Unit 8: Motivation and Emotion
reinforcement
A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
insulin
A protein hormone secreted by the pancreas that is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates and the regulation of glucose levels in the blood.
emotion
A response of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, conscious experience, and subjective feelings of emotion itself.
glucose
A simple sugar that is an important source of energy.
thalamus
A structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex.
facial expressions
Fear, surprise, joy, sadness, anger, disgust, etc., are conveyed through brow, eye, and mouth configurations
emotional intelligence (EI)
Goleman's term for the ability to know and manage one's emotions, empathize with others, and maintain satisfying relationships. this explains why people of lower IQ's are often more successful than those of high IQ's. can be achieved through classical/operant conditioning.
compassionate/consummate love
In Sternberg's Love Triangle, this type of love consists of passion and intimacy with commitment. It is physical attraction with an emotional bond.
hierarchy of needs
Maslow's theory that inner motives (ex. physiological and safety needs) must be met before higher needs (belonging and self-actualization)
prefrontal cortex
Part of the limbic system, involved in conscious regulation of emotional states. responsible for thinking, planning, and language.
Two-Factor Theory
Schacter and Singer's theory that emotion depends on two factors: 1. physiological arousal 2.cognitive labeling of that arousal. we look to external rather than internal cues to label our emotions
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
Selye's three-stage (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) reaction to chronic stress
immune system
The cells and tissues that recognize and attack foreign substances in the body
sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
overjustification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
TAT (thematic apperception test)
a projective psychological test. responses reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people
fight, flight, or freeze
a sequence of internal processes that prepares the organism for struggle or escape
Duchenne smile
a smile that expresses true enjoyment, involving both the muscles that pull up the lip corners diagonally and those that contract the band of muscles encircling the eye
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction towards numbers of either one's own or the other gender. is more stable and less fluid in men than women; has biological and genetic components.
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
anxiety disorder following exposure to a life-threatening or other extreme event that evoked a great horror or helplessness, characterized by flashbacks, nightmares, and impaired functioning
secondary apprasial
assessing one's resources and choosing a coping method
needs
basic requirements for human survival
drive
biologically instigated motivation
HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical) axis
body's delayed stress response, involving the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal cortex. shuts down immune response under stress to prepare for fight, flight, or freeze. the release of cortisol inhibits immune response and promotes emotional memory formation.
SAM (sympatho-adrenal-medullary) system
body's initial, rapid-acting stress response, involving the sympathetic NS and the adrenal medulla
homeostasis
body's tendency to maintain a relatively balanced and stable internal state, such as constant internal temperature
sadness
brow's inner corner raised, mouth corners down
anger
brows drawn together and downward, eyes fixed, mouth squarish.
fear
brows level, drawn in and up, eyelids lifted, mouth corners retracted.
surprise
brows raised, eyes widened, mouth rounded in oval shape
interest
brows raised, mouth softly rounded, lips may be pursed.
resilience
capacity to adapt, achieve well-being, and cope with stress, in spite of serious threats
automatic action
characterized by automatic motor responses and changes in the autonomic nervous system. Conscious response to the external environment is minimal
Type A personality
chronically on edge, feel intense time urgency, and are preoccupied with responsibilities
orgasm
climax of sexual stimulation
empty love
commitment
secondary drive
conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli (wealth, success)
Alfred Kinsey
confidential interviews with 18,000 people (early 1950s). studies sexual behavior in human males and females; created a scale of sexuality from 0-6 (0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 is exclusively homosexual, 7 is asexual)
emotion wheel
core "universal" emotions are towards the center, other emotions are combinations of basic emotions.
display rules
cultural rules about how emotions are expressed
parasympathetic nervous system
deactivates or slows down activities of muscles and glands (rest-and-digest response); slowing down of heart rates, pupillary constriction
problem-solving coping
dealing directly with a stressor to decrease or eliminate it
primary apprasial
deciding if a situation is harmful, threatening, or challenging
inverted "U"
describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal
achievement motivation
desire to excel, especially in competition with others
brain structures
differences in size of hypothalamus in gay v. straight people
hormones
during pregnancy (a boy with many brothers is likely to be gay)
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by severe weight loss resulting from self-imposed starvation and an obsessive fear of obesity
bulimia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by the consumption of large quantities of food (bingeing), followed by vomiting, extreme exercise use, and/or laxative use (purging)
amygdala
emotional memory
Cannon-Bard Theory
emotions and physiological changes occur simultaneously (ex. "I'm crying and feeling bad at the same time"); in this view emotions are all physiologically similar.
instinct theory (biological determinism)
emphasizes inborn, genetic factors in motivation
norepinephrine
fight, flight or freeze response
instincts
fixed response pattern that is unlearned and found in almost all members of a species
phsyiological needs
food, water, warmth, rest
approach-approach conflict
forced choice between 2 options both of which have equally desirable characteristics
avoidance-avoidance conflict
forced choice between 2 options both of which have equally undesirable characteristics
conflict
forced choice between 2+ incompatible goals or impulses
role conflict
forced choice between two or more different and incompatible role demands
avoidance-approach conflict
forced choice within one option, which has equally undesirable and desirable characteristics
joy
forming smile, cheeks lifted, twinkle in eye.
