater freedom - New constitution - combined basic parliamentary regime with hereditary emperor - Moving in a democratic direction!

anti-Semitism

History of anti-Semitism, stemming back to the Middle Ages - Jews - scapegoats for social and economic issues Middle Ages - Jews - moneylenders + bankers (Church forbid usury) - Blamed for death of Jesus - anti-Christian - Poisoning wells, black plague (unknowns) With Enlightenment + French Rev - governments liberated Jews from segregated existence in ghettos + legal restrictions - Assimilation of Jews into business, medicine, law, and academia - Rise of prominent Jewish intellectuals (ex. Marx, Freud, Einstein), though many were secular/non-practicing 1848 - Jews had full rights of citizenship in Germany/Italy/Low Countries/Scandinavia 1880s - surge of anti-Semitism - Due to stock market crash of 1870s - Increased attacks especially in Russia (under Alexander III) - pogroms, ghettos, attacks on Jewish culture (Russification), forced emigration - Dreyfus Affair Rise of Theodor Herzl (1860s-1904) - Zionism - belief that Jews should have self-determination for a sovereign state - Jews - always targeted; had no homeland - have to travel Balfour Declaration (1917) - British support for idea (not promise) of Jewish homeland in Palestine (from declining Ottoman Empire) - Post WWI - Palestine became a mandate (like a colony) under Great Britain - Result of the Holocaust - Balfour Declaration into action - Creation of Israel (1948) - Flag important to Herzl - nationalism, tie themselves to image (unity)

Social and political reforms + reactions in Napoleon III's Second Empire

Hope - economic progress would reduce social and political tension - Until mid 1860s - support from urban workers (most dissatisfied group in France) - Regulation of pawnshops + support of credit munitions + better housing for working classes - Evidence of helpful reform and positive concern - 1860s - right to form unions and right to strike! Early - political power in hands of emperor alone - Chose ministers, restricted the Assembly - Enticed notable people to stand as government candidates to expand base of support - Used officials/mayors to spread propaganda - election of government's choice candidates would solve many problems - 1857 and 1863 - political system worked well...but ruined in 1860s...

The rise of Prussia + the growing Austro-Prussian rivalry

How did Prussia grow to become the most powerful state? Military! - Early 1800s - Prussia was the most industrialized of the German states (aside from Austria) - Friedrich List - economic nationalism - idea of strength of nation is directly tied to strength of economy Role of the Zollverein (1834)? - German trade union/custom union - foster trade - Ultimately member states become stronger because of this! Advance industries, promote economic unity/prosperity, promote trade amongst all the different states, etc... - By 1853 - all states part of Zollverein look up to Prussia's economic leadership...to the disadvantage of Austria (had refused to join!) - Prussia emerges as the strongest leading economic state...leading role; gave advantage over Austria in German political affairs - Impacts on Austria - Viewed as outsiders - not involved/part of this group... - Economic disadvantage! Don't benefit from this relationship - can't compete with other German states - Prussia pulls away and uses this as a platform to strengthen their own power... 1848 - political stalemate - Austria and Prussia - tried to block each other from power within German Confederation Prussian parliament (formed after 1848) - Controlled by wealthy liberal middle class Patriotic - wanted national unification - Wanted establishment that parliament has more power than king - William I - believed that political change and war were possible (after witnessing uprising of Italy) - Desire to increase taxes + military budget - increase size of army

Wilhelm I of Prussia

In 1848, from the prosperity of trade, the liberals gain power! - Passed a liberal constitution - Appeared to be a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature with the lower house elected by UMS (largely dominated by the middle classes) Wilhelm I - conservative ruler! - Clashed with liberal parliament that continually challenged his authority - Wanted to increase the size of army + require three years of compensatory service... - Require more taxes and needed approval of more liberal legislative body! - Felt that they needed to modernize...always need a military edge - Parliament opposed higher taxes + war... - Making militaristic - more authoritarian (usually aligned with conservative interests)! Less power to liberals...everyone loyal to king! - Appointment of Otto von Bismarck

