A&P EXAM course goals

Define oxygen deficit and muscle fatigue, and list possible causes of muscle fatigue.

. Oxygen debt - occurs during prolonged muscle activity when there is not enough oxygen being taken in fast enough to keep cell respiration making ATP Muscle fatigue - occurs when muscles strenuously for a long time - a muscle is fatigued when it is unable to contract even though it is still being stimulated - will begin to contract more weakly until it finally ceases reacting and stops contracting

List and describe the six main activities of the digestive system

1) Ingestion 2) Propulsion 3) Food breakdown: mechanical digestion 4) Food breakdown: chemical digestion 5) Absorption 6) Defecation

Describe the general structure of a nerve

A bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS - within a nerve, neurons fibers, or processes, are wrapped in protective connective tissue coverings. Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheath, an endoneurium. Groups of fibers are found by a coarser connective tissue wrapping, the epineurium to form fiber bundles, or fascicles. Fascicles are bound together by a tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium, to form the cordlike nerves

Name two of the four concepts of the cell theory

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. 2) The activity of an organism depends on both the individual and collective activities of its cells.

Define pulse, and name several pulse points

A pulse is the alternating expansion and recoil of an artery that occurs with each beat of the left ventricle creating a pressure wave that travels through the entire arterial system. Pulse points include your wrist and your neck.

Describe the ABO and Rh blood groups

ABO blood groups are based on which of two antigens, type A or type B a person inherits. Absence of both antigens results in type O blood while presence of both antigens results in type AB blood, only A or B antigens leads to either type A or type B blood. Rh+ people have RBCs that carry the Rh antigen while RH- people do not carry the Rh antigen.

When provided with a model or diagram, identify the accessory eye structures, and list the functions of each.

Accessory structures of the eye include the extrinsic eye muscles, eyelids, conjunctiva, and lacrimal apparatus - eyelids- Anteriorly the eyes are protected- meet at the medial and lateral corners of the eye -Palpebral fissure- place between the eyelids in an open eye eyelashes- projecting from the border of each eyelid tarsal glands- modified sebaceous glands associated with the eyelid edges - conjunctiva- delicate membrane that lines the eyelids and covers part of the outer surface of the eyeball, ends at the edge of the cornea by fusing with the corneal epithelium- secretes mucus which helps lubricate the eyeball lacrimal apparatus- consists of the lacrimal gland and a number of ducts that drain the lacrimal secretions into the nasal cavity

Describe the effects of aerobic and resistance exercise on skeletal muscles and other body organs

Aerobic or endurance exercise - result in stronger, more flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue due in part to increased blood supply to muscles and the individual muscle cells produce more mitochondria and store more oxygen - does not cause the muscle to increase much in size - benefits metabolism, digestion, neuromuscular coordination and skeleton as well as the heart, reduced fat deposits in vessels, and lungs o Resistance or isometric exercise - results in the bulging muscles seen in body builders - occurs when muscles are pitted against some immoveable object such as a wall - key is to force the muscle to contract with as much force as possible - increased the size and strength is due to enlargement of individual muscles cells as they make more contractile filaments - the amount of connective tissue that reinforces the muscle also increases

Name the organs forming the respiratory passageway from the nasal cavity to the alveoli of the lungs (or identify them on a diagram or model), and describe the function of each

Air enters the nose. The pharynx is the throat that serves as a common passageway for food and air. The larynx or voice box routes air and food to the proper channels and plays a role in speech. The trachea or windpipe allows the esophagus to ecpand when we swallow a large piece of food. The bronchi are a direct route to the air sacs. Alveoli are the terminal air sacs.

Identify the major anatomical areas of a long bone.

All the bones of the limbs except the patella and wrist and ankle bones are long

Explain the significance of the fact that some tissue types (muscle and nerve) are largely amitotic after the growth stages are over.

Amitotic tissues are severely handicapped by injury because the lost cells cannot be replaced by the same type of cells. Damaged heart tissue is not replaced by heart cells but by scar tissue that cannot contract making the heart weaker. Once nerves are damaged or lost, a person becomes paralyzed and loses all feeling in that area serviced by that nerve

Explain how anatomy and physiology are related

Anatomy is studies the structure and shape of the body and physiology is the study of how the body works

Define Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy is the study of the structure and shapes of the body and its parts and their relationships to one another. Physiology is the study of how the body and its parts functions

Define anemia, polycythemia, leukopenia, and leukocytosis, and list possible causes for each condition

Anemia - a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood for any reason - a lower-than-normal number of RBC or abnormal or deficient hemoglobin content in the RBCs such as sickle-cell anemia Polycythemia - an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes - may result from bone marrow cancer or a normal physiological response to living at high altitudes where air is thinner and therefore less oxygen is available - excessive RBCs increases blood viscosity causing it to flow sluggishly in the body and impairs circulation Leukocytosis - a total WBC count above 11,000 cells/mm3 - generally indicated that a bacterial or viral infection is stewing in the body

On an appropriate diagram, identify the major endocrine glands and tissues.List hormones produced by the endocrine glands, and discuss their general functions.

Anterior pituitary - growth hormone (GH) (bones) - Luteinizing horomone (LH) (ovaries and testes) - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (thyroid) - Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids) - Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (gonads secrete sperm, ova) Posterior pituitary - Oxytocin (contractions of uterus, mammary glands) - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (kidney water retention) Thyroid - Thyroxin (metabolism) - Calcitonin (lowers calcium in blood) Parathyroid - Parathormone (raises calcium in blood) Adrenal cortex - Glucocorticoids (raises sugar in blood) Adrenal medulla - Epinephrine (adrenaline) (raises sugar in blood by increasing glycogen breakdown by liver) - Nonepinephrine (noradrenaline) Pancreas - Insulin (lowers glucose in blood) - Glucagon (raises glucose in blood) Thymus - Thymosin (stimulates T lymphocytes in immune system) Pineal - Melatonin (biorhythms) Ovaries - Estrogen (uterine lining, female characteristics) - Progesterone (uterine lining) Testes - Androgens (sperm creation, male characteristics)

Describe several ways in which antibodies act against antigens

Antibodies act against antigens by complement fixation, agglutination, neutralization, and precipitation.

Define apnea, hyperventilation, and hypoventilation

Apnea is the cessation (stop) of breathing. Hyperventilation is when you breathe more deeply and rapidly because your blood pH starts to drop. Hypoventilation is extremely slow or shallow breathing.

Describe the changes that occur in aging muscles.

As we age, the amount of connective tissue in the muscle increases and the amount of muscle mass decreases and the muscles become more stringier but exercise helps retain muscle mass and strength - lose of muscle mass leads to weight lose - loss in muscle mass also leads to a decrease in muscle strength

subdivisions of the skeleton as axial or appendicular

Axial- bones form longitudinal axis Appendicular- limbs and girdles

Summarize the characteristics of basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and malignant melanoma

Basal cell carcinoma - the least malignant and most common skin cancer and is slow growing and metastasis seldom occurs - cells of the stratum basale are altered so they cannot form keratin and no longer honor the boundary between epidermis and dermis - most often occur in sun-exposed areas Squamous cell carcinoma - arises from cells of the stratum spinosum - lesion appears as a scaly, reddened papule that gradually forms a shallow ulcer with a firm, raised border - grows rapidly and metastasizes to adjacent lymph nodes if not removed Malignant melanoma - cancer of melanocytes and can begin wherever there is pigment - appears as a spreading brown to black patch that metastasizes rapidly to surrounding lymph and blood vessels § ABCD rule

Describe the composition and volume of whole blood.

Being the only fluid tissue, blood contains both a complex connective tissue in which living blood cells are suspended in a nonliving fluid matrix called plasma

Define blood pressure, and list factors affecting and/or determining blood pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels, and it is the force that keeps blood circulating continuously even between heartbeats.

Trace the pathway of blood through the heart.

