2.0 Anthropology
Lewis and Clark Timelines http://www.nps.gov/jeff/learn/historyculture/lewis-and-clark-timelines.htm
Moticello Thomas Jefferson's Estate at Monticello. Jefferson's Dream Thomas Jefferson had a dream - one might almost say an obsession. It began in his youth, when his father, Peter Jefferson, was involved in a company promoting westward settlement to Kentucky and Tennessee. Peter was one of the first of the tidewater planters to move out to the Piedmont area of Virginia. He helped survey the state and create the Jefferson-Fry map of Virginia, published in London in 1751 under the Royal Geographer, Jeffreys. In 1749, Peter Jefferson, Joshua Fry, Dr. Thomas Walker, and James Maury formed the "Loyal Land Company" to buy and promote land purchases west of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Walker was the first non-Indian to cross the Blue Ridge into Kentucky, and charted the Cumberland Gap. Peter Jefferson and his associates believed in a concept called symmetrical geography. This concept theorized that all North American rivers sprang from a single source, a great lake centered on the continent, called Thoyaga. Flowing from Thoyaga was a navigable river which flowed to the Pacific. They also believed that since river tributaries which flowed to the Atlantic passed so close to tributaries which led to the Mississippi, the same situation would probably hold true of Missouri River tributaries and Western rivers which flowed to the Pacific. The Loyal Land Company dedicated their efforts to finding a passage through the mountains to the Pacific. This passage could make them very rich men - an easy way to the spices and minerals of the east, particularly China - a dream of explorers since the time of Columbus. The French and Indian War put an end to the land company's plan, of which ten-year-old Thomas Jefferson was surely aware. In fact, even after Peter Jefferson's death when his son was 14, one of the partners of the land company, James Maury, served as young Thomas' tutor. Maury described the Loyal Land Company plan: Missouri River This view of the Missouri River was taken from a bluff at Weston Bend State Park, north of Kansas City. Some persons were to be sent in search of that river Missouri, if that be the right name of it, in order to discover whether it had any communication with the Pacific Ocean; they were to follow the river if they found it, and make exact reports of the country they passed through, the distances they traveled, what worth of navigation those rivers and lakes afforded, &c. As Thomas Jefferson matured and achieved success in several fields, he never lost sight of his father's plan. He tried several times to encourage or promote the exploration of the American continent. Jefferson's interest in the West stemmed from his lifelong scientific curiosity, and was sustained by his hopes for the future of the United States. In 1783, at the end of the American Revolution, Jefferson was concerned that the British might secure a foothold west of the Mississippi. He asked the war hero George Rogers Clark to consider leading a privately sponsored expedition to explore the area, but Clark declined. In 1786, while serving as U.S. minister to France, Jefferson met John Ledyard. An American veteran of Captain James Cook's third voyage to the Pacific, Ledyard planned to cross Siberia, sail across the Pacific to the Northwest coast of America, and walk from west to east across the continent. Jefferson encouraged Ledyard, whose plans failed when the Russian government arrested and deported him before he left Asia. While serving as Secretary of State, Jefferson and the American Philosophical Society encouraged expeditions to be led by Dr. Moses Marshall in 1792 and the French botanist Andre Michaux in 1793, but these never got beyond the planning stages. These last expeditions were spurred by momentous news from the West. In 1792 the American sailor Robert Gray discovered and mapped the mouth of the Columbia River, which provided evidence that there was indeed a major river which flowed out of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. If the headwaters of the Missouri River were located near the headwaters of the Columbia, an easy route across the continent might be located and mapped. Portrait of Thomas Jefferson In 1800 Thomas Jefferson was elected President of the United States, and upon taking office decided to act upon his old dream of a trans-continental expedition. By 1800 Spanish, French, English and American traders and explorers had gained a reasonably good knowledge of the Missouri River as far the Platte, and a lesser acquaintance for the 1,000 miles beyond to the Mandan Indian villages in what is today North Dakota. British explorer Alexander MacKenzie had traveled over the Canadian Rockies to the Pacific in 1793, and this caused Jefferson great anxiety, for he feared that the British claim to the Pacific northwest would prevent American commerce in that region. Virtually nothing was known of the continent between the upper Missouri River and the Pacific coastal region, but the belief that the Missouri and Columbia rivers were interlocked and formed a "northwest passage" across the continent was popular. For these reasons, in 1802 President Jefferson began to organize an official, government-sponsored expedition which would travel up the Missouri River and overland to the Pacific Ocean. He chose Meriwether Lewis, his personal secretary, to lead it.
