Unit 5: Cognitive Psych

True or False. By maintaining a large amount of information for a fraction of a second, sensory storage lets you experience the world as a continuous stream of information rather than as discrete sensations.

True!

True or False. In general, the greater your expertise with the material, the more efficiently you can chunk information. As a result, you will be able to transfer more information into long-term storage, and you will be able to access and use that information later when you need it.

True!

True or False. The more effectively you used chunking, the more you can remember.

True!

True or false. Primacy effect is due to long-term processing and recency effect is due to short-term processing.

True!

True or false. Deeper encoding improves the likelihood of long-term storage, which then improves the likelihood of remembering.

True! Information that is stored in long-term storage is more likely to be remembered.

True or false. The failure to store information that is rehearsed through maintenance rehearsal demonstrates how attention and memory are related.

True! This demonstrates how attention and memory are related because when employing maintenance rehearsal, you just attend enough to complete the current task and lose info that seems irrelevant to you or insignificant.

True or False. Without using working memory, short-term storage lasts up to 20 seconds.

True! Working memory actively processes the information held in short-term storage, thus increasing its duration of storage.

False Memories

memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something -ex: reading a list of words that are similar, so when asked to recall the words, you remember a word that was not on the list because the word -- semantic activation -- spreading activation models of memory - ex: someone tell you that this happened to you, you believe it and then take in this false memory to be real - this can happen because when we remember something, we form a mental image of the event, and this mental image may be confused with a real memory - children are especially likely to develop false memories

Five ways memory can be distorted

memory bias, flashbulb memories, misattribution, suggestibility, and false memories

amnesia

memory loss; losing the ability to store most types of new information in long-term storage

memory tests with secondary processing

memory tests that have two components show a strong relation between working memory and general intelligence linked to attention!!!

Analogical representations

mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects; they are analogous to the objects ex: maps correspond to geographical layouts family trees depict relationships between relatives a clock corresponds directly to the passage of time

Schemas

mental structures -- collections of ideas, prior knowledge, and experiences -- that help organize information and guide thought and behavior Bottom line: Schemas group concepts together into categories within a common theme based on similarities and differences

Restructuring

mentally represent the problem in a different way in order to solve it, often involves removing restrictions that aren't part of the problem example: - the connect the dots experiment

What is the levels of processing model?

model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

Howard Gardner

multiple intelligences

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Emotional Intelligence

(EI) was created by Peter Salovey and John Mayer Four abilities: 1. managing your emotions 2. using your emotions to guide your thoughts and actions 3. recognizing other people's emotions 4. understanding emotional language - people that are high in EI are good at understanding emotional experiences within themselves and others and responding to these emotions productively - regulating mood, resisting impulses and temptations, and controlling your behaviors are all important components on EI - correlated with the quality of people's personal relationships - EI is a good predictor of HS grades - critics contend that EI stretches the idea of intelligence too far

Recognition

- Ability to recognize the right answer when it is right in front of you - ex: multiple-choice tests

explicit long term memory

- Declarative memory - you intentionally retrieve and describe info - episodic memory and semantic memory - ex: words, concepts, images

Hermann Ebbinghaus

- In the late nineteenth century, the psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus examined how long it took him to relearn lists of unfamiliar nonsense syllables. - Ebbinghaus found that when he repeatedly practiced with the syllables, it took him less time to relearn them the next day - the more time he spent learning material, the less he forgot - apply to meaningful material as well - when you spend more time actively working with material to learn it, you will forget less of the material

implicit memory

- Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously - influences your life in subtle ways - classical conditioning works on implicit memory - procedural/motor memory - ex: driving, daydreaming

Persistence is related to PTSD

- PTSD occurs when a person who has a had a traumatic experience suffers extreme distress because of the inability to forget the trauma - during an episode, the person mentally relives the traumatic experience - most common cause of PTSD: traumatic events that threaten the lives of loved ones - a highly emotional experiences and heightened amygdala activity produce very powerful and vivid memories - the release of hormones associated with emotional states strengthens memory consolidation and thereby enhance memories

Flashbulb Memory

- a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event - memories that seem like a flash photo, capturing the circumstances in which you first learned of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event - an example of episodic memory - they are NOT recurring unwanted memories - imperfect, but at least as accurate as memory for ordinary events - any event that produces a strong emotional response is likely to produce a vivid, although not necessarily accurate, memory, OR a distinctive event may be recalled more easily than a trivial event, however inaccurate the result

long term storage

- a memory storage system that allows relatively permanent storage, probably of an unlimited amount of information - nearly limitless capacity and duration

Sensory storage

- a memory storage system that very briefly holds a vast amount of info from the five senses in close to their original sensory formats - five types of sensory stores, basically every sense has its own type of sensory storage - these kinds of input are not what we usually think of as memory, because each sensory store is so brief that we are unaware it is operating - sensory storage of all this vast amount of input is important because it lets us have a unified experience of the world around us

Association networks

- an item's distinctive features are linked in a way that identifies the item - each unit of info in the network is a node, and each node is connected to many other nodes - activating one node increases the likelihood that another closely linked node will be activated - the farther the node, the weaker the association will be - network is essentially organized by category, and the categories are structured in a hierarchy

What are some stimuli that are likely to capture your attention?