Body superior and inferior venae cavae right atrium tricuspid valve right ventricle pulmonary semilunar valve left and right pulmonary arteries lungs left and right pulmonary veins left atrium bicuspid valve left ventricle aortic semilunar valve aorta body

Identify some of the causes of bone and joint problems throughout life.

Bursitis sprain arthritis osteoarthritis Rheumatoid

Compare and contrast carbohydrates and lipids in terms of their building blocks, structures, and functions in the body.

Carbohydrates are a group of molecules including sugars and starches. Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The major function of carbohydrates in the body is to provide cellular fuel. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that are single-chain or single-ring structures. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined by a dehydration synthesis. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked together by dehydration synthesis.Lipids are insoluble in water but dissolve readily in nonpolar solvents. Triglycerides (neutral fats) are commonly known as fats when solid and oils when liquid. Phospholipids are diglycerides with a phosphorus-containing group and two fatty acid chains. Steroids are flat molecules made up of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings. Eicosanoids are a group of diverse lipids derived from arachidonic acid.

Describe the general structure of a neuron, and name its important anatomical regions.

Cell body- metabolic center of the cell with the usual organelles. Cell bodies found in CNS in clusters called nuclei

Classify neurons according to structure and function.

Cell body-part of the basic structure of a neuron, main body of the neuron that contains the nucleus. Dendrites-part of the basic structure of a neuron; form nerve fibers; branch from cell body, distal ends of sensory neurons are called receptors. Axon-part of the basic structure of a neuron; form nerve fibers; single one per neuron, extends form the cell body and carries impulses away from the cell body. Myelinated axons- axons that increase the speed of an impulse. Schwann cells- on most neurons; wrap around the axon (called a myelin sheath) with gaps in the sheath; only found in periphery nerves. Myelin sheath- schwann cells that wrap around the axon of a neuron. Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in the sheath on the axon of a neuron. Neurofibrils- form structural support and acts as a railway for rapid transport of molecules. Nissl bodies-provide protein needed for transmission of nerve signals. Neuroglia- support the function of neurons in various ways; also called glia; types: astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells. Astrocytes- a neuroglia cell; star-shaped cells, found between neurons and blood vessels, provides support and hold structures together; aid metabolism of certain substances (glucose) and regulate concentrations of certain ions; respond to injury of brain tissue and form scar tissue; role in blood-brain barrier which restricts movement of substances between the blood and the CNS. Microglia- a neuroglia cell; small and fewer processes; scattered throughout the CNS and helps support neurons; phagocytize bacterial cells and cellular debris. Oligodendrocytes- a neuroglia cell; commonly occur in rows along myelinated axons; form myelin in the brain and spinal cord; provide myelin for many axons in the CNS. Ependymal cells- a neuroglia cell; cuboidal or columnar in shape and have cilia; form the inner lining of the central canal though the spinal cord; form epithelial-like membrane that covers the inside of the spaces called ventricles of the brain; substances diffuse freely between brain tissues and cerebral spinal fluid; cover capillaries of the choroid plexuses, regulate composition of the cerebral spinal fluid. Sensory neurons- type of neuron; carry nerve impulses from peripheral body parts into the brain and spinal cord, have specialized receptor ends at tips of dendrites. Interneuron- lie within the brain or spinal cord, are multipolar and form links between other neurons and transmit impulses from one part of the brain to another. Motor neuron- multipolar and carries nerve impulses out of the brain or spinal cord to effectors

Describe the events that lead to the generation of a nerve impulse and its conduction from one neuron to another.

Cell membrane is polarized, at rest - fewer positive ions sitting on the inner face of the neuron's plasma membrane than there are on its outer face in the tissue fluid that surrounds it - positive ions inside the cell are potassium (K+) and the positive ions outside the cell are sodium (Na+) A stimulus excites the neuron to become active and generate an impulse - could be from a sensory receptor (light, sound, taste, pain, pressure) or neurotransmitters released by other neurons - this causes the sodium gates to open in the membrane Depolarization - there is an inward rush of sodium ions that changes the polarity of the neuron's membrane - the inside is now more positive and the outside less positive - activates the cell to initiate and transmit an action potential (nerve impulse) - an all-or-none-response Repolarization - almost immediately after sodium ions rush into the neuron, the membrane becomes impermeable to sodium ions and permeable to potassium ions allowing potassium ions to diffuse out of the neuron restoring the electrical conditions at the membrane to the polarized, or resting, state - until this occurs, a neuron cannot conduct another impulse After repolarization - the initial concentrations of sodium and potassium ions inside and outside are restored by the activation of the sodium-potassium pump that uses ATP to move the ions back into place In nerves that have myelin sheaths, the nerve impulse must jump from node to node along the length of the never because no current can flow across the axonal membrane where there is fatty myelin insulation - this is a much faster impulse propagation called salutatory conduction

Name some cell types, and relate their overall shape and internal structure to their special functions

Cells that connect body parts. Fibroblasts - elongated shape that produces cable-like fibers. Erythrocytes - streamlined concave disk shape for extra surface area to transport oxygenCells that cover and line body organs. Epithelial - hexagonal shape allows for them to be packed together in sheets Cells that move organs and body parts. Skeletal and smooth muscle - elongated and filled with contractile filaments to shorten to move bones or change the shape of internal organs Cells that store nutrients. Fat cells - spherical shape produced by lipid droplets in the cytoplasm Cells that fight disease. Macrophages - white blood cells - no determined shape - very flexible to squeeze into tight spots and in-between cells to fight disease Cells that gather information and controls body functions. Nerves - long processes for receiving messages and transmitting them to other structures Cells of reproduction. Oocyte - largest cell in the body - egg cell.Sperm - long and streamlined, built for swimming with a flagella

Define central nervous system and peripheral nervous system, and list the major parts of each.

Central nervous system is the brain and spinal cord and peripheral nervous system is the nervous system outside of the central nervous system such as spinal and cranial nerves.

Identify and indicate the functions of the major regions of the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum on a human brain model or diagram

Cerebral hemispheres - speech, memory, logical and emotional responses, consciousness, interpretation of sensation, and voluntary movementsDiencephalon § Thalamus - relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex - gives us a crude idea of whether the sensation is pleasant or unpleasant § Hypothalamus - regulates body temperature, water balance, and metabolism, also the center for many drives and emotions making it part of the limbic system (emotional-visceral brain) § Epithalamus - contains the pineal body (part of the endocrine system) and the choroid plexus (forms the cerebrospinal fluid) Brain stem - pathway for ascending and descending tracts, gray matter which control vital activities such as breathing and blood pressure § Midbrain - parts are involved as reflex centers involved with vision and hearing § Pons - control of breathing § Medulla oblongata - regulate vital visceral activities such as heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting § Reticular formation - involved in motor control of the visceral organs with the reticular activating system (RAS) involved in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycles - damage to this area can result in permanent unconsciousness (coma) Cerebellum - provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and controls our balance and equilibrium - automatic pilot that compares the brain's intentions with actual body performance by monitoring body position and amount of tension in various body parts

Discuss the formation and function of cerebrospinal fluid and the blood-brain barrier.

Cerebrospinal fluid - watery broth similar to blood plasma from which it forms but it contains less protein, more vitamin C, and different ion concentrations - continually formed from blood by the choroid plexuses (clusters of capillaries) and is constantly flowing until it returns to the blood in the dural sinuses through the arachnoid villi Blood-brain barrier - keeps the brain neurons separate from bloodborne substances - composed of the least permeable capillaries found in the body and of the water-soluble substances, allows only water glucose, and essential amino acids to pass through easily keeping out both nonessential amino acids and potassium, which are actively pumped out of the brain - metabolic wastes (urea, toxins, proteins, and most drugs) are also prevented from entering the brain - virtually useless against fats, respiratory gases, and other fat-soluble molecules, which is why alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics can affect the brain

Compare the signs of a CVA with those of Alzheimer's disease; of a contusion with those of a concussion.