US Census2000
The following information was included in the 2000 census. "How are the race categories used in Census 2000 defined?? "'White' refers to people having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. It includes people who indicated their race or races as 'White' or wrote in entries such as Irish, German, Italian, Lebanese, Near Easterner, Arab, or Polish." "'Black or African American' refers to people having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa." "It includes people who indicated their race or races as 'Black,' 'African American,' or 'Negro,' or wrote in entries such as Afro American, Nigerian, or Haitian. 'American Indian and Alaska Native' refers to people having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America), and who maintain tribal affiliation or community attachment. It includes people who indicated their race or races by marking this category or writing in their principal or enrolled tribe, such as Rosebud Sioux, Chippewa, or Navajo." "'Asian' refers to people having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent. It includes people who indicated their race or races as 'Asian Indian,' 'Chinese,' 'Filipino,' 'Korean,' 'Japanese,' 'Vietnamese,' or 'Other Asian,' or wrote in entries such as Burmese, Hmong, Pakistani, or Thai." "'Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander' refers to people having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. It includes people who indicated their race or races as 'Native Hawaiian,' 'Guamanian or Chamorro,' 'Samoan,' or 'Other Pacific Islander,' or wrote in entries such as Tahitian, Mariana Islander, or Chuukese." "'Some other race' was included in Census 2000 for respondents who were unable to identify with the five Office of Management and Budget race categories. Respondents who provided write-in entries such as Moroccan, South African, Belizean, or a Hispanic origin (for example, Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban) are included in the Some other race category."
Population
"In 1804 the United States was growing rapidly in population as well as territory. The 1800 census indicated that the nation was composed of about 5.3 million people. The seventeen states in the Union in 1804 were Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vermont, New Hampshire and newly admitted Ohio. The flag had fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, and wasn't changed until 1818, despite the fact that several more states entered the Union. After 1818 the flag went back to having just thirteen stripes, representing the thirteen original states."
Resources and Labor
"The U.S. was then a predominantly rural nation, with only one in twenty of its citizens living in towns of over 2,500 people; four of every five were farmers. All were used to hard work, with long days (fourteen to sixteen hours in the summer) and seasonal changes in labor and diet. Work began for children at an early age, with little time for schooling. The average household was composed of six people, but many families were very large, exceeding ten children. Most lived in small, one story houses, many with just one or two rooms."
Average Population Characteristics
"The average age of Americans at the time of Lewis and Clark was young, probably about sixteen years of age in 1800; today it is about thirty-four. The average height of Americans was about 5'8" tall, belying the old maxim of historic site docents who delighted in telling the public how 'people were shorter in those days.' The average height of Americans in the early 21st century is about 5'9". However, in 1800 Americans were taller than their European counterparts by about two to three inches. Heights in the army in 1804 ranged between 5'5" and 6'4½"."
Multiple Origin Theory
According to the multiple origin theory, scientists believe that Homo erectus was the first species of humans to migrate out of Africa approximately 1.75 million years ago. Fossils of Homo erectus have been found in Africa, China, Indonesia, and parts of Europe. According to this theory, the people in each of these geographical areas had to adapt to their environments. Each of these groups evolved into a unique type of Homo sapiens that eventually became modern humans.
Geographical Race Theory
Anthropologists developed a racial classification system in the 1950s that divided the people of the world into nine categories according to their characteristics. The nine geographical races were African, American Indian, Asian, Australian, European, Indian, Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian. Other methods of racial classification include the use of skin color or physical traits such as lip shape. A classification based on physical appearance is not based on sound scientific principles. The Nine Geographical Races African American Indian Asian Australian European Indian Melanesian Micronesian Polynesian
Geographical Race Theory
Anthropologists developed a racial classification system in the 1950s that divided the people of the world into these nine geographical categories according to their characteristics: African American Indian Asian Australian European Indian Melanesian Micronesian Polynesian Other methods of racial classification include using skin color or physical traits such as lip shape as a basis for classification; however, classification by physical appearance is not based on sound scientific principles.