- bright colors - something that stands out in a crowd - like if you are the only hijabi in a crowd of girls - stimuli that cause emotional reactions cuz they provide information about potential threats in your environment - faces cuz they provide important social information - attractiveness, anger, happiness, harmful

Consolidation of Memories

- consolidation is a process where immediate memories become lasting memories when new neural connections are created and prior neural connections get stronger - through consolidation, your experiences become your lasting memories - the medial temporal lobes are responsible for coordinating and strengthening the connections among neurons when we learn something - the hippocampus and medial temporal lobes are critical for the formation of new memories - the actual STORAGE of memories occurs in the particular brain regions engaged during perception, processing, and analysis of the material being learned - ex: visual info is stored in the cortical areas involved in visual perception and retrieving this info involves reactivating the same cortical circuits involved when we first saw/heard the info

What are the four different processes needed in order to move information from one memory store to another?

- encoding - attention - working memory - retrieval

Sensory storage

- function of storage: lets perceptions appear to be unified wholes - encoding for storage: in the sense that it is experienced; visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory - duration of storage: up to a second, depending on sense - capacity of storage: vast due to huge amount of sensory input

Short-term storage

- function of storage: maintains information for immediate use - encoding for storage: primarily auditory, also visual and semantic - duration of storage: about 20 seconds, or indefinite with working memory manipulation of items - capacity of storage: about 7 items +/- 2 items, using working memory aids capacity

Long-term storage

- function of storage: stores info for access and use at a later time - encoding for storage: primarily semantic, also visual and auditory, dual coding provides richest encoding - duration of storage: probably unlimited - capacity of storage: probably unlimited

What gets prioritized for encoding into long-term storage?

- generally information that helps you adapt to your environment

Classical conditioning and procedural memory

- implicit memories do NOT require conscious attention - they are formed automatically, without deliberate effort - so you DO need to pay attention, but you do NOT need to be aware that you were paying attention to input - classical conditioning employs implicit memory - ex: you fear someone in a white lab coat, may have had past associations between a person in a white lab coat and pain, implicit memory - procedural memory is a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

Overcoming Mental Sets

- mental sets are helpful in many situations because they save time and effort, but there are times when our mental sets are detrimental to accurately solving a problem - ex: What happens once in June, once in July and twice in August? two of the letter "u" , but we would normally think of seasons

Memories and Retrieval

- mnemonics are learning aids or strategies that use retrieval cues to improve access to memory - the method of loci: associating items you want to remember with physical locations you already know

encoding

- processing of information so it can be stored in the brain - ex: when you read, the words and pictures you see are encoded into patterns of neural activity in your brain - you have to be able to maintain this info tho, otherwise it will all be lost

prospective memory

- remembering to do things at some future time - comes with a cost: remembering to do things takes up valuable cognitive resources, either by reducing the number of items we can deal with in short-term storage or the number of things we can attend to and process in working memory - cues can help prospective memory!!! - ex: if you see someone, you may effectively remember to give that person the message - we use sticky notes to help us remember things that do not have cues - seeing the notes jogs our memory

Medial Temporal Lobes

- responsible for the formation of new memories - responsible for coordinating and strengthening the connections among neurons when we learn something - important for coordinating the storage of information between the different cortical sites and also are involved in strengthening the connections between these sites - it essentially provides the "links" to where information is stored - so, once the connections between different brain sites are strengthened sufficiently, the medial temporal lobes become less important for memory

Memory Bias

- the changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes - ex: we revise our memories when they tend to contradict with our attitudes and beliefs; the tendency to remember events that cast ourselves in prominent roles or favorable lights; exaggerating efforts; and remembering successes > failures

Selective attention

- the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus - the ability to direct mental resources to relevant information in order to process that information further, while also ignoring irrelevant information

Absentmindedness

- the inattentive or shallow encoding of events - cause: failing to use selective attention to pay attention to relevant information and ignore irrelevant information - ex: you forget where you put your keys cuz you were not paying attention to the info - another cause: you fail to remember to do something that you were planning to do; failure in prospective memory; often occurs because you are caught up in another activity

retrieval

- the process of accessing stored information when it is needed - if the two phases of memory go well, then the retrieval phase should also be successful

storage

- the retention of encoded information over time - storage can last for a fraction of a second or for a lifetime - lets you maintain the info in your brain

Environmental Factors

- the various factors that influence human development also affect the development of intelligence - ex: poor nutrition can affect brain development and result in lower intelligence - prenatal factors and postnatal factors; ex: breast-feeding during infancy is related to higher IQs - an enriched environment can aid in the development of intelligence in many ways - the intellectual opportunities a child receives affects intelligence - schooling encourages the development of children's brains and cognitive capacities - schooling does not just build knowledge but critical thinking skills