Irish Nationalism

Irish famine - fueled Irish revolutionary movement! - Especially under English landowners - Irish always tenants (high rents, don't own land, high taxes) - Subjected to religious policies of Anglican Church - William Gladstone - liberal prime minister; bills to give Ireland self-government (failed) - 1913 - Irish nationalists in British Parliament gained home-rule bill for Ireland - Ireland - on the brink of achieving self-government! - Home rule - self-determination! Two groups - Irish Catholic majority (south) - wanted home rule - Irish Protestants of Ulster (north) - didn't want to submit to a Catholic rule! Original home-rule bill passed..suspended during WWI Shows power of national feeling + national movements in 19th century - Proof that government could not create greater loyalty unless could capture + control national feeling

Prior to Italian unification

Italy was "merely a geographic expression" - Metternich (following Congress of Vienna) Political decentralization (elements of cultural unification...certain history - all look back to Roman empire's greatness) - North Italy - ruled by Metternich's Austria - Sardinia + Piedmont - ruled by Italian monarch - Tuscany + Florence - shared north/central Italy with other smaller states - Central Italy + Rome - ruled by papacy - Naples + Sicily - ruled by branch of Bourbon

Tsar Nicholas II

Last Tsar of Russia - Imperialist/Expansionist - Russo-Japanese War (1904-05): Russians had established sphere of influence in Manchuria, and sought Korea - Major event that turns things against Russia - Strongest imperial powers in Pacific who go head to head! - Humiliating defeat!!! Military disaster abroad usually brings political upheaval at home Revolution of 1905 - Poor economy and strains of war led peasants and middle class to demand reforms - Liberal + representative government - Peasants - didn't benefit much from reform - poverty and overpopulation! - Nationalist sentiment emerging within minorities - Still industrially behind...went through all of the issues that would go - Army occupied within Manchuria! - "Bloody Sunday" (Jan. 1905): 200, 000 workers/peasants marched peacefully to the Winter Palace, asking for reforms - Tsar's troops fire on the crowd, killing hundreds - Turned ordinary workers against tsar - Followed by unrest , strikes, revolts and troop mutinies - October 1905 - paralyzing general strike; forced government to surrender! October Manifesto issued - creation of the Duma - Duma: representative assembly/Russian parliament (voted in by UMS) - Drew up new constitution = the Fundamental Laws - Granted freedom of speech, assembly, and press - Czar retained absolute veto - Middle class liberals - saw as a step back! - Constantly butt heads...Duma wants to move more liberal ways, czar wants to keep conservative! - Revolutionaries were divided; continually challenged and disagreed with Nicholas - Split opposition - middle class leaders helped government repress uprising + survive as a constitutional monarchy! - Eventually dissolved Duma (very short lived) By 1914, left with conservative constitutional monarchy of a partially modernized and newly industrializing economy - Majority - peasants! Minority, middle class... - New forms of communism that will come out due to this difference rather than Marx's view ...Leninism + Stalinism

Napoleon III's legacy

Napoleon III's rule provided a model for other political leaders in Europe: From 1860s on - more liberal reforms - Trend - governments start giving into desires of working classes...incorporate more liberal (even socialist) demands - Gives people less motivation to turn to revolution for radical needs...their desires are being met! - Governments in Europe more responsive to people - Becoming more liberal + democratic - Revisionism - Gov't could reconcile popular and conservative forces through authoritarian nationalism