Anthropometry
Anthropometry was used to measure living human beings for the purpose of classification and comparison of human races. Primates and all human races were placed in a segmented arrangement that extended back into prehistory. Historically on an anthropological level, the term race was used to differentiate and categorize (taxonomy) biologically distinct characteristics. Various human races were categorized according to their perceived level of cultural development. Some were considered more advanced than others. Differences between humans and primates were also documented. Scientists in the 1800s believed that the classification of races had been completed by the end of the century. However, the work of the late nineteenth century changed dramatically in 1900 with two major developments in physical anthropology.
Homo sapiens
Approximately 300,000 to 400,000 years ago, Homo erectus evolved into a new human species called Homo sapiens. The physical appearance of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens was very similar. Homo sapiens had a higher and rounder skull and both had sloping foreheads and large faces. Female and male Homo sapiens were closer to the same size than earlier hominids. The brain size and physical height of Homo sapiens were close to those of modern humans. Homo sapiens were the first people in prehistory to live in large areas of Europe. Homo sapiens fossils have been found in Spain, Italy, Greece, France, England, and Germany. Homo sapiens also lived in Africa and Asia. There is evidence that these people built structures for shelter.
Neanderthals 2
Cro-Magnon remains have been found in North America as well as Europe, Africa, and Asia. Cro-Magnons were good toolmakers. The improvement of tools was one of their major accomplishments. Their physical features, including the size and appearance would be very similar to modern humans. A Cro-Magnon would also walk and run the same as modern humans. Evidence of Cro-Magnons can be found on every inhabited continent in the world. Cro-Magnon people were skilled hunters and toolmakers. They also drew pictures and painted images of their world. They painted the animals found in the Lascaux Cave. They also learned to farm and tame both goats and dogs. Cro-Magnons hollowed out logs to make simple canoes which they used to cross rivers and to fish in deep water.
Homo erectus
Homo erectus, known as "upright man," developed from Homo habilis. A Homo erectus had a thick skull with a large jaw, a sloping forehead, and stood about 5 feet tall. Originally, the size of the Homo erectus was approximately the same size as Homo habilis. However, over a period of time, the brain size of the Homo erectus increased dramatically. Eventually, the brain size of the Homo erectus was almost the size of a modern human brain. Scientists believe that Homo erectus was the first species of humans to migrate out of Africa. Fossils of Homo erectus have been found in Africa, China, Indonesia, and parts of Europe. The Homo erectus was able to create more complex tools than those of the Homo habilis. Homo erectus was also the first human to control the use of fire. Ancient ashes from fires have been found in China alongside Homo erectus fossils. Because they lived in cold climates, anthropologists also believe that Homo erectus wore clothing. The bones of large animals, including mammoths, were also found.
Neolithic Age
People had more time for other activities because they were not always moving around searching for food. Previously, individuals were not able to develop many skills other than hunting. They were able to build more permanent structures for housing. They began to develop a culture to create art such as pottery and jewelry. They cooked more food and became healthier because of new and improved lifestyles. This change in the way food was secured was the beginning of the Neolithic Age, also called the New Stone Age. This occurred somewhere between 10,000 B.C. and 3500 B.C.
2.01 Physical Anthropology
Physical anthropology is the study of human physical characteristics. Physical anthropologists may study modern cultures or fossil remains to learn how human characteristics developed.
Early Human Ancestors
Prehistoric hominids could be the earliest human ancestors. Hominids began to develop approximately 5 to 10 million years ago. The word hominid can be loosely translated to "human-like." Little is known about the hominids except that they walked upright and had smaller brains than modern humans. Most anthropologists believe the australopithecines (aw-stray-loh-PITH-uh-seens) were the first hominids. Hominids represent the human category of the scientific family Hominidae, which includes modern human beings and their ancestors. All people alive today are classified as Homo sapiens. The Latin word Homo means "human being" or "man." Homo sapiens is translated as a "wise human being."