Behavioral genetics

- twin and adoption studies have made it clear that genes help determine intelligence; twins raised apart are SIMILAR in intelligence - but even if twins are raised apart, they may have had the same experiences, like if adults noticed they had am above average vocab capacity, they may have provided them with more books to read - the intelligence gene has eluded researchers, most likely because thousands of genes contribute to intelligence and each one of them has only a small effect - the greater the degree of genetic relation, the greater the correlation in intelligence

filter theory

- we selectively attend to the most important information in a message - attention is like a filter - we keep the relevant info filter out the irrelevant info - by Donald Broadbent

context dependent memory

- when people remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it - application: taking witness to scene of crime, taking test in similar testing environment, knowing someone's name only in a specific setting, remembering event where event took place

insight

- you have to recognize that something is a problem before you even attempt to solve it, for example, pain serves as our body's natural signal to warn us that there is a problem, so without pain, we would not even recognize that we are facing a problem internal to our body - so, sometimes when you have a problem and you attempt to solve it but it seems unsolvable, the solution suddenly pops in your head, you HAVE to stop actively thinking about a problem

What are the four ways in which each of these memory stores are unique?

1. function of storage 2. encoding for storage 3. duration of storage 4. capacity of storage

Why are schemas useful?

1.) Many of the most common encountered situations have common attributes. 2.) People have specific roles within the context of a situation. 3.) They allow you to think efficiently

Why don't humans create memories the way computers store information?

1.) The brain is complex. Some think of the brain as a complex system of neurons and synapses that changes dramatically over time. 2.) Every brain is unique. Every person may process and experience differently, and this leads to different memories. Each of us remembers information that is relevant to ourselves and filters memories through our own perceptions and knowledge of related events. Memories are not objective truth, but rather a person's perception of what occurred based on what the person processed and what seemed meaningful to that person. Further, this perception is altered during the process of creating, maintaining, and accessing the memories. 3.) Human memory sometimes fails. Brains, unlike computers, do NOT remember all information equally. Some experiences have no lasting memories, while others are remembered but later forgotten, or some remain for a lifetime. Human memory involves multiple systems, and each system has its own rules. Failure to follow these rules can lead to memory problems.

three phases of memory

1.) encoding: changing information into a neural code that the brain can use ex: when you read, you are encoding visual input 2.) storage: maintaining information for some time ex: when you take notes, you're strengthening the storage of the encoded information 3.) retrieval: accessing the information for use ex: using the info to answer questions on exam

What are the three different types of memory stores that we have? - proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

1.) sensory storage 2.) short-term storage 3.) long-term storage

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

1857-1911; Field: testing; Contributions: general IQ tests, designed test to identify slow learners in need of remediation-not applicable in the U.S. because too culture-bound (French) - intelligence is best understood as a collection of high level mental processes - developed the Binet-Simon intelligence scale, the results from a test they created that would measure child's vocabulary, memory, skill with numbers, and other mental abilities - scores on his tests were consistent with teacher's beliefs about children's abilities ONE FACTOR UNDERLIES GENERAL INTELLIGENCE

short-term storage capacity / memory span

7 +/- 2 items, without working memory - Miller some say as few as four items altho some individuals have a smaller/larger memory span - the capacity of short-term storage increases as children develop and decreases with advanced aging

8.1: When an architect produces a blueprint for a new house, is this an analogical or symbolic representation?

A blueprint is an analogical representation because aspects of this two-dimensional rendering correspond to a physical layout.

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. examples - short answer tests and fill-in-the-blank tests

8.7: Your uncle uses a dial-up modem to connect to the internet because it always works. How does the idea of a mental set explain why your uncle has not upgraded to more modern technology?

A mental set is a problem solving strategy that seems reliable because it has always worked in the past, even though it might not be the best solution.

algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. - a set of procedures to follow when thinking and making a decision ex: you want to buy a cover for your pool, the guaranteed way to know how big it should be is by measuring the area of the pool

method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations. ex: shopping for groceries, apples and oranges in the living room, vegetables in the family room, etc....

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. An active processing system that allows manipulation of different types of information to keep it available for current use. Basically, working memory lets you work on the information you have in short-term storage. ex: repeating a phone number so you can remember more of the digits in short-term storage for a longer period of time; the act of repeating would be working on the info

8.2: How does the prototype model of categorization differ from the exemplar model?

A prototype is the best example of a category, whereas exemplars are average examples of a category.

Mental Map

A representation of a portion of Earth's surface based on what an individual knows about a place, containing personal impressions of what is in a place and where places are located; combination of analogical and symbolic representations - regularizing irregular shapes is a shortcut we use unconsciously for organizing and representing information in our memory

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it provides SHALLOW encoding

evolutionary theory

According to evolutionary theory, memory lets you use information in ways that assist in reproduction and survival. ex: which objects are edible, which people are friends, how to get home, who your parents are, etc.

spreading activation models of memory

According to these models, information that is heard or seen activates specific nodes for memories in long-term storage. This activation increases the ease of access of stored info to linked material. Easier access of stored info means easier retrieval.

What are the two types of internal representations that we use when we think about information?

Analogical representations and symbolic representations

interferene

Forgetting occurs because of interference with other related information. Two types: retroactive interference and proactive interference

How does limited attention impair creation of memory?