plateau
full sexual arousal
unconscious motivation
having a desire to engage in an activity but not being consciously aware of the desire
cognitive consistency
having a logical connection between existing knowledge and a new stimulus
conscious motivation
having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire
dopamine
high->euphoria, pleasure
serotonin
high->serenity low->depression
genetics
homosexuality runs in families and is strong in twins
Masters and Johnson study
in the 1960s William Masters and Virginia Johnson explored the physiology of sex with 382 females and 312 males. discovered sex occurs in 4 phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
anhedonia
inability to experience pleasure
polygraph
instrument that measures sympathetic arousal (heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductivity) to detect emotional arousal, which in turn supposedly reflects lying vs. truthfulness
psychoneuroimmunology
interdisciplinary field that studies the the effects of psychology and other factors on the immune system
motive
internal mechanism that directs behavior (used to describe motivation that is learned rather than biologically based)
liking
intimacy
companionate love
intimacy + commitment
belonging and love needs
intimate relationships and friends
cognitive theory
involve attributions and expectancies
Type B personality
laid-back, calm, relaxed attitude toward life
emotion-focused coping
managing one's emotional responses to a stressful situation
need for achievement (n Ach)
mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or reach some goal
extrinsic motivation
motivation based on external rewards or threats of punishment
drive-reduction theory
motivation begins with a physiological need (a lack/deficiency) that elicits a drive toward behavior that will satisfy the original need; once the need is met, a state of balance (homeostasis) is restored and motivation decreases
intrinsic motivation
motivation resulting from internal, personal satisfaction from a task or activity
incentive theory
motivation results from external stimulus that "pull" the organism in certain directions
Facial-Feedback Hypothesis
movements of the facial muscles produce and/or intensify our subjective experience of emotion. automatic matching responses occur without attention or conscious awareness
multiple approach avoidance conflict
multiple choices, each with good and bad features
complex tasks
new or unfamiliar tasks
stress
nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it; the arousal, both physical and mental, to situations or events that we perceive as threatening or challenging
disgust
nose wrinkled, upper lip raised, tongue pushed outward
cognitive dissonance
occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them and their own personal feelings/actions. therefore something must change to eliminate the dissonance.
optimal-arousal theory (Yerkes-Dodson Law)
organisms are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal for the best performance of a task.
infatuation
passion
fatuous love
passion + commitment
romantic love
passion + intimacy
learned helplessness
pattern of not responding to certain stimuli after an organism learns that its behavior has no effect
external locus of control
person believes that he/she has no power to act in a situation
internal locus of control
person believes that the power to act lies within him/her
eustress
pleasant, desirable stress
resolution
post-orgasm
esteem needs
prestige and feeling of accomplishment
projection
processes by which people attribute their own conscious motives to other people or objects
hardiness
resilient personality with a strong commitment to personal goals, control over life, and viewing change as a challenge rather than a threat
safety needs
security and safety
motivation
set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior, usually towards a goal. -connects observable behavior to internal state -accounts for variability in behavior and learning -explains perseverance despite adversity -relates biology to behavior
excitement
sexual arousal
binge-eating disorder
significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa
hassles
small problems of daily living that accumulate and sometimes become a major source of stress
sexual scripts
socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations. cultural norms and attitudes affect sex.
psychic numbness
state of being shocked after traumatic event
chronic stressors
state of ongoing arousal in which the parasympathetic system cannot activate the relaxation response
burnout
state of physiological and physical exhaustion resulting from chronic exposure to high levels of stress and little personal control
cortisol
stress hormone
tend and befriend model
stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support
cataclysmic event/traumatic stressor
stressful occurrences that occur suddenly and generally affect many people simultaneously. steps: 1. psychic numbness 2. automatic action 3. anhedonia 4. shutting down 5. recovery
health psychology
studies how biological, psychological, and social factors interact in health and illness
James-Langue Theory
subjective experiences of emotion results from physiological changes, rather than being their cause (ex. "I feel sad because I'm crying"); in this view each emotion is physiologically different. Fails to acknowledge arousal without emotional experience
limbic system
system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
simple tasks
tasks that are routine or standardized
acute stress
temporary stress
set-point (metabolism)
tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight
exhaustion
the body depletes its resources
alarm
the body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor
resistance
the body seems to adapt to the presence of the stressor
basal metabolic rate
the body's resting rate of energy expenditure
obesity
the condition of being grossly overweight/having body fat 15% or more above the ideal for one's height and age
hunger
the natural physical drive to eat, prompted by the body's need for food. steps within the body: blood glucose level drops, sends message to liver, sends message to lateral hypothalamus, envrionmental cues activate, eating occurs
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Lazarus' Cognitive Appraisal Theory
theory that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event based on perception of the event
dissonance theory
there is a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among cognitions (ex. beliefs and opinions)
stressor
trigger or stimulus that prompts a stressful reaction
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love
types of love can be described by 3 different states: intimacy, passion, and commitment. each scale can be used in combination to explain different types of love; the relative emphasis of each component changes over time as an adult romantic relationship develops. if a marital relationship is rooted in consummate love, it is more likely to improve after all the kids have left for college.
primary drive
unconditioned response to UCS (hunger, thirst)
frustration
unpleasant tension, anxiety, and heightened sympathetic activity resulting from a blocked goal
distress
unpleasant, threatening stress
individualism
view that places high value on individual achievement and distinction
collectivism
view that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction
ventromedial hypothalamus
when stimulated it makes you feel full; when destroyed it makes you hungry forever
lateral hypothalamus
when stimulated it makes you hungry; when destroyed it makes you full forever
cultural conditioning
when/what/how you eat
job stressors
work-related stress, including unemployment, role conflict, and burnout