2.02 History of Humans Prehistoric People
Prehistory was the time period before the invention of writing, which occurred about 5,500 years ago. There is some evidence of prehistoric human communication though in the Lascaux Cave in France. Some teenagers accidentally discovered drawings and paintings on the walls of the cave in 1940. Prehistoric people created these drawings and paintings thousands of years ago and provided a rare and valuable insight into their lives. It is difficult to determine an exact time when the first humans lived. Scientists estimate that the origin of humans and their ancestors was at least 2 million years ago. The gathering of evidence such as fossils, bones, and tools provided scientists with information about the physical appearance of prehistoric people. Some of the evidence suggested that early humans had smaller brains and were also smaller in stature than humans today.
Areas of study related to physical anthropology
Primatology and genetics are the third and fourth areas of research. The study of DNA will continue to reveal valuable information about the development of humans. Other areas of study that are related to physical anthropology include the following: Paleoanthropology is the study of humans from prehistory to the modern world. Paleontology is the study of the development of life on earth, including plants and animals. Primatology is the study of how primates such as apes and monkeys are related to the development of human beings. Osteology is the scientific study of the human skeleton. Paleopathology is the study of human skeletons to determine the presence of disease or injuries, which also traces disease and injury in human skeletons. Forensic anthropology is the use of modern scientific procedures in a court of law to determine the identification of deceased individuals.
12 Indian tribes that Lewis and Clark contacted
Shawnee and Delaware Kansa Kickapoo Arikara Omaha Chinookan Tribes Shoshone Pawnee Osage Assiniboin Cheyenne Nez Perce Culture
Theory of Evolution
The Origin of Species, written by Charles Darwin, was published in 1859. The theory of evolution became the main theme and focus of the time period from 1859 to 1900.
Early Human Ancestors 2
The australopithecines appeared about 4 million years ago in Africa. Their remains have been discovered in the north central, southern, and eastern areas of that continent. Some scientists believe that human life began in Africa and then spread to the rest of the world. Australopithecines did not resemble modern humans physically. Scientists examined evidence of australopithecines and determined they had large faces and jaws and flat, human-like teeth. Their brains were about one-third the size of modern human brains. Scientists divided australopithecines into the five species of A. anamensis, A. afarensis, A. africanus, A. boisei, and A. robustus. The most complete australopithecine example ever found was a partial skeleton of a woman, nicknamed Lucy. An examination of the skeleton revealed that Lucy weighed about 60 pounds and was about 3.5 feet tall. The skeleton was discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia. The australopithecines eventually died out and became extinct about 1 to 2 million years ago. Most scientists believe the first early human beings evolved from australopithecines at about that time. It was about this same time that early human ancestors began to use tools.
History and the Missing Link
The development of physical anthropology from the beginning of time has centered on humans trying to determine their position in nature. Some humans have also compared themselves to other primates such as lemurs, monkeys, and apes. Another area of physical anthropology centers on the comparison of the actual physical differences among the human races. The early organization of primates viewed the arrangement of nature in a linear hierarchy. Everything in nature, including humans of all races, had a place in nature. Some scientists in the 1800s were looking for the missing link, a connection between apes and humans.
Modern Physical Anthropology, Human ecology, and human evolution
The discovery of remains in Africa in the 1900s revealed valuable information about the physical development of humans. There are currently four main areas of study in physical anthropology. Human ecology is the study of how mankind relates to its environment. A human ecologist would be interested in how the environment affects population size. Another area of focus for research is human evolution. The examination of fossil remains may shed new light on the development of humans.
Homo habilis
The earliest species of human beings lived in Africa approximately 2 million years ago. Scientists referred to these early humans as Homo habilis, which translated from Latin means "handy man." The brain of this species was larger than the australopithecine but was still half the size of a modern human being. The Homo habilis males were much physically larger than the females. Many anthropologists believe that Homo habilis made the first tools. These first stone tools were used for cutting, chopping, and scraping. Bones of animals have been found with the tools and fossils of Homo habilis. Scientists believe that Homo habilis were able to cut and scrape the bones of large animals. Fossil evidence from about 1.75 million years ago indicated the development of a new human species called Homo erectus.
Theory of Genetics (Gregory Mendel) and the ABO blood types.