Attention is the focusing of mental resources on information to allow further processing, and it is essential for conscious awareness of information. It is also critical for memory formation. When we pay attention to a particular thing, we are essentially paying less to no attention on another thing. For example, if you're attention is focused on your phone while your teacher is giving a lecture, you will be unable to remember the information your teacher was teaching. Why? Because attention is critical to memory. Your brain will not process information that it is not consciously aware of.

8.4: Your friends says that all of the upgrades on the newest iPhone justify its expensive price. If you decide that this statement is valid without doing any research, then what thinking process have you engaged in?

By deciding that the statement was valid, you have engaged in reasoning—specifically, you have engaged in informal reasoning, because it was based on opinion.

Context and State Aid Retrieval

CONTEXT - context of an event includes details such as the physical location, odors, and background music - that context is encoded along with the memory - as a result, the context produces a sense of familiarity that helps us retrieve the memory STATE - internal cues, such as mood and physiological states, are also encoded with a memory - when our internal states are the same during encoding and retrieval, the situation can provide a retrieval cue that enhances access to a memory

Reconsolidation of Memories

Can we forget painful or embarrassing memories? - A theory proposed by Karim Nader and Joseph LeDoux explains that once memories are activated, they need to be consolidated again for long-term storage; this is RECONSOLIDATION - when memories of past events are retrieved, these memories can be affected by new circumstances, so reconsolidated memories may differ from their original versions - our memories begin as versions of what we have experienced, but they might change when we use these memories - reconsolidation occurs each time a memory is activated and placed back in storage, which explains why memories change over time - More research on whether or not bad memories can be erased or modified through reconsolidation is needed

What are the three main ways that we forget?

Interference, blocking, absentmindedness

What is chunking?

Chunking is a process of using working memory to organize information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember. for example, say you have to memorize these letters: NHTSACAFBIMSCIAILDEA if you chunk them into meaningful units, it'll help you remember them: NH TSA CA FBI MS CIA IL DEA - these are acronyms of U.S states and fed agencies

Long-term storage vs. short-term storage

Compared to short-term storage, long-term storage lasts longer, has a far greater capacity, and depends on deep encoding of information.

7.12: What is the main difference between consolidation of memory and reconsolidation?

Consolidation is the original storage of a memory. By contrast, reconsolidation is a subsequent storage after retrieval, which involves changes to the original memory to include new information.

If one student, Darren, uses selective attention to focus on his teacher's lesson better than another student, Luisa, then how will this difference affect each of their abilities to create new memories about the class material?

Darren's ability to use selective attention to focus on the lesson means he will be more likely to create new memories about the material than Luisa will.

What is dual encoding?

Dual encoding is a combination of both visual and semantic information, which is a very successful method of transferring the info into long-term storage.

Human memory works like computers.

False! Human memory is not perfect like a computer because human brains are more complex and unique than computers.

True or False. Paying attention to information does not let it be encoded into short-term storage.

False! Paying attention to information DOES let it be encoded into short-term storage.

True or False. Repetition aids the capacity of short-term storage, while chunking aids the duration of short-term storage.

False! Repetition aids the duration of short-term storage, while chunking aids the capacity of short-term storage. However, both are types of working memory.

Sensory storage has no correlation with how we watch movies.

False! Visual sensory storage allows us to see the stilled pictures used in movies as continuous action. This is because our sensory storage retains information just long enough for us to connect one image with the next in a smooth way.

What are the two reasons we can use schemas?

First, schemas serve two purposes: 1.) Common situations have consistent rules; ex: students generally sit at their desks 2.) People have specific roles within situational contexts, ex: students in school behave differently than diners at restaurants

Why do we forget?

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

Memory's Physical Locations

HIPPOCAMPUS: consolidation and spatial memory PREFRONTAL CORTEX: working memory TEMPORAL LOBE: explicit memory AMYGDALA: implicit memory; fear learning CEREBELLUM: implicit memory; procedural memory

Memory distortion

Human memory is not a perfectly accurate representation of the past, but is flawed

8.8: What is the difference between IQ and general intelligence?

IQ is a mathematical measure of intelligence, whereas general intelligence is the theory that one general factor underlies intelligence.

Forgetting is important. How?

If we could not forget, you would forever hold on to memories you do NOT want to remember. Sometimes we remember things, and we only want to remember them for, say, a day later, If we could NEVER forget this info, and more info we don not need to remember begins to pile up, our memory would be extremely cluttered with information. Thus, not being able to forget is as maladaptive as not being able to remember. It may even be necessary for survival.

How does semantic info aid long-term storage?

In an experiment, if participants are asked to remember a list of words based on how the words look (case), how they sound (rhyme), or what they mean (semantics), they usually have better recall after processing the meaning of the information. This suggests that deeper encoding of semantic information aids long-term storage. Brain imaging studies have shown that deep encoding based on semantics activates more brain regions than shallow encoding and that this greater brain activity is associated with greater memory.

Paying attention to information lets it be encoded into short-term storage. How can that information be stored more permanently?

In order for that information to be stored permanently, attentional processing MUST be used to encode that information into long-term storage.