Nationalism and the Austrian Empire

Nationalism serves to weaken and break apart the Austrian Empire: - 1849 - Magyar nationalism driven Hungarian patriots - declare independent Hungarian republic (crushed by Russia and Austria...) - 1850s - Hungary was conquered territory - Attempts to centralize + Germanize Hungary by Austria - 1866: Defeated in Austro-Prussian War - 1867: the Ausgleich (compromise) -establishment of the Dual Monarchy: - Austria and Hungary—under same monarch (Hapsburg rulers), same finance, defense, foreign policy BUT separate local political systems - Each half deal with own ethnic minorities Austria - Germans - only 1/3 of population - 1895 - many Germans saw traditional dominance threatened by Slavs (Czechs, Poles...) - Language - large issue! - Parliament divided from 1900-1914 - Could not obtain majority - Conservatives + socialists - tried to defuse national antagonisms by stressing economic issues...unsuccessful Hungary - 1867 - restored constitution of 1848 - Used to dominate Magyar peasantry and minority populations until 1914 - Wealthiest 1/4 of males had right to vote - parliament created from Magyar elite - Promotion of Magyar language in schools + government - disliked by ethnic minorities - Extremists - desired total separation from Austria - Radical leaders of other ethnic minorities - wanted independence from Hungary

Germany: The Second Reich

New German Empire - federal union of Prussia + smaller states - Most business conducted by separate states - Strong national government with chancellor + Reichstag (lower house voted through UMS) Kaiser Wilhelm I (r. 1871-1888) - Had ultimate power: selected ministers (responsible to the emperor, not to Parl.) - Commanded armed forces - Controlled foreign policy and internal administration - Bicameral legislature established: - At the same time... more people in government! - Reichstag - lower house (representing the nation - the Volk) - Bundesrat - upper house (represented the various German states - conservative) Chancellor Otto von Bismarck - Didn't like being bound by parliamentary majority - Relied on National Liberals - supported further economic + legal unification of country; rallied for Bismarck!

United Italy under Victor Emmanuel

Parliamentary monarchy under Victor Emmanuel - Addition of Venetia (1866) - reward from Prussia in their alliance against Austria and France - Addition of Rome, with the exception of the Vatican (1870) "Passion of Mazzini, the audacity of Garibaldi, and the cunning of Cavour." - Mazzini - soul of Italian Unification... - Garibaldi - all the way to Rome + a fighter! Brave, bold, daring - take it upon himself to lead this army! The Sword of Italian Unification - Cavour - how to deal with Austria + France...the brain! Not radical, not democratic - moderate Politically unified, but social + cultural gap - Very small percent of people allowed to vote - Gap between propertied and working classes

France: The Third Republic

Picking up with 1870, collapse of Napoleon III's Second Empire during Franco-Prussian War - France in 1871 - seemed hopelessly divided! - Surrender Alsace and Lorraine to Germany - nationalistic frustration! - National Assembly (1871-1875) - Created with Adolphe Thiers as chief executive - Dominated by conservatives and monarchists - People tired of what happened with Napoleon III and whatnot... Rise of the Paris Commune (1870-1871) - Lay siege to Paris (March to May, 1871) - fought bloody struggle with troops of National Assembly; 20,000 plus died and executed (again, French v. French) - In the end, National Assembly decides to keep Republic form of government - "the government that divides us least" - Moderate + socially conservative - Compromise a bit more to the more radical elements... Move towards a stable Third Republic: - Have embraced classical liberalism now - Moderate Republican leaders, like Léon Gambetta - appealed to both working class and middle class people - Chamber of Deputies had most power (elected by UMS; president was weak) (bicameral legislature) - Trade unions fully legalized (had been suppressed by Napoleon III) - Jules Ferry (French statesman, moderate Republican, served as Prime Minister in 1880's) - Established tax - Supported secular, compulsory public education and reform (first public school system - use of pledge of allegiance as a way to reinforce nationalism, kids had to learn French anthem) Weakness of the Third Republic: - Multi-party system resulted in ever-shifting political coalitions...so many interests to appeal to... - Challenges to republicanism: (from the Right/Conservatives) Dreyfus Affair (1894): - Dreyfus - Jewish captain in French army accused of treason (little evidence for accusation) - Used by Monarchists (with the support of the Catholic Church) to discredit republicans (who had launched an anti-clerical campaign increasing separation of Church and state) + support anti-Semitism (belief that republic was backed by a conspiracy of Jews) - Ironic impact: monarchists who wanted to weaken the Republic end up strengthening it... - People see the Church now as evil and corrupt! Don't want to be associated with the Church + right - Result? Complete separation between Church and state! What stood as opposition to patriotic + republican nationalism? The growing socialist movement