Cerebrovascular accidents (CVA) - strokes - occur when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked, by a blood clot or a ruptured blood vessel leading to death of vital brain tissue - it is possible to determine the area of brain damage by observing the patient's symptoms such as visual impairment, paralysis, and aphasias (speech problems) Alzheimer's disease - a degenerative brain disease in which abnormal protein deposits and other structural changes appear resulting in slow, progressive loss of memory and motor control plus increasing dementia Contusion - is the result of marked tissue destruction - may result in coma lasting for hours or longer Concussion - occurs when brain injury is slight - patient is dizzy or may lose consciousness briefly but no permanent brain damage occurs

List 4 major energy forms and provide one example of how each energy form is used in the body

Chemical energy: energy is stored in the bonds of chemical substances like ATP Electrical energy: results from the movement of charged particles like in the nervous system Mechanical energy: directly involved in moving matter like your legs pedaling on a bike Radiant/Electromagnetic energy: travels in waves like light and radio waves

Identify and classify by organ system all organs discussed

Chemical level- Atoms combine to form molecules Cellular level-Cells are made up of molecules Tissue level-Tissues consist of similar types of cells Organ level-Organs are made up of different types of tissue Organ system level-Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely Organismal level-The human organism is made up of many organ systems.

Name the six levels of structural organization that make up the human body, and explain how they are related

Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism. They all depend on each other and work together to make up the body

Describe symptoms and probable causes of COPD and lung cancer.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) patients almost always have a history of smoking, difficult breathing, and coughing. Lung cancer is mainly caused by smoking, 90% of them to be exact.

Identify on a skeleton or diagram the bones of the shoulder and pelvic girdles and their attached limbs.

Clavicle and scapula

Name and describe the various types of fractures

Comminuted- bone breaks into many fragments Compression- bone crushed Depressed- broken bone portion is pressed inward Impacted- broken bone ends are forced into each other Spiral- Ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to bone Greenstick- Bone breaks incompletely much in a way a green twig breaks On a skull or diagram, identify and name the bones of the skull. Frontal bone parietal bone coronal suture temporal bone labroid suture squamous suture occipital bone zygomatic process external acoustic meatus mastoid process styloid process sphenoid bone ethmoid bone lacrimal bone nasal bone maxilla alvelor processes mandible mental foramen

4 main classifications of bones

Compact bone- dense smooth Spongy bone-small needlelike pieces Long bones- longer than wide Short- cube shaped Flat- thin curved

Name several antimicrobial substances produced by the body that act in innate body defense.

Complement proteins and interferon.

Name several nonrespiratory air movements, and explain how they modify or differ from normal respiratory air

Cough- clears the lower respiratory passageways. Sneeze- clear upper respiratory passages. Crying- Release of air in a number of short expirations, emotional

Locate the major body cavities and list the chief organs in each cavity

Cranial- brain, Vertebral- spinal cord, thoracic- lungs/ heart, abdominal- digestive/spleen/ kidneys, pelvic- bladder, reproductive organs.

List the types of general sensory receptors and describe their functions

Cutaneous organs are pain receptors and proprioceptors detect the amount of stretch in a muscle.

Describe the roles of DNA and of the three major varieties of RNA in protein synthesis.

DNA gives the hereditary material. Two strands of RNA, Messenger RNA, Transfer RNA.

Compare and contrast the structure and functions of DNA and RNA

DNA is used in the vast majority of living creatures whereas RNA has a variety of functions within cells, as well as being used to carry genetic information in some viruses. Both DNA and RNA also have a variety of other functions within living creatures, including the generation of proteins within cells.

Describe briefly the process of DNA replication and of mitosis. Explain the importance of mitotic cell division

DNA replication - DNA double helix uncoils and the two strands separate and act as templates for new complementary strands to be added. Mitosis - cell replication for growth and repair of damaged tissues - results in two identical cells with identical copies of the DNA and organelles

Describe three ways in which ATP is regenerated during muscle activity

Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate - high energy molecule creatine phosphate transfers a phosphate to ADP to make 1 ATP/CP Aerobic respiration - occurs in mitochondria involving the oxidative phosphorylation pathways starting with glucose releasing carbon dioxide and water as well as 36 ATP/glucose molecule - slow and requires continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation - no oxygen required in the first steps of glucose breakdown which occurs in the cytosol to produce pyruvic acid and 2 ATP/glucose - occurs during intense muscle activity when oxygen is absent resulting in pyruvic acid being converted to lactic acid instead of going through the rest of aerobic respiration

Criteria used in naming muscles

Direction of the muscle fibers - rectus = straight - oblique = slantedRelative size of the muscle - maximus vs. minimus and longus Number of origins - bi, tri, quad Location of the muscle's origin and insertion Shape of the muscle Action of the muscle - flexor, adductor

Name the three meningeal layers, and state their functions.

Dura layer- outter layer that surrounds the brain. Periosteal layer- inner layer, meningeal layer- outter layer that continues the dura layer

List several examples of integumentary system aging.

During adolescence - skin and hair become more oily and acne may form. Skin reaches optimal appearance in 20s and 30s when it is thick, resilient, and well hydrated then it loses it elasticity and thins as aging occurs. During old age the amount of subcutaneous tissue decreases, which leads to intolerance to cold and drier skin, which may become itchy and bothersome - the thinning of the skin makes it more susceptible to bruising and other injuries - decreased elasticity along with decreasing subcutaneous fat allows bags under eyes and jowls to sag. Hair loses its luster with age and the number of follicles decreases resulting in baldness, or alopecia

Explain how elements and atoms are related

Elements consist of atoms

Define and explain the role of the following: endomysium, perimysium, epimysium, tendon, and aponeurosis.

Endomysium - delicate connective tissue sheath enclosing muscle fibers Perimysium - coarser fibrous membrane that wraps several sheathed muscle fibers to form a bundle of fibers called a fascicle Epimysium - even tougher overcoat of connective tissue that covers many fascicles bound together to form the muscle Tendon - strong, cords of dense fibrous tissue attaching a muscle indirectly to bones cartilages, or connective tissue coverings of each other Aponeurosis - sheet-like bundles of fibrous or membranous sheet connecting a muscle and the part it moves

Define enzyme and explain the role

Enzyme is a substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction. Enzymes role is to increase the rate of reaction

Name the four major tissue types and their chief subcategories. Explain how the four major tissue types differ structurally and functionally

Epithelial - fit closely together to form continuous sheets, membranes have one free surface, lower surface rests on a basement membrane, no blood supply of their own (diffusion brings in nutrients), if well-nourished can regenerate themselves easily. Simple - one layer of cells. Stratified - more than one layer of cells. Squamous - flat. Cuboidal - cube-like. Columnar - column-like. Glandular - consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product. Endocrine - lose their connections to the surface (duct) and release their secretions into the blood - secrete hormones. Exocrine - retain their ducts and secretions empty through the ducts to the epithelial surface - sweat and oil glands Connective - variations in blood supply depending on the type, extracellular matrix associated. Bone - bone cells sitting in cavities called lacunae and surrounded by layers of very hard matrix containing calcium salts in addition to large numbers of collagen fibers. Cartilage - less hard and more flexible than bone with abundant collagen fibers hidden by a rubbery matrix with a glassy, blue-white appearance. Dense connective tissue - crowded between collagen fibers are rows of fibroblasts. Tendons - muscle to bone. Ligaments - bones to bones - more stretchy with more elastic fibers. Loose connective tissue - softer and have more cells and fewer fibers. Areolar - soft, pliable, cobweb to cushion and protect body organs - glue that helps hold internal organs together and in place. Adipose - fat - areolar tissue in which fat cells predominate - forms the subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin for insulation and protection of internal organs as well as serving as an energy reserve. Reticular - delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers associated with reticular cells - supports many free blood cells (lymphocytes) in lymphoid organs. Blood - vascular tissue - blood cells surrounded by nonliving, fluid matrix called blood plasma to function in gas exchange Muscle - specialized to contract, or shorten, to produce movement. Skeletal - voluntary, long, cylindrical, multinucleated, striations - move bones. Cardiac - only in heart - involuntary, branching cells, uninucleate, striations. Smooth - involuntary, spindle-shaped, uninucleate, no striations Nervous - cytoplasm is drawn out into long extensions to conduct an impulse over long distances - nerves are supported by supporting cells that insulate, support, and protect