7.3: In the three memory stores model, what is the name of the first memory store that information can pass into?

Information first passes into sensory storage before it can be processed into short-term storage and then long-term storage.

8.10: How do genes and environment together influence intelligence?

Intelligence has a genetic aspect, and environment affects the expression of that aspect.

True or False. Initially researchers believed that you can remember info for a few seconds using short-term storage, but there is no way to actively manipulate information in short-term storage.

It is true that initially researchers believed that there is no way to actively manipulate info in short-term storage. However, recent research shows that shows that short-term storage includes the important process of working memory.

Why is the theory of multiple intelligence important?

It recognizes that some people can be average or even deficient in some aspects of intelligence but outstanding in others. - no one is smarter than others, just uniquely talented - some psychologists feel this has no factual basis and is just a feel-good philosophy - there are no standardized ways to test many of Gardner's intelligences

8.9: Is knowing the answers to trivia questions related to fluid intelligence or crystallized intelligence?

Knowing the answers to trivia questions is related to crystallized intelligence, which is knowledge gained through experience.

Why does mnemonics such as the method of loci work?

Linking new information with what is already meaningful to a person is called elaborative rehearsal. This deeper form of encoding information during the use of mnemonics is what makes this strategy so successful at helping retrieval.

How is long-term storage organized?

Long-term storage is organized based on meaning.

What are the two types of rehearsal through which encoding can be achieved?

Maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal

Difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal is based on how the item sounds (auditory info) and provides shallow encoding of information, while elaborative rehearsal is based on meaning (semantic info) and provides deep encoding.

Evidence for multiple intelligences

Many successful public figures did not excel academically.

Why can mental maps sometimes lead to errors?

Mental maps can sometimes lead to errors because you can represent only a limited range of knowledge.

Why does chunking work?

NHTSACAFBIMSCIAILDEA NH TSA CA FBI MS CIA IL DEA Chunking works for two reasons: 1.) We reduce the 20 items listed above to be recalled into 7 chunks, and 7 items are within the capacity of our memory span. 2.) Meaningful units are easier to remember than nonsense units. Why? Because they draw on information that we already know. Chunking exemplifies how working memory can improve capacity of short-term memory storage.

Is there only general intelligence?

No! Psychologists generally agree that some form of general intelligence exists, but research shows that intelligence also has multiple aspects to it!

7.16: Should we believe confident eyewitnesses more than ones who are not confident? Why or why not?

No, we should not believe confident eyewitnesses more than ones who are not confident because confidence is unrelated to eyewitness accuracy.

Why is our inability to pay attention to every sensation beneficial to us?

Our limited ability to pay attention helps us function in the world. If you can't block out irrelevant information - in class, for example - then it would be very difficult to create memories. This is because distractions make it hard for us to succeed. For example, say you're in class listening to a lecture, and you can hear the sound of the fan, a bee buzzing maybe, and someone tapping his/her feet. If your brain was programmed in such a way that you have to be consciously aware of every sensation, it would be very difficult for us to focus on one important thing and create memories on that specific piece of information. Thus, limited attention essentially means blocking out these distractions, which is very beneficial to us.

7.10: Practicing a dance routine requires what type of implicit memory?

Practicing a dance routine requires procedural memory, because it involves motor skills.

7.11: What type of memory lets you remember to do something in the future?

Prospective memory lets you remember to do something in the future.

What are the two different models that explain how we organize concepts into categories?

Prototype model and exemplar model

How does the cocktail party phenomenon explain the passing of certain information through our attention filter?

Psychologist Cherry: - you can focus on a single conversation at a chaotic party - however, a particularly prominent stimulus, such as hearing your name, can capture your attention - because your attention is now divided, what you can understand of that conversation is less than if you had been giving it your full attention - you might even forget what the conversation was about because you are no longer paying attention to it

7.9: When you recall your last vacation, are you retrieving an implicit or explicit memory?

Recalling a vacation is an explicit memory, because you can retrieve it consciously and talk about it.

8.3: What is the relationship between schemas and stereotypes?

Schemas are mental structures -- collections of thoughts, prior knowledge, and experiences -- that you use to think in generalized ways. Those generalized thoughts are stereotypes.

How do schemas allow the development of stereotypes?

Schemas have unintended consequences, such as reinforcing beliefs about people in particular groups, and these generalizations are called stereotypes. How do schemas allow the tendency to stereotype? Since schemas help us group concepts together into categories within a common theme, sometimes we can group some concepts into categories about different types of people, races, and genders. So for example, maybe, in all your years of schooling, you notice that most of the girls in your class are better at art than the boys. What happens is your brain forms this schema; girls: good at art , boys: bad at art, and so every time you encounter a similar situation, this schema will guide your thinking. What this has allowed you to do is generalize concepts about a certain gender, and this is an example of a stereotype.

How do we know how to behave in different settings?

Schemas! They help us form social scripts, which tell us how to behave in certain settings.

7.4: What is the function of sensory memory?

Sensory memory lets you have a continuous experience of the world around you.