The first event was the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's theory of genetics. Mendel completed his research on heredity in 1865, but it remained unknown to much of the scientific community. The second major event was the discovery of the ABO blood types. These two events caused scientists to rethink the scientific work of the nineteenth century. The importance of physical traits and genetic theory became the focus of scientific research. The concepts of the theory of evolution were challenged and the idea of the missing link was essentially abandoned.
2.03 Race and Ancestry Human Races
The origin of modern human beings is linked to the development and evolution of defined human races. Many anthropologists today do not support the notion of biologically defined races. Anthropologists developed two theories of the origin of the human race: the single origin theory and the multiple origin theory. The single origin theory proposed that modern human beings first appeared in Africa or the Middle East approximately 100,000 years ago. These individuals then spread into Europe, Africa, and Asia. The Homo sapiens sapiens eventually replaced the Homo sapiens people such as the Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons who were living in those regions. The multiple origin theory was developed by scientists who believe that Homo erectus was the first species of humans to migrate out of Africa approximately 1.75 million years ago. Fossils of Homo erectus have been found in Africa, China, Indonesia, and parts of Europe. According to this theory, the people in each of these geographical areas adapted to their environments, and each group evolved into a unique type of Homo sapiens that eventually became modern humans.
Human Races
The origin of modern human beings is linked to the development and evolution of defined human races. Many anthropologists today do not support the notion of biologically defined races. They do, however, note the differences in physical appearances of people who live in different parts of the world. Anthropologists developed two theories of the origin of the human race. These theories are the single origin theory and the multiple origin theory.
Modern Human Beings
The prehistoric people who had the features of modern humans first appeared in Africa or the Middle East approximately 100,000 years ago. Many scientists believe that the modern human beings evolved from Homo sapiens. All the people living in the world today belong to the subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens. However, it is not precisely known how or where the connections between Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens sapiens occurred. Some of these questions are related to the development of human races.
theory of human evolution
The scientific information gathered in the 1800s led to the theory of human evolution. This theory proposed that prehistoric people evolved or changed as their environment changed. According to this theory, as human beings evolved, the size of their brains increased. They began to develop more and more technology, which dramatically changed their lives. As the Ice Age came to an end, the earth gradually warmed. Massive sheets of ice that covered the earth shrank to cover only the north and south polar areas of the world. People learned to clothe themselves and began to use crude tools.
Single Origin Theory
The single origin theory proposed that modern human beings first appeared in Africa or the Middle East approximately 100,000 years ago. These individuals then spread around the world into Europe, Africa, and Asia. These people eventually replaced the Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons who were living in those regions.
Human
The term human is generally used in the scientific field to indicate members of the Homo genus including any extinct or existing species in the Hominidae family.
http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/lewisandclark/indians.htm The Lewis and Clark Expedition set out with several goals when it left the St. Louis area in 1804. One of these was to conduct diplomacy with and gather information about the various nations of American Indians they would encounter on their journey. During the course of the expedition, contact was made with at least 55 different native cultural groups. Other groups, such as the Crow (Absaroke), almost certainly saw the explorers without the explorers ever seeing them. Some groups were encountered only through individual members, while others were met with in formal councils. Still other American Indians participated in the expedition by literally saving expedition members from starving and losing their way as they crossed the continent. Some, like the Lakota and Blackfeet, had hostile encounters with the Corps, while others, like the Mandan, Hidatsa and Nez Perce, forged friendships and alliances whose written descriptions in the journals still resonate with good will after 200 years. Lastly, the expedition itself was staffed with at least six people who were all or part American Indian. George Droulliard, one of the most essential members of the Corps, was half Shawnee, while Pierre Cruzatte and Francois Labiche were half Omaha. Although little is known of Jean Baptiste Lepage, he was also almost certainly part American Indian, as were most of the French engages who helped pole and haul the boats up the Missouri in 1804. Lastly, Sacagawea and her baby boy Jean Baptiste, Lemhi Shoshone by birth and Hidatsa by adoption and clan, added important insights into American Indian cultures that the expedition members might never have understood otherwise. At least 300 distinct languages existed in North America in pre-Columbian times. Sign language was highly developed among the Plains Indians as a method of communicating between different tribes. In addition to language differences, cultures varied in size, wealth and economic systems. The Great Plains Indians and the Northwest Indians are two diverse groups that Lewis and Clark encountered on their journey. (Milner 1994, 15) A Nez Perce warrior--the Corps of Discovery established a good relationship with the Nez Perce during their journey. The Nez Perce are regarded as superior horse breeders credited with developing the Appaloosa breed Photo from Northwestern University Library, Edward S. Curtis's 'The North American Indian': the Photographic Images, 2001. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/award98/ienhtml/ curthome.html The history of the Great Plains Indians can be traced back at least 13,000 years and possibly even millenia. During the last stages of the Ice Age, small bands of people migrated in search of megafauna, or game, such as mastodons and mammoths. As game became extinct, their cultural organization became more complex, shifting to bison hunting and living in earth-lodge dwellings. However, European contact brought much change. Prior to this contact, tribes of the plains lived by agriculture or gathering. The introduction of horses by the Spanish in the late 16th century provided Indians with a more efficient method of hunting buffalo. Many groups--the Kiowa, Cheyenne, Sioux, Comanche and others--shifted to a nomadic culture. Portable tipis, immense value placed on horses, and the accumulation of herds were common patterns among these groups. Others such as the Mandans, Arikara, Hidatsas, Pawnee, Wichita and Omaha remained horticultural societies, establishing permanent settlements in the river valleys of the plains. [photo] Photograph of an 1841 engraving of the interior of a Chinook cedar plank lodge in Oregon. The Corps of Discovery interacted with these Northwest Coast Indians while at their winter encampment at Fort Clatsop Image from Charles Wilkes' Narrative of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, 1845, vol. 4, p.341, courtesy of the University of Washington Libraries. Manuscripts, Special Collections, University Archives Division. Little is known of the early history of the Northwest Coast Indians, though anthropologists believe these groups represent the most elaborate nonagricultural culture in the world. These Indian groups established permanent settlements with clearly defined territories. The economy was based almost entirely on salmon and other marine life and required large amounts of seasonal labor. The cultural influences of American Indians on the United States and the world go very deep. The American Indians gave Europeans the cultivation of corn, the potato, the sweet potato, tobacco, pumpkins, the tomato and, philosophically, conceptions of democracy radically different from the ancient Greek city-states. The Six Nations, an alliance of the Mohawk, Seneca, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Tuscarora nations, practiced a participatory democracy from which Ben Franklin drew inspiration when uniting the English colonies during the Albany Conference. Within the present day United States, the Acoma and Hopi pueblos, settled around A.D. 600-1000 stand as possibly the oldest occupied communities in the continental United States, discovered and settled long before the Europeans came. Front and reverse of a Jefferson Peace Medal replica Courtesy of Oregon Historical Society, [neg. numbers 101540 and 101538] In order to negotiate intelligently with the American Indian tribes and their leaders along the route, Lewis received a "crash course" in diplomacy and about the known Indian cultural groups from Dr. Benjamin Rush and others in Philadelphia. Lewis also knew that gift giving and trade were important parts of most known Indian cultures, and that he would have to have trade goods for diplomacy and for acquiring needed goods and food along the route. Lewis also brought along peace medals produced by the U.S. Government in silver for presentation to American Indian chiefs. Peace medals are a fascinating yet little-known aspect of American history. They were an integral part of the government's relations with American Indians in the 18th and 19th centuries. At the time, these medals represented a covenant between nations, and were valued equally by tribal people who had had contact with European-Americans and by the governments of Britain, Spain, France and the United States, each of which issued them. Lewis and Clark took along three large medals with an image of President Jefferson on them, 13 middle-sized Jefferson medals, 16 small Jefferson medals, and 55 of the "season medals" struck during the presidency of George Washington. All but one of these medals were given out during the expedition. The obverse (front) of the Jefferson medals had a formal bust of President Jefferson in low relief, along with his name and the date he entered office. The reverse showed clasped hands and bore the motto "Peace and Friendship." This design depicted Indian nations as coequals of the United States. [photo] 1832 George Catlin painting of a Minitari chief identified in the journals of Lewis and Clarks: Eh-toh'k-pah-she-pée-shah, Black Moccasin, Aged Chief From the George Catlin collection of Smithsonian American Art Museum, Gift of Mrs. Joseph Harrison, Jr. Although the men of the expedition did not know what to expect on their trek, they were prepared to meet the various Indian tribal groups and curious about what they would be like. Previously, almost nothing had been known of the American Indians westward from the Mandan villages, in present North Dakota, to the Upper Columbia River. Lewis and Clark and their men left behind various accounts of different tribal groups and their interactions with them. Although the information is often inaccurate, and not every tribe is handled equally or in some cases discussed at all, today these descriptions provide insight into what the expedition members experienced during their journey. Whether Lewis and Clark knew it or not, they were the "spearpoints" of an invasion of American Indian homelands in the West. Whether or not their actions were deliberate, they touched off an invasion which displaced entire peoples and tribal groups with European descended settlers, backed by the U.S. Army and English land law. It is for this reason and others that many native peoples see no reason to be happy about the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial, and why this event should be looked upon by all as a "commemoration" rather than a "celebration." For more information please see Native Peoples on the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial's Lewis and Clark Journey of Discovery website, portions of which were excerpted for this piece.