List the general functions of each membrane type and locations of the body

Epithelial membranes - include the cutaneous membrane (skin), the mucous and serous membranes - they all contain an epithelial sheet and are combined with an underlying layer of connective tissue - these membranes are actually simple organs § Cutaneous - protective skin that is waterproof, stretchable, washable - exposed to air and is a dry membrane § Mucous - (mucosa) - lines all body cavities that open to the exterior - in all cases they are a wet, or moist membrane that are almost continuously bathed in secretions and are often adapted for absorption or secretion § Serous - line body cavities that are closed to the exterior (except dorsal body cavity and joint cavities) § Peritoneum - lines abdominal cavity and covers organs there § Pleura - surrounds the lungs and isolates lungs from the heart in the thorax § Pericardium - surrounds the heart Connective tissue - synovial - composed of soft areolar connective tissue and no epithelial cells at all - line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints where they provide a smooth surface and secrete a lubricating fluid and they line small sacs of connective tissue

Describe the distribution and function of the epidermal derivative--sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and hair.

Exocrine glands - release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts § Sebaceous (oil) glands - found all over the skin, except palms and soles - ducts usually empty into a hair follicle while others open onto the skin surface § Sebum - mix of oily substances and fragmented cells - lubricant that keeps the skin soft and moist and prevents the hair from becoming brittle - also contains chemicals that kill bacteria § Sweat glands - widely distributed in the skin § Eccrine glands - found all over the body - produce sweat, an acidic, clear secretion that is water, salts, vitamin C, lactic acid, traces of metabolic wastes such as ammonia, urea, uric acid - nerve endings cause them to secrete sweat which helps the body maintain a constant temperature § Apocrine sweat glands - confined to the axillary and genital areas - larger than the eccrine glands and their duct empty into hair follicles - secretions contain fatty acids and proteins as well as the same substances as eccrine gland secretions - secretions are milky to yellowish and odorless except when bacteria are present - become active at puberty with no precise function known Hair - scattered all over the body - serve only minor protective functions - produced by a hair follicle § Root - the part of the hair enclosed in the follicle § Shaft - the part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin § Hair bulb matrix - growth zone where a hair is formed by division of the nourished stratum basale epithelium cells at the inferior end of the follicle § Hair follicle - inner epidermal sheath composed of epithelial tissue and forms the hair, outer dermal sheath is dermal connective tissue that supplies the blood vessels and reinforces the epidermal part § Arrector pili - smooth muscle cells that pull the hair upright and causes goose bumps and help keep the animal warm when air is trapped in the hairs

Describe important differences between a male and female pelvis.

Female inlet is a larger and more circular Female pelvis is a whole is shallower and the bones are lighter and thinner The female ilia flare more laterally Female sacrum is shorter and less curved Female ischia spines are shorter and farther apart Female pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the pubic area is greater

Describe how fever helps protect the body

Fever is a response to invading microorganisms. Bacteria require a lot of iron and zinc to multiply, but during a fever the liver and spleen gather these nutrients up, making them less available.

Name the three major categories of joints, and compare the amount of movement allowed by each.

Fibrous Joints Cartilaginous Joints Synovial joints

Name the layers of the wall of the eye, and indicate the major function of each.

Fibrous Layer-- the outermost layer consists of the protective sclera (thick glistening white connective tissue, white of the eye) and the transport cornea. Central anterior portion is crystal clear - Vascular Layer- middle layer of the eye has three regions =choroid - blood rich nutritive tunic that contains a dark pigment prevents light from scattering inside the eye ciliary- choroid modified to form two smooth muscle structures ciliary body- lens is attached by a suspensory ligament Sensory Layer- innermost of the eye is the delicate two layered retina which extends anteriorly only to the ciliary body. Pigmented layer composed of pigmented cells that absorb light and prvent light from scattering inside eye. Neural layer contains million receptor cells- rods and cones

Differ fibrous proteins from globular proteins

Fibrous proteins are proteins that are composed of many polypeptide chains in a long, narrow shape. Globular proteins are proteins formed by compacted amino acid chains, which are folded into knotted shapes that often roughly resemble spheres.

Differ first second and third degree burns

First-degree - only the epidermis is damaged - area becomes red and swollen - sunburns - heal within a few daysSecond-degree - partial-thickness burns - involve injury to the epidermis and the upper region of the dermis - blisters appear - regeneration is still possible but a scar may form Third-degree - full-thickness burns - destroys the entire thickness of the skin - nerve endings are also destroyed therefore no pain - regeneration not possible requiring grafting

Describe plasma membrane structure and explain how the various transport processes account for the directional movements of specific substances across the plasma membrane.

Flexible double membrane made up of phospholipids arranged tail to tail inward while hydrophilic heads point outward in which protein and cholesterol molecules float Proteins scattered in the lipid bilayer are responsible for the specialized functions of the membrane. Glycoproteins can act as enzymes or carriers, form channels or pores, provide receptor sites for hormones and other chemicals or play a role in cellular recognition and interactions during development and immune responses

Demonstrate or identify the different types of body movements.

Flexion - movement that decreases the angle of the joint and brings two bones closer together - hinge joints and ball-and-socket joints Extension - movement that increases the angle between two bones - straightening the knee or elbow Rotation - movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis - ball-and-socket joints, movement of the atlas around the dens of the axis (shaking your head no) Abduction - moving a limb away from the midline, or median plane, of the body - also the fanning movement of fingers and toes Adduction - movement of limbs toward the body midline Circumduction - combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction - seen in ball-and-socket joints such as shoulder where the proximal end of the limb is stationary and the distal end moves in a circle Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion - up and down movement of the foot at the ankle - lifting the foot = dorsiflexion while depressing the foot = plantar flexion Inversion and eversion - inversion of the foot turns it medially (inward toward the other foot) - eversion of the foot turns it laterally (outward and away from the other foot) Supination and pronation - refer to movements of the radius around the ulna - supination occurs when the forearm rotates laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly and the radius and ulna are parallel while pronation occurs when the forearm rotated medially so that the palm faces posteriorly and the radius crosses the ulna so the two bones form an X Opposition - the action by which you move your thumb to touch the tips of the other fingers on the same hand

Describe the composition of normal urine.

Generally clear and pale to deep yellow, urine is sterile and its odor is slightly aromatic, and the pH is around 6.

List abnormal urinary components

Glucose, blood proteins, red blood cells, hemoglobin, white blood cells and bile are not normally found in urine and their presence may be the result of problems.

Define graded response, tetanus, isotonic and isometric contractions, and muscle tone as these terms apply to a skeletal muscle

Graded response - the all-or-none law of muscle contraction applies to the muscle cell not the whole muscle - whole muscles will react to stimuli with different degrees of shortening § Grades response is done in two ways § By changing the frequency of muscle stimulation § By changing the number of muscle cells being stimulated § Muscle twitches - single, brief, jerky contractions that occur as a result of nervous system problems Tetanus - two types - not to be confused with the bacterium toxin that can lead to death § Fused or complete tetanus - when the muscle is stimulated so rapidly that no evidence of relaxation is seen and the contractions are completely smooth and sustained § Unfused or incomplete tetanus - stage muscles are in until complete tetanus state is achieved Isotonic contractions - same tone or tension contractions - they myofilaments are successful in sliding movements, the muscle shortens, and movement occurs like when you lift a book Isometric contractions - same measurement contractions - contractions when the muscle do no shorten - the myosin myofilaments are trying to slide and the tension in the muscle keeps increasing because the muscle is pitted against some immoveable object like when you push against the wall Muscle tone - state of continuous partial contraction - the result of different motor units scattered throughout the muscle being stimulated by the nervous system in a systematic way - not consciously controlled

Describe the composition of gray matter and white matter.