Transformation of Paris under Baron von Haussmann

Politically - wants to manage Paris better... - Old medieval narrow streets - easy to put up barricades! Block up streets to fight against government - Effectively get troops through city - decides to widen all major boulevards - Arc de Triomph - celebrate Napoleon I's victories...commemorate greatness of French military + battles; centerpiece of Paris! - Modernizing + shaping physical structure - sewage system; better living conditions...

Napoleon III, political chameleon

Responsive to needs of subjects - constantly changes actions/attitudes/policies to align with popular sentiments...gain favor of the people! Claims that he is the leader for all Frenchmen! Rousseauian - tapping into general will of the people! Use nationalism for his benefit! Previously...2nd Republic National Assembly divided by the social classes - moderates, ultra-royalists, radicals - All focused on their own benefit based on class! - Instead of focusing on class differences and conflicts, focus on unity of the French people! - Up until now, all class conflicts dictated how society emerged...wants to come across as a hero! - Justification for absolutism...

Revisionist Socialism

Socialist movements - rose up out of response to industrialization, nationalism, and militarism - Marxism - led/generated from negative response to industrialization International - workers of all countries bring together (further Marxist ideas) - First international formed in 1864 - Second international - 1889 - Not huge impact, but hope to continue original vision Rise of socialist parties after 1871 - SPD in Germany, France, England, Belgium, Austria-Hungary - Socialists exiled from Russia (1883) - Russian Social Democratic party in Switzerland grew rapidly versus Revisionism - Not pure Marxists - Going back and looking from progressive/adapted viewpoint and how to apply to current society - As workers gained right to vote + participate politically, focused more on voting/elections (UMS) than on revolutions - Workers' standards of living increases - Growth of labor unions rose after 1850 - no need to revolt! - Increasingly focused on bread-and-butter (everyday, practical) issues (wages, work conditions, hours) - As opposed to idealistic - shared property, new society (Marxist) - Genuine collective bargaining (effective) - opposed by socialist intellectuals as a "sell-out" - Led a series of strikes - proved effective - May Day - day to celebrate the workers + everything they gained - Edward Bernstein - Evolutionary Socialism (1899) - Marx's predictions of greater poverty for workers + greater concentration of wealth in fewer hands - didn't come true! Socialism - huge impact - Germany: SPD became the largest party in the Reichstag by 1912 - France, socialists led by Jean Jaures, gained seats in the Chamber of Deputies before 1914 - 1893, Keir Hardie led the Independent Labor Party that became the third party in England - Foundations for the social welfare state created in the years prior to WW: - Designed to guarantee each citizen with a decent standard of living - Right of unions to strike was legalized - Gov't insurance was provided for those injured on the job - Unemployment insurance & old-age pensions enacted. - Compulsory school attendance law went into effect. - Taxes increased on the wealthy (to help fund the welfare state) - Bottom line - more immediate change through legislation/democratic process Note trends Tendency for radical/extreme socialism to rise up in places that lack established channels of democratic governments i.e RUSSIA! Late 19th century - rise of Anarchy

Old Russia

The tsars...imperialism - Muscovite rulers - Ivan the Great, Ivan the Terrible - Russia - vast multinational state - Built on traditions of military conquest + absolutist rule by elites - Early 19th century - governing elites strongly opposed to representative government + national self-determination - Continued to concentrate on absolutist rule + competition with other Great Powers 1850s Russia - Poor agrarian society with rapidly growing population Industry little developed - almost 90% of population lived off of land - Serfdom - moral + political issue for government Had to embrace modernization - changes that enable a country to compete effectively with the leading countries at a given time

How did Napoleon III appeal to various classes?