There are many descriptions of encounters with Indian tribes along their 2-year journey exploring the Louisiana territory. Read the excerpts from National Park Service website, Lewis and Clark Expedition: A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary regarding some of the interactions of members of the expedition with the American Indians of various tribes. As you read, answer the questions in the Reading Guide. You will use the Reading Guide for the lesson assessment.
2.05 Lewis and Clark Expedition Anthropology in the United States
Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, organized the first anthropological study in the early 1800s. This study was designed to explore the territory in the Louisiana Purchase. This famous study of the land purchased from France in 1803 was known as the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The Lewis and Clark Expedition included many of the elements of physical anthropology, which is the study of human physical characteristics. Physical anthropologists may study modern cultures or fossil remains to learn how human characteristics develop. They also observe how people lived and worked in societies and cultures.
Neanderthals
Two kinds of Homo sapiens lived during the Paleolithic Age. Neanderthals were the earliest. Their remains have been found in Europe, Africa, and Asia. The word Neanderthal comes from the Neander Valley near Dusseldorf, Germany. The first fossils identified as Neanderthal were found there in 1856. Neanderthals lived in caves, made advanced tools, possessed good hunting skills, and wore clothing made from animal skins. Scientists have found several complete skeletons, because the Neanderthals buried their dead. Examination of these skeletons revealed that Neanderthals were physically stronger and had smaller brains than modern humans do. This species lived a relatively long time, and Neanderthal people disappeared only about 30,000 years ago. A new Homo sapiens, the Cro-Magnons, evolved at about this same time.
Paleolithic Age
Warmer weather brought new plants to life that presented new opportunities for mankind. The warming of the earth caused one of the first revolutions in the development of civilizations in the manner that people secured food to eat. During the Paleolithic Age, people hunted food and moved from place to place, which was a typical hunting and gathering society. As the earth warmed, people discovered that they could farm the land and grow food. Prehistoric farmers set up villages near their fields and lived there as long as their crops grew well. The ability to grow food meant people could stay in one place for much longer periods of time because they did not have to hunt food. Because they were not always moving, several people often stayed together in the same place. Villages of about 150 to 200 people developed and grew, and people began to socialize and interact with each other and to develop social institutions.
Census Categories of Race
White Black or African American American Indian and Alaska native Asian Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Some Other Race In Census 2000, people were asked if their ancestry was more than one of the five racial categories: White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN), Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (NHPI), or Some Other Race (SOR). The Census 2000 results were divided in the single race population and those who identified two or more races population. The 12 largest race combinations of at least 100,000 respondents that were reported by people included these racial combinations: White and AIAN White and Asian White and Black White and NHPI White and Black and AIAN Black and AIAN Black and Asian Asian and NHPI White and SOR Black and SOR AIAN and SOR Asian and SOR
Lewis and Clark Journey of Discovery
http://www.nps.gov/jeff/learn/historyculture/the-lewis-and-clark-journey-of-discovery.htm