Gray matter contains unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies while white matter consists of dense collections of myelinated fibers

List 8 functions that humans must perform to maintain life

Growth, Reproduction, excretion, metabolism, digestion, responsiveness, movement, maintain boundaries.

Explain the role of the hemocytoblast.

Hemocytoblasts form two types of descendants that form all the other cells.

Define homeostasis and explain its importance

Homeostasis is a state of body equilibrium or stable internal environment of the body. Homeostasis controls your receptors, control center and effector

Explain the importance of water to body homeostasis, and provide several examples of the roles of water.

Homeostasis refers to the ability of an organism or environment to maintain stability in spite of changes. The human body is full of examples of homeostasis. Ex) Glucose in blood, When bacteria or viruses that can make you ill get into your body, your lymphatic system kicks in to help maintain homeostasis, and maintaining a healthy blood pressure

Define humoral immunity.

Humoral immunity is provided by antibodies present in the body's fluids

Define hypertension and atherosclerosis, and describe possible health consequences of these conditions

Hypertension (high blood pressure) a condition of sustained elevated arterial pressure of 140/90 or higher - the silent killer as the heart is forced to pump against increased resistance (work harder) causing the myocardium to enlarge and when finally strained beyond its capacity to respond, the heart weakens and its wall become flabby - also ravages blood vessels causing small tears in the endothelium that accelerate the progress of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis (when arteries are narrowed by the damming-up process that occurs from the inside out) the walls of the vessels thicken and then protrude into the vessel lumen until the vessel closes completely possibly by a roaming blood clot or arterial spasm - eventually results in arteriosclerosis as enlarging plaques hinder diffusion of nutrients from the blood to deeper tissues of the artery wall, smooth muscle cells in the tunica media die and the elastic fibers deteriorate and are gradually replaced by non-elastic scar tissue leading eventually to myocardial infarcts, strokes, and kidney failure.

Explain the importance of a nerve supply and exercise in keeping muscles healthy

If the nerve supply to a muscle is destroyed and the muscle is no longer stimulated, it loses tone and becomes paralyzed and soon after, it becomes flaccid, or soft and flabby, and begins to atrophy

List the five antibody classes, and describe their specific roles in immunity

IgM (fix complement), IgA (prevents antigens from entering the body), IgD, IgG (most abundant and can fix complement), and IgE.

Describe immunodeficiencies, allergies, and autoimmune diseases

Immunodeficiencies occur when the production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal. Allergies are immune response in which the immune system causes tissue damage as it fights off a "threat" that would otherwise be harmless to the body. An autoimmune disease is a disorder that is produced by a person's own immune system.

Explain the role of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis in formation and breakdown of organic molecules

In dehydration synthesis, one monomer donates an H while another donates an OH in order to join together. In other words, two join two pieces, the two pieces kick off a water molecule because an OH+H->H2O.In hydrolysis, and the opposite takes place. In order to break apart the monomers, a water molecule is shoved back into them. One monomer takes the H, the other takes the OH.

Name the organ systems of the body, and briefly state the major functions of each system.

Integumentary system- provides protective barrier for the body. Skeletal- protects major organs. Muscular- moves bones and maintains posture. Nervous- controls cells function with electrical signals. Endocrine- controls cell functions with hormones. Cardiovascular- transports nutrients. Lymphatic- returns fluid to cardiovascular system. Respiratory system- adds oxygen to the blood and removes carbon dioxide. Digestive- breaks down food. Urinary-removes wastes. Reproductive- produces life.

Differentiate ionic, polar covalent, and nonpolar covalent bonds, and describe the importance of hydrogen bonds.

Ionic bonds result when electrons are transferred between atoms. Polar bonds are when electrons distribution with a covalent bond is not symmetrical. Non polar are bonds that are symmetrical when electrons distribution with a covalent bond. Their presence explains the properties of water.

Define radioisotope, and describe briefly how radioisotopes are used in the diagnosis and treatment of disease

Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior. Radioisotopes are used in minute amounts to tag biological molecules so that they can be followed, or traced, through the body.

Define chemical element, and list the four elements that form the bulk of body matter

It cannot be broken down. -carbon -oxygen -hydrogen -nitrogen

Explain the basis for a transfusion reaction.

It is important to determine the blood group of both the donor and the recipient before blood is transfused because agglutination could occur killing the recipient. The Rh factor must also match between the donor and recipient to further reduce the danger to the recipient.

Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane functions.

It separates intracellular fluids from extracellular fluids. It also plays a dynamic role in cellular activity Glycocalyx is a glycoprotein area by the cell that provides highly specific biological markers by which cells recognize or another. It differ in the kind and amount of lipids they contain.

Indicate the endocrine role of the kidneys, the stomach and intestine, the heart, and the placenta.

Kidneys - produces renin when blood pressure drops and causes the release of aldosterone causing the kidneys to reabsorb sodium and potassium ions - produces erythropoietin that promotes the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow - also activates vitamin D made by epidermal cells of skin that causes intestine cells to actively transport dietary calcium across the intestinal cell membranes Stomach - produces gastrin - stimulates glands to release hydrochloric acid (HCL) Heart - atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) - prevents aldosterone release by the adrenal cortex to reduce blood volume and blood pressure - inhibits the kidneys from reabsorbing sodium and from releasing renin Placenta - produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) which stimulates the corpus luteum of the ovary to continue producing estrogen and progesterone so that the lining of the uterus is not sloughed off in menses until the third month of pregnancy and then the placenta takes over the role of producing the hormones and the ovaries become inactive for the rest of the pregnancy

List several factors that may have harmful effects on brain development

Lack of oxygen, smoking, and drugs

List the six nutrient categories. Note important dietary sources and their main cellular uses

Lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and carbohydrates.

Describe the source of lymph, and explain its formation and transport.

Lymph comes from the lymphatic vessels, which picks up extra fluid tissue and returns it to the blood.

Describe the function(s) of lymph nodes, tonsils, the thymus, Peyer's patches, and the spleen.

Lymph nodes remove bacteria and tumor cells from the lymphatic stream and produce lymphocytes that function in immune response. Tonsils trap and remove any bacteria entering the throat. The thymus produces hormones that function in the programming of certain lymphocytes so they carry out their protective roles in the body. Peyer's patches capture and destroy bacteria. The spleen filters blood.

Name the two major types of structures composing the lymphatic system

Lymphatic vessels and lymphoid tissues and organs.

List the general functions of the nervous system.

Master controlling and communications system of the body, sensory receptors, sensory input, integrations, and motor output

Differentiate matter from energy

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Energy is the capacity to do work

Name the factors that determine skin color and describe the function of melanin

Melanin - a pigment that ranges in color from yellow to brown to black - produced by melanocytes cells - when sunlight hits the skin, melanocytes are stimulated to produce melanin pigment causing a tan - the melanin is taken in by stratum basale cells and it forms a protective covering over the cell's nucleus protecting the DNA from further UV damageThe color of skin depends on: § The amount and kind of melanin in the epidermis § The amount of carotene deposited in the stratum corneum and subcutaneous tissue The amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin in the dermal blood vessels

Define menarche and menopause

Menarche is the first menstrual period. Menopause is when ovulation and menses cease, ending childbearing ability.

Define metabolism, anabolism, and catabolism.

Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that are necessary to maintain life. Anabolism is when larger molecules or structures are built from smaller ones. Catabolism is when substances are broken down to simpler substances.

Describe the effect of aging on the endocrine system and body homeostasis.

Most endocrine organs seem to operate smoothly until old age. In late middle age, the efficiency of the ovaries begins to decline causing the onset of menopause. During this time, a woman's reproductive organs begin to atrophy, and the ability to bear children ends. Problems associated with estrogen deficiency begin to occur - arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis, decreased skin elasticity, fatigue, nervousness, mood changes, and changes in the operation of the sympathetic nervous system that result in hot flashes

Define negative feedback, and describe its role in maintaining homeostasis and normal body function

Negative feedback is a keg regulatory mechanism for physiological function in a person.