To the RIGHT : CONSERVATIVES - Strengthens Catholic Church (initially) - Restores hereditary monarchy - authoritarian power - all decisions come from him! To the LEFT: LIBERALS - Big economic goal - ultimately support everyone by making France economically prosperous! Everybody wins! - General economic expansion - program of public works, growth of industry - More rights...after 1860s; right to form unions, right to strike - Still kept Legislative Assembly (Corps) - but in the end, they had no real power!

Leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia

Took an anti-Austrian role in the revolutions of 1848 - many Italian nationalists looked to P-S for leadership - Similar to how many German states looked to Prussia for guidance... Victor Emmanuel II (r. 1849-1878) - More of a constitutional monarch...not ultra-conservative - Retain liberal constitution from 1848 - combined strong monarchy + civil liberties + parliamentary government (deputies elected based on income) - Middle classes - Sardinia appeared liberal + progressive; ideal to drive Austria out + become independent! Count Camillo di Cavour - appointed Prime Minister in 1852 - Strong tendency for noblemen to align selves with conservatism, but Cavour was more liberal! Not so far left to support democratic republicanism, but still more aligned with classical liberalist interests - Limited + realistic + nationalistic goals - Moderate liberal identified with middle-class interests (had made a fortune in agriculture and business) - As PM, Cavour aimed to modernize P-S: updating the tax and budget system, building railroads, pursuing free trade, limiting the power of the Catholic Church, building a small, but strong army

The Austro-Prussian War (1866)

a.k.a. The Seven Weeks War - very quick because Prussians had advantages over Austria (certain technology) Cause: - In order for Prussia to emerge as most powerful German states - must neutralize Austria - doesn't want them to become an issue! - North German Confederation - only one who could stop was Austria! Must exclude Austria to achieve final goal... Strategy: - Diplomatically isolate Austria - secure neutrality from France + Russia + Italy - France - vague promises of lands along the Rhine; stay out of affairs and get this land... - Russia - remember in 1863? Prussia helped Russia put down Polish revolts? Gets their agreement - stay out of affairs! - Italy - gave them Venetia! This is why Venetia added in 1866... Results: - Short war - Prussia had certain advantages that enabled them to quickly militarily overtake Austria - Railroads - quick + efficient mobilization of troops - Austria - bigger geographically, clunkier... - Will also impact Russia in the same way in future! - New weapon - breech-loading needle gun - Easier to use, shot faster, more accurate - overtook them pretty easily! - Battle of Sadowa - Austria's defeat! Treat them very leniently - didn't want to make enemies... - Only thing that Austria loses is Venetia + excluded from German affairs - Don't want a hostile enemy, especially Austria! Too close physically, etc. Also, Prussia might need this in future... - Turning point - German Confederation dissolved + Austria withdraws from German affairs - No more worry/threat from Austria - been subdued! Prussia - creates North German Confederation! - Southern states...mostly remain Catholic + independent, but form alliances with Prussia

Southern phase of Italian revolution

pro-Sardinian nationalists - created revolts + removed ruling princes - Called for fusion of Sardinia with central Italy under Victor Emmanuel Giuseppe Garibaldi - superpatriot - Personification of romantic, revolutionary romanticism + republicanism - Much more liberal than Cavour! - Cavour - secretly supported plan to "liberate" kingdom of Two Sicilies - Led Red Shirts in 1860 against Sicilian landlords - took Palermo; Reclaim Italy + kick out Bourbon rulers - When headed to Papal States to occupy, Cavour sent troops to intercept! Attack on Rome - bring war with France - Feared Garibaldi's radicalism + popular appeal - Organized plebiscite in conquered territories; joined together two kingdoms - union of north and south Cavour - succeeded in goals - turned popular nationalism into conservative direction! - New kingdom - parliamentary monarchy under Victor Emmanuel (not radical, not democratic) - Politically unified, but social and cultural gap - Very small percent of people allowed to vote; gap between propertied and working classes