Exemplar model

So, the exemplar model addresses the flexibility issue in the prototype model. How? By suggesting that no single concept as category's best representation; we form a fuzzy representation based on experiences - all the concepts or exemplars in a category form the basis of the category - all exemplars of a category equally represent the category ex: animal in a house compared to memories of other animals you have encountered is the best member of a category ex: The category of sport is equally represented by all exemplars in a category, baseball, basketball, swimming, etc

Overcoming Functional Fixedness

Successful repurposing involves finding new uses for familiar objects-the essence of overcoming functional fixedness. functional fixedness: mental representations of the typical functions of particular objects - ex: the candle box scenario

7.13: Your math teacher wants to hold the final exam in a different classroom than your normal room. Explain to her why that's not a good idea based on what research reveals about retrieval cues.

The context that you create a memory in helps provide a retrieval cue when you try to remember that information later on. So students are more likely to remember information when they take a test in the same room where they learned it.

How does the distinction between long-term storage and short-term storage explain the primacy and recency effect?

The items in the beginning of the list are rehearsed the most, so the information transfers from short-term to long-term information. The items at the end of the list are still in short-term storage when the participants have to recall them.

7.7: What is the main idea behind spreading activation models of memory?

The main idea behind the spreading activation models of memory is that activating one node increases the likelihood that closely associated nodes will also be activated, making that information easier to retrieve.

How do psychometric tests differ?

They differ based on the aspect of intelligence they are supposed to measure

Implicit Memory

The system for long-term storage of unconscious memories that cannot be verbally described. - nondeclarative memory - ex: advertisers: you buy a brand of something, unconsciously remembering advertisements for the brand - HM was still able to form new implicit memories, which means that the parts of the medial temporal lobe that were removed after surgery are not necessary for storing implicit memory - TWO TYPES of implicit memory: classical conditioning and procedural memory

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind. - ex: if you are frustrated with someone, it would be easier to recall memories of being frustrated with other people than being happy with them

What are the three phases of information processing in memory?

There are three stages of information processing in memory: (1) encoding information, (2) storage of the information for a period of time, and (3) retrieval of the information when it is needed.

Biases in heuristics

These three heuristics result in biases in decision making.

How does general intelligence influence important life outcomes?

Things that are affected by general intelligence, such performance as school and in work, can influence everything from socioeconomic status to health. Why? As medical knowledge advances, people are trying to keep up with all the new complex information, and those who have a higher general intelligence will find it easier to understand such info

7.6: If you want to retain information in long-term storage, which type of rehearsal should you use?

To retain information in long-term storage, you should use elaborative rehearsal, where you link new information with what you already know.

True or False. If people are allowed to use working memory to enhance memory of the information, then the information can be maintained for as long as the person continues to pay attention to the work (ex: repeating digits in a phone number)

True! Working memory allows manipulation of sounds, images, and ideas to keep information longer in short-term storage, even though short-term storage may simply be a "location" for maintaining memories.

True or false. Schemas are responsible for constructing new memories by filling in holes within existing memories, overlooking inconsistent information and interpreting meaning based on your experiences.

True! You're essentially connecting new information to existing info

Formal reasoning

Using information that is standardized, empirical, or objective to determine if a conclusion is true

Informal reasoning

Using information that is subjective or opinionated to determine if a conclusion is true - ex: personal testimonies of friends and family

What do we do with information that is not attended to?

We have no conscious awareness of the unattended information.

The Paradox of Choice

We like it when we have more choices available to us, but all the choices we have available to use lead to bad decisions, anxiety, stress, dissatisfaction, and even clinical depression.

Proactive Interference

When access to newer memories is impaired by older memories - ex: you have a history test, but before studying for the history test you study some political science. The political science interferes with your retrieval of the newer memory (history)

Retroactive interference

When access to older memories is impaired by new memories - ex: when you have have a psych test, you study psych, then you study bio, so you have trouble recalling the psych info(old) due to interference by the bio (new info).

8.6: How is insight different from the three other problem solving strategies of subgoals, working backward, and analogy?

Whereas the other three processes require active processing, insight is a passive process where you do not actively think about the problem but rather put it aside for a while.

7.5: What active processes can be used in short-term storage to keep information available for current use?

Working memory processes, such as chunking, can be used to keep information available in short-term storage.

Do schemas affect your ability to retrieve information from long-term storage?

Yes. Having a schema can you help remember it later on.

7.8: If you have a car crash and can't remember anything from the week before the crash, what form of amnesia are you experiencing?

You are experiencing RETROGRADE AMNESIA, which is a loss of memory for events that occurred before a brain injury.

7.15: Explain why you might remember more information from an exciting speech than from a dull one.

You are likely to remember more information from an exciting speech because emotional states, such as being excited, are associated with stronger consolidation, which makes memories easier to retrieve.

Why do you still see the world even when you blink, even though your eyes are closed?

You can still see the world when you blink thanks to visual sensory storage! We continue to see information even when we blink because our visual sensory storage fills in the visual info so we can keep seeing it for a quarter of a second, even when our eyes are closed.

7.14: During childhood, you called your best friend Katie. As an adult, she wants to be called Kathleen. Why do you have a hard time remembering to call her Kathleen now?