Define neoplasm, and distinguish between benign and malignant neoplasms.

Neoplasm - mass of cell that forms when cells don't have normal controls on cell division and multiply wildly forming an abnormal mass of proliferating cells. Benign -tend to be surrounded by a capsule, grow slowly. Malignant- masses that grow more relentlessly and may become killers, cells resemble immature cells and they invade their surroundings rather than pushing them aside, tend to spread via blood to other parts of the body to form new masses

State the functions of neurons and neuroglia.

Neurons transmit messages in the form of nerve impulses from one part of the body to another and neuroglia includes many types of cells that generally support, insulate, and protect the neurons

Describe the function of the kidneys in excretion of nitrogen-containing wastes.

Nitrogenous waste products are poorly reabsorbed by the kidneys including urea, which is formed by the liver as an end product of protein breakdown when amino acids are used to produce energy, uric acid is released when nucleic acids are metabolized and creatinine is metabolized in the muscle tissue.

List the 5 survival needs of the human body

Nutrients, Oxygen, Water, Stable body temperature, and Atmospheric pressure

Describe how an action potential is initiated in a muscle cell.

One neuron and all the skeletal muscle cells it stimulates are a motor unit and when a long threadlike extension of the neuron, called the nerve fiber or axon, reaches the muscle, it branches into a number of axonal terminals, each of which forms junctions with the sarcolemma of a different muscle cell - these junctions are called neuromuscular junctions

Distinguish organic from inorganic compounds

Organic contains carbon and inorganic does not contain carbon but contain simpler, smaller molecules such as water, salts, many acids and bases

Define origin, insertion, prime mover, antagonist, synergist, and fixator as they relate to muscles.

Origin - attached to the immovable or less moveable boneInsertion - attached to the movable bone and when the muscle contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin Prime mover - the muscle that has the major responsibility for causing a particular movement Antagonist - muscles that oppose or reverse a movement - when a prime mover is active, its antagonist is stretched and relaxed - antagonists can be prime movers Synergist - help prime movers by producing the same movement or by reducing undesirable movements such as when a muscle crosses two or more joints Fixator - specialized synergists that hold a bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime mover so all the tension can be used to move the insertion bone The actions of antagonistic and synergistic muscles are important for smooth, coordinated, precise movements

When provided with an appropriate model or diagram, identify the organs of the female reproductive system, and discuss the general function of each.

Ovaries - paired structures containing many tiny saclike structures called ovarian follicles -each follicle consists of an immature egg, oocyte, surrounded by one or more layers of follicle cells Duct system - fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina Uterus - functions to receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized egg (zygote) Vagina - birth canal - provides a passageway for the delivery of the infant and for the menstrual flow to leave the body - also receives the penis during sexual intercourse making it the female organ of copulation

Distinguish between active and passive immunity

Passive immunity occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response. Active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains the antigen.

Explain the importance of phagocytes.

Phagocytes engulf foreign particles and enclose it in a vacuole. The vacuole is then digested.

Explain the basis of physiologic jaundice seen in some newborn babies

Physiologic jaundice occurs when the fetal RBCs are destroyed at such a rapid rate that the immature infant liver cannot rid the body of hemoglobin breakdown products in the bile fast enough.

Describe the composition of plasma, and discuss its importance in the body.

Plasma is 90% water - dissolved substances include nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, plasma proteins, and various wastes and products of cell metabolism.

Identify the organelles on a cell model or describe them, and indicate the major function of each.

Plasma membrane - selectively permeable barrier, communication § Tight junctions - impermeable junctions to bind cells together into leakproof sheets § Desmosomes - anchoring junctions that prevent cells subject to mechanical stress from being pulled apart § Gap junctions - function mainly to allow communication between cells Cytoplasm - hold organelles and dissolved nutrients - site of most cellular activities Nucleus - control center containing the DNA. Mitochondria - makes ATP. Ribosomes - sites of protein synthesis. Endoplasmic reticulum § Rough ER - has ribosomes attached - network of channels for processing and shipping proteins out of the cell § Smooth ER - no ribosomes - cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, detoxification Golgi apparatus - modify and package proteins for shipment. Lysosomes - contain enzymes for digestion of old cell components and foreign substances such as bacteria and viruses. Peroxisomes - contain powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular oxygen to detoxify harmful or poisonous substances such as alcohol and formaldehyde also functions to disarm free radicals (highly reactive chemicals that can damage cell components). Cytoskeleton - the cell's bones and muscles - internal framework that determines cell shape, supports other organelles, and provides the machinery needed for intracellular transport and cell movement § Intermediate filaments - form desmosomes and provide internal guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell § Microfilaments - cell motility and in producing changes in cell shape - made of actin and myosin § Microtubules - determine overall shape and distribution of organelles also important in cell division Centrioles - direct formation of the mitotic spindle used to separate the chromosomes. Cilia and flagella - move substances across the cell surface or for cell movement

Describe the blood-clotting process.

Platelets become sticky and cling to the damaged site. Then, coagulation occurs

Discuss the common purpose of the reproductive system organs.

Produce offspring

List the subatomic particles, and describe their relative masses, charges, and positions in the atom

Protons (p+) have a positive charge, found in nucleus, and weigh 1amu. Neutrons (n0) are uncharged, found in nucleus, and weigh 1amu. Electrons (e-) are negative, found orbiting outside nucleus and weigh 0amu.

List two important functions of the spinal cord.

Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain. It is a major reflex center - the spinal reflexes are completed at this level

Differentiate a salt, an acid, and a base

Salt - ionic compounds that when dissolved in body fluids separate into their ions - electrolytes that conduct electrical currents in solution. Acid - taste sour and can dissolve many metals or burn holes in materials including skin - a substance that can release hydrogen ions in detectable amounts - proton donors. Base - taste bitter, feel slippery - proton acceptors - ionize and dissociate in water to release hydroxyl ion

Describe the microscopic structure of skeletal muscle, and explain the role of actin- and myosin-containing myofilaments

Sarcolemma - the many oval nuclei of a skeletal muscle cell Myofibrils - the long ribbon-like fibers that fill the cytoplasm - actually chains of tiny contractile units called sarcomeres - the alternating light and dark bands along the length of the aligned myofibrils give the muscle cells its striped appearance § Light band has a midline interruptions, a darker area called the Z disk, and the dark A band has a lighter central area called the H zone Sarcomeres - functional unit of the muscle cell Myofilaments - found within the sarcomeres that actually produce the banding pattern - two types of threadlike proteins § Thick filaments - myosin fibers - made of bundles molecules of the protein myosin and contain ATPase enzymes - extend the entire length of the dark A band - midparts of the thick filaments are smooth but ends are studded with small projections called myosin heads also called cross bridges because they link the thick and thin filaments together during contraction § Thin filaments - composed of the contractile protein actin and some regulatory proteins that play a role in allowing (or preventing) myosin head binding to actin - also called actin filaments, are anchored to the Z disk, a disc-like membrane) § Light I band includes parts of two adjacent sarcomeres and contains only the thin filaments, and although the thin filaments overlap the ends of the thick filaments, they do not extend into the middle of a relaxed sarcomere, and this the central region (the H zone, which lacks actin filaments and looks a bit lighter) is sometimes called the bare zone § When contraction occurs, and the actin-containing filaments slide toward each other into the center of the sarcomeres, these light zones disappear because the actin and myosin filaments are completely overlapped Sarcoplasmic reticulum - specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum with interconnecting tubules and sacs - the SR surround each and every myofibril - function is to sore calcium and to release it on demand

Define selective permeability, diffusion (including simple and facilitated diffusion and osmosis), active transport, passive transport, solute pumping, exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.

Selective permeability - allows some substances to pass while excluding others Passive transport - does not require ATP energy Diffusion - molecules and ions scatter themselves throughout the available space via kinetic energy (random movement) down their concentration gradient Simple - unassisted movement of solutes through the membrane.Facilitated - uses a protein carrier to assist molecules across the membrane. Osmosis - movement of water across the membrane Active transport - does require ATP to move substances that are either too large or need to be moves against their concentration gradients Solute pumping - uses protein carriers that combine reversibly with the substances to be transported - usually carries substances against the concentration gradient Bulk transport - moves substances that cannot get through the membrane Exocytosis - moves substances out of the cell using sacs that fuse with the membrane and release their contents outside of the cell Endocytosis - moves substances into the cell - cell engulfs substances and wraps membrane around it and the sac pinches off inside the cell. Phagocytosis - cell eating - white blood cells can bring in bacteria and other harmful substances and destroy them Bulk-phase endocytosis - A.K.A. Pinocytosis - cell drinking - brings in fluids containing dissolved proteins and fat Hypertonic - solution that contains more solutes, dissolved substances, than there are inside the cell - cells will crenate or shrivel up. Hypotonic - solution that contains fewer solutes than there are inside the cell - cells will expand and possibly lyse open. Isotonic - solution with the same concentration of solutes as inside the cell - cell is normal

Define senility, and list some possible causes

Senility is characterized by a decrease in cognitive abilities, known as dementia. Some causes are lack of oxygen and orthostatic hypotension

Describe similarities and differences in the structure and function of the three types of muscle tissue, and indicate where they are found in the body

Skeletal - single, very long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells with very obvious striations, voluntary from nervous system controls, attach to bones for movement, slow to fast contractions Cardiac - branching chains of cells, uninucleated, striated, involuntary, found only in the heart, slow rhythmic contractions Smooth - single, fusiform, uninucleated, no striations, involuntary, can stretch, found mostly in walls of hollow visceral organs but not the heart, very slow contraction

Briefly describe the cause, signs, and consequences of the following congenital disorders: spina bifida, anencephaly, and cerebral palsy.

Spina bifida - results when the vertebrae form incompletely (typically in the lumbosacral region) - in the most severe cases, meninges, nerve roots, and even parts of the spinal cord protrude from the spine, rendering the lower part of the spinal cord functionless and the child is unable to control the bowels or bladder, and the lower limbs are paralyzed Anencephaly - a failure of the cerebrum to develop, results in a child who cannot hear, see, or process sensory inputsCerebral palsy - neuromuscular disability in which the voluntary muscles are poorly controlled and spastic due to brain damage - may result from the lack of oxygen during delivery - half the victims have seizures, are mentally retarded, and/or have impaired hearing or vision

Describe spinal cord structure

Spinal cord structure is 17 inches long continuation of the brain stem enclosed within the vertebral column that ends just below the ribs - ~ the size of a thumb for most of its length and enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions where nerves serving the upper and lower limbs arise and leave the cord. Cushioned and protected by meninges, which do not end at L2 but extend beyond the end of the spinal cord in the vertebral canal. 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord and exit from the vertebral column to serve the body area close by collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the vertebral canal is called the cauda equine because it looks like a horse's tail

Name the layers of the epidermis and describe the characteristics of each

Stratum basale - deepest layer lies closest to the dermis and receives adequate nourishment via diffusion from the dermis - constantly dividing and pushing daughter cells upward - also contains melanin pigment produced by melanocytes that functions to protect the skin from UV light from the sun. Stratum Spinosum. Stratum GranulosumStratum Lucidum - flatter, increasingly full of keratin and dead cells - occurs only where the skin is hairless and extra thick (palms of hands and soles of feet) Stratum Corneum - shingle-like dead remnants, completely filled with keratin that prevents water loss and invasion from biological, chemical, and physical damage - flake off slowly and are replaced by cells from deeper layers

Explain the structural and functional classifications of the nervous system.

Structural classification Central nervous system (CNS) - brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - part of nervous system outside the CNS. Spinal nerves - carry impulses to and from the spinal cord. Cranial nerves - carry impulses to and from the brain. Functional classification. Sensory or afferent division - nerve fibers that convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors. Somatic sensory fibers - deliver impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints. Visceral sensory fibers (AKA visceral afferents) - transmit impulses from visceral organs (internal organs). Motor or efferent division - carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles and glands to bring about a motor response Somatic nervous system - conscious, voluntary control of most (not all) skeletal muscles - skeletal muscle reflexes such as stretch reflex are initiated involuntarily - often called voluntary nervous system. Autonomic nervous system - automatic, involuntary activities such as smooth and cardiac muscles and glands - often called involuntary nervous system. Sympathetic - mobilizes the body during extreme situations such as fear, exercise, and rage - the fight-or-flight response. Parasympathetic - allows us to unwind and conserve energy - the resting-and-digesting system

3 functions of the skeletal system

Support protection movement production of red blood cells storage of minerals

Contrast synthesis, decomposition, and exchange reactions.

Synthesis - occur when two or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger more complex molecule. Decomposition - occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, atoms, or ions. Exchange - both synthesis and decomposition reactions with bonds made and broken - a switch is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made

Define systole, diastole, stroke volume, cardiac cycle, heart sounds, and murmur.

Systole and diastole refer to contraction and relaxation of the ventricles. The stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each heartbeat. The cardiac cycle refers to the events of one complete heartbeat. Two distinct heart sounds that are heard during each cardiac cycle are lub and dup. Murmurs are abnormal or unusual heart sounds and most often indicate valve problems.

Name the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs, and identify each on an appropriate diagram or model

The alimentary canal includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.

Verbally describe or demonstrate the anatomical position

The anatomical position of the human body is when the person is stood up, facing forward, arms down at the sides palms facing upwards, feet pointing and head pointing straight ahead.

Discuss the unique features of the arterial circulation of the brain.

The anterior and posterior blood supplies of the brain are united by small communicating arterial branches and the result is a complete circle of connecting blood vessels called the circle of Willis, which surrounds the base of the brain and protects the brain because it provides more then one route for blood to reach brain tissue in case of a clot or impaired blood flow.

Describe the process of tissue repair (wound healing)

The capillaries become very permeable allowing clotting proteins other substances to seep into the area. New Capillaries grow into damaged area then the surface epithelium begins to regenerate.

Identify the overall function of the digestive system as digestion and absorption of foodstuffs, and describe the general activities of each digestive system organ

The function of the digestive system is to take in food (ingest it), break it down physically and chemically into nutrient molecules (digest it), to absorb the nutrients into the bloodstream, and to rid the body of the indigestible remains (defecate).

Describe the inflammatory process.

The inflammatory process is a response that is triggered whenever body tissues are injured.

Describe the location of the kidneys in the body

The kidneys lie against the dorsal body wall beneath the parietal peritoneum and in the superior lumbar region.

Describe the structure and function of the lungs and the pleural coverings.

The lungs occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the central area. The pleural coverings produced pleural fluid that allows the lungs to glide easily over the thorax wall during breathing movements.

Explain how the lymphatic system is functionally related to the cardiovascular and immune systems

The lymphatic and cardiovascular systems include a network of capillaries and vessels that assist in circulating the body fluids.

Name the brain areas involved in control of respiration.

The medulla oblongata and the pons.

Define reflex arc, and list its elements.

The nerve pathway involved in a reflex action including at its simplest a sensory nerve and a motor nerve with a synapse between. Its elements are sensory receptors, effector organ, and afferent and efferent neurons.