You have a hard time remembering to call your friend her new name, Kathleen, because the old name, Katie, PROACTIVELY INTERFERES with your ability to remember the new name.

8.5: You are planning to visit Puerto Rico. If you cancel your trip because you remember a news article about how devastated the island was by Hurricane Maria, which heuristic has influenced your decision making?

Your decision making was influenced by the availability heuristic, which is relying on information that comes easily to mind.

category

a category is when you group things based on similar properties

retrogade amnesia

a condition in which people lose the ability to access memories they had before a brain injury

anterograde amnesia

a condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories after experiencing a brain injury - Molaison experienced this

Blocking

a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it - the "tip of the tongue phenomenon" - temporarily unable to remember something - blanking out - partial retrieval cues still cannot pull precise memory - blocking occurs because of interference from words that are similar in some way, such as in sound or meaning - the tip of the tongue phenomenon increases with age, perhaps because the older you get, the more memories you have that can potentially interfere

intelligence quotient

a mathematical measure of intelligence (originally computed by dividing the child's mental age with the child's chronological age, then multiplying this number by 100)

Short-term storage

a memory storage that briefly holds a limited amount of information in awareness

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way using working memory processes to think about how new information relates to yourself or your prior knowledge (semantic info) provides DEEP encoding for more successful long-term storage

semantic knowledge

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world basically knowledge of facts ex: the year the civil war started

savant

a person who has minimal intellectual ability in most domains but an exceptional intelligent ability in some intelligence Kim Peeks

heuristic

a shortcut or rule of thumb used to make decisions by using minimal cognitive resources and to think quickly - often occurs unconsciously - adaptive: sometimes survival depends on quick decisions that don't require weighing ALL the evidence

Concept

a single mental representation of an object or event in order; we create concepts in order to store unique information about each specific member of a category - can also include knowledge about a relation between items ex: concept of a guitar includes the knowledge that it has six strings and is played by plucking

Achievement test

a standardized test that is designed to measure an individual's level of knowledge and skill in a particular area - ex: the ACT

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way in the present, often a way that has been successful in the past - using previous strategies or established ways of thinking to answer a question or solve a problem

Aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn - ex: SAT, employers test employees

psychometric test

a test of various aspects of a person's intellectual performance

semantic memory

a type of explicit memory that includes a person's knowledge about the world - we may not remember where or when we learned a fact, but we know the fact - ex: capitals, (basically just facts)

episodic memory

a type of explicit memory that includes a person's personal experiences - ex: memories of your 16th birthday

explicit memory

a type of memory we can intentionally retrieve and describe - explicit memories can involve words or concepts, visual images, or both - regions in the temporal lobe are critical for forming new explicit memories - there are two types of explicit memory: episodic memory and semantic memory

Decision-Making

a type of thinking in which you attempt to select the best choice among choices - identify important criteria and determine how well each alternative satisfies the criteria - Two different types of decision makers: maximizer and minimizer

Problem-Solving

a type of thinking in which you overcome obstacles to move from your present state to your goal state - there are four types of problem-solving: insight, working backwards, subgoals, and analogy

Symbolic representations

abstract mental representations that consist of words or ideas; they do not have relationships to physical qualities of objects in the world ex: the word "violin" corresponds to a violin, a musical instrument, but there is nothing in the word "violin," like the way it sounds or how many syllables it has that corresponds to its physical features

psychometric tests

achievement tests, aptitude tests, and intelligence tests

cultural bias

an aspect of an intelligence test in which the wording used in questions may be more familiar to people of one social group than to another group

Mental Age, introduced by Binet

an assessment of a child's intellectual standing compared with that of same-age peers; determined by comparing the child's test score with the average score for children of each chronological age

Retriveal Cues

anything that helps a person access information in long-term storage

Working Backward

beginning from the goal state and working backward to the current state - we do this a lot in math, see the lily problem for example

Prototype model

concepts are organized based on the "most typical" member of a category (prototype) - decide if item belongs in a category by comparing characteristics to the prototype - one positive feature of the prototype model is that it is very flexible in allowing concepts to be members of a category even when they may not be the best representation of that category, BUT this flexibility still has a drawback: there are so many reasons why someone may choose a prototype as the best representation of that category ex: an orange tends to be the prototypical concept for the category of fruit concepts that don't share some of these traits are thought of as members of that category

What are the three ways we use thinking?

decision making, reasoning, and problem-solving

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

Raymond Cattell

fluid and crystallized intelligence

Maximizer

focus on strengths as a way to stimulate personal and group excellence, seek to transform something strong into something superb - someone who tries to make the objective, perfect choice

Charles Spearman

general intelligence: one common factor underlies intelligence - Spearman used statistical methods to investigate scores on the various types of questions in intelligence tests - found that people who tended to score high on one area scored high another - people who are good at math are also good at writing, problem-solving , and drawing - general intelligence yields higher IQ scores

analogy

identify a previously solved problem that is similar to the current problem - recognize the similarities between the problem you face now and ones that have been solved before

What are the two different types of long-term memory?