Discuss ways in which hormones promote body homeostasis by giving examples of hormonal actions

The parathyroids secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) (the most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood) when blood calcium levels drop below a certain level, the parathyroids release PTH, which stimulates bone destruction cells (osteoclasts) to break down bone matrix and release calcium into the blood whereas calcitonin or thyrocalcitonin produced by the thyroid gland decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited in the bones. Rising blood sugar levels stimulate insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas causing cells to increase the uptake of glucose from the blood and lower the blood sugar levels while dropping blood sugar levels stimulates the glucagon-releasing cells of the pancreas to break down glycogen into glucose and release it into the blood stream to raise the blood sugar levels

Describe the functional relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

The release of hormones from the anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus o The hypothalamus releases these regulatory hormones into the blood of the portal circulation, which connects the blood supply of the hypothalamus with that of the anterior pituitary. The hypothalamus also produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones, which are transported along the axons of the hypothalamic neurosecretory cells to the posterior pituitary for storage to be released later in response to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.

Explain why it is not possible to stop breathing voluntarily

The respiratory centers will simply ignore messages from the cortex when oxygen supply in the blood is getting low or blood pH is falling.

Describe several protective mechanisms of the respiratory system.

The respiratory purifies, humidifies, and warms incoming air so when the air reaches the lungs, it has many fewer irritants.

Describe the protective functions of skin and mucous membranes.

The skin provides a protective layer for the body and is the body's first line of defense. Mucous membranes line body cavities open to the exterior, found in the ears, mouth, and nose.

Describe the location of the heart in the body, and identify its major anatomical areas on an appropriate model or diagram.

The superior atria are receiving chambers and are not important in the pumping activity of the heart while the inferior ventricles with thicker walls are the discharging chambers, or pumps, of the heart. The septum that divides the heart longitudinally is referred to as the interventricular or interatrial septum depending on which chamber it divides. The superior and inferior venae cavae bring deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart where it is pumped out through the pulmonary trunk that splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries headed for the lungs to pick up oxygen while the pulmonary veins bring the oxygenated blood back to the left side of the heart to be pumped out the aorta which divides into the systemic arteries that feed all body tissues.

Contrast the effect of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the following organs: heart, lungs, digestive system, blood vessels.

The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels, dilates the bronchioles of the lungs, dilated blood vessels in skeletal muscles and withdraws blood from the digestive organs and shunts blood to the heart, brain, and skeletal muscles The parasympathetic nervous system reverses the affects of the sympathetic nervous system - decreases the demands on the cardiovascular system to low normal levels, the digestive tract is actively digesting food and the skin is warm, the eye pupils are constricted to protect the retinas from excessive light and lenses are set for close vision

Describe the structure of an antibody monomer.

There are four amino acid chains linked together by disulfide bonds. The antibody formed has two identical halves, each consisting of a heavy and a light chain.

Explain the decline in brain size and weight that occurs with age

There is a decline because we lose neurons as we get older

Describe briefly the process of bone formation in the fetus, and summarize the events of bone remodeling throughout life.

Thirteen weeks after conception, the fetus begins to develop bones. They begin with 300 bones, and end up with 206 bones. At first, the bones are not actually bones. They are cartilage that hardens to become bone with the assistance of calcium. This process of bone hardening is called ossification. During childhood, bones grow very differently. Long bones (such as the bones in your arms or legs) grow lengthwise. Flat bones (bones in your skull) grow expand outward. Bone also continuously undergoes remodeling, replacing the old bone with new bone. Remodeling also allows bone to respond to changes in mechanical forces, such as pregnancy or extreme weight gain or loss

Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

Tight Junction: impermeable junction that surround the cell. Desmosome - anchoring junction scattered along the sides of cells. Gap Junction - a nexus that allows chemical substances to pass between cells.

Name some factors that may inhibit or enhance the blood-clotting process.

Undesirable clotting can occur sometimes and form intact blood vessels that may prevent blood flow to the cells beyond the blockage. If the clot is in the heart, a heart attack may occur killing heart tissue and/or the person.

Explain importance of the rule of nines

Used to estimate the volume of fluid lost based on how much of the body surface is burned - body is divided into 11 areas, each accounting for 9 percent of the total body surface area, plus an additional area surrounding the genitals representing 1 percent of the body surface

Describe the events of muscle cell contraction.

When muscle fibers are activated by the nervous system, the cross bridges attach to myosin binding sites on the thin filaments, and sliding begins. Energized by ATP, each cross bridge attaches and detaches several times during contraction, pulling the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere - this event occurs simultaneously in sarcomeres throughout the cell, the muscle cell shortens. The attachment of myosin cross bridges to actin requires calcium ions, and the action potential leading to contraction causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release stored calcium ions into the sarcoplasm. When the action potential ends, calcium ions are reabsorbed into the SR storage areas, and the muscle cell relaxes and settles back to its original length. Acetylcholine is being broken down by enzymes on the sarcolemma making sure there is only one contraction preventing continued contraction without a nerve impulse

List several important functions of the integumentary system, and explain how these functions are accomplished.

When provided with a model or diagram of the skin, recognize and name the following skin structures: epidermis, dermis (papillary and reticular layers), hair and hair follicle, sebaceous gland, and sweat gland.

Explain the role of bone salts and the organic matrix in making bone both hard and flexible.

bone salts lend hardness

Describe the microscopic structure of compact bone.

composed of repeating units of osteons, with each unit having a central canal running longitudinally.

List the cell types making up the formed elements, and describe the major functions of each type.

o Erythrocytes - small, biconcave disks with depresses centers - red blood cells - ferry oxygen in blood cells to all cells in the body - anucleate (no nucleus when mature) with very few organelles Hemoglobin - iron-containing protein that transports the bulk of oxygen carried in the blood and to a lesser degree, carbon dioxide Each RBC contains ~250 million hemoglobin molecules, each capable of binding 4 molecules of oxygen o Leukocytes - white blood cells - crucial to body defense against disease (bacteria, viruses, parasites, tumor cells, dead cells) - less than 1% of total blood volume - the only complete cells in blood with a nucleus and the usual organelles Granulocytes - granule-containing WBCs - lobed nuclei, which consist of several rounded nuclear areas connected by thin strands of nuclear material - granules stain with Wright's stain Neutrophils - have a multilobed nucleus and very fine granules that respond to both acid and basic stains and the cytoplasm stains pink - phagocytes at sites of acute infection Eosinophils - blue-red nucleus and brick-red cytoplasmic granules - numbers increase during allergies and infections by parasitic worms Basophils - contain large histamine-containing granules that stain dark blue - histamine is an inflammatory chemical that makes blood vessels leaky and attracts other WBCs to the site Agranulocytes - lake visible cytoplasmic granules with normal looking nuclei Lymphocytes - large dark purple nucleus that occupies most of the cell volume - live in lymphatic tissue where they help in immune responses Monocytes - abundant cytoplasm and indented nucleus - change into macrophages to fight chronic infections such as tuberculosis Platelets - not cells but fragments of multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes, which rupture, releasing thousands of anucleate pieces that quickly seal themselves off from surrounding fluids - appear as darkly staining, irregularly shaped bodies scattered among the other blood cells - normal platelet count is 300,000/mm3 - needed for the clotting process that occurs when blood vessels are broken

Explain the concept of pH, and state the pH of blood.

pH is used to measure the acidity or basicity of a solution. The pH of blood is 7.35 and 7.45 which is neutral

Describe how the skull of a newborn infant (or fetus) differs from that of an adult, and explain the function of fontanels.

skull of infants have 2 opening called fontanelles and the bones of the skull are 4 plates not fused together, because the skull grows... the posterior fontanelles closed at around 6 weeks, the anterior one up to 18 months, later the plates fuse

ATP in the body

stores and uses energy

Name several physical factors that influence respiratory rate

talking coughing exercising

Differ between rods and cones

they are not evenly distributed in the retina RODS- more dense at the periphery or edge of the retina and decrease in number as the center of the retina is approached / Allow us to see in gray tones in dim light and provide our peripheral vision CONES are the discriminatory receptors that allow us to see the details of our world in color under bright light conditions- the densest in the center of the retina and decrease in number towards the retinal edge

Discuss the importance of the intervertebral discs and spinal curvatures. Describe how a true rib differs from a false rib.

true connect with 1 costal cartilage false ribs share costal cart-or dont connect to sternum