implicit and explicit

Fluid intelligence

intelligence that involves the ability to process information, particularly in novel or complex circumstances ex: reasoning, thinking quickly and flexibly, drawing analogies - somewhat analogous to working memory - component of general intelligence - generally people who score high on fluid score high on crystal

Subgoals

intermediate, more manageable goals used in one heuristic strategy to make it easier to reach the final goal - break a large goal into smaller goals

Crystallized Intelligence

involves knowledge gained through experience - ex: vocabulary, spelling, cultural knowledge, and the ability to use this knowledge to solve problems - somewhat analogous to long-term memory - component of general intelligence - generally people who score high on fluid score high on crystal - strong crystallized intelligence is likely aided by strong fluid intelligence

Misattribution

occurs when we misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory - source amnesia is a form of misattribution that occurs when you have a memory for an event but cannot remember where you encountered the information - most people can't remember specific memories before the age of 3 - cryptoamnesia is an ex of misattribution, and this is when you think you have come up with a new idea, but in reality, you have received an old idea from memory and failed to attribute it to its proper source, ex: unintentional plagiarism

IQ (Wilhelm Stern)

refined Binet's system, developed the IQ - for adults, its measured with average adult and not with adults at different ages, average IQ is set at 100

two types of amnesia

retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia

Satisfier

seeks to find an adequate choice that meets their minimum requirements

Schemas

so, we maintain memories according to their meaning. but how is meaning determined? For example, if you are trying to remember a list of numbers, you may use chunking. The decisions you make about how to chunk the information depend on schemas. incoming info - you will filter it based on your schemas, which will guide your attention to the relevant features

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

intelligence

the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental changes

reaction time

the amount of time taken to respond to a specific stimulus, high reaction time, high intelligence

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place ex: birthday party

persistence

the continual recurrence of unwanted memories from long-term storage - some unwanted memories can be very traumatic that they can have terrible effects on the person's life, PTSD

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Procedural Memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things; MOTOR MEMORY - involves motor skills, habits, and other behaviors employed to achieve goals - are generally very unconscious that consciously thinking about automatic behaviors interferes with the smooth production of those behaviors; ex: when you bike, and you consciously think of each step involved in the process of biking, you would most likely get distracted - brain damage to the hippocampus may NOT affect implicit memories that you display through behavior, such as mirror drawing and how to ride a bike - ex: daydreaming while driving yet still driving perfectly, the fact that you still know how to swim or ride a bike even after so many years later

Multiple intelligences

the idea that people have many different types of intelligence that are independent of one another (there are seven or eight): - musical intelligence - logical intelligence - natural intelligence - intrapersonal intelligence - interpersonal intelligence - linguistic intelligence - spatial intelligence - bodily kinesthetic

Triarchic theory of intelligence

the idea that people have three types of intelligences: analytical, practical, and creative analytical: similar to what is tested by standard intelligence tests; problem-solving, analogies, puzzles, etc practical: dealing with everyday tasks, such as knowing whether a parking space is big enough for your vehicle creative: ability to gain insight and solve novel problems in new and interesting ways

forgetting

the inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage

Thinking

the mental manipulation of representations of information we encounter in our environment

memory

the nervous system's ability to obtain and retain information and skills

Affective heuristic

the tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future - we often decide to do things that will make us happy - and we also avoid doing things we believe we will regret - however, we are not masters at affective forecasting(believing how we will feel in the future), so we often overestimates how events will make us feel in the future

Simple definition for schema

ways of structuring memory in long-term storage that help you perceive, organize, process, and use info.

simple memory test

weakly related to general intelligence ex: giving you a list of words and asking you to memorize them

Suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections - the way a question is asked may influence a person's memory of information - suggestibility of memory in long-term storage creates problems for one of the most powerful forms of evidence: eyewitness accounts; this is because we don't always pay attention to every detail: change blindness

representative heuristic

the tendency to make a decision based on how closely the object matches what you already believe - can lead to faulty reasoning if you fail to take other information into account - for example, we often forget to consider the base rate, which is how frequently an event occurs, ex in book about how there are more postal workers than cognitive psychs so Helena is more likely to be a postal worker

availability heuristic

the tendency to make a decision based on what easily comes to mind - ex: going on vacation, deciding which state to visit, you automatically eliminate NJ cuz hurricane sandy is the first thing that comes to your mind

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect how that info is perceived and thus influence decisions and judgments. - ex: 75% fat-free milk or 25% fat milk? you'd probably go for the first one, even tho both are the same

Revising Mental Representations/cognitive biases

there are three common ways we can do this: - restructuring - overcoming mental sets - overcoming functional fixedness

Is intelligence inherited?

there is a genetic component to it, but environment affects expression of the aspect

Drawback of schemas

they can lead to biased encoding

What are two things that psychometric tests have in common?

they must be reliable and valid

Robert Sternberg

triarchic theory of intelligence

How much information can be held in sensory storage?

unlimited

How long can information be maintained in sensory storage?

up to a second, could even be less

Reasoning

using information to determine if a conclusion is valid there are two types: informal reasoning and formal reasoning