Adolescent Development Terms
Assimilation
(1) The cognitive process that occurs when new information is altered to fit an existing scheme. (2) In the formation of an ethnic identity, the approach that involves leaving the ethnic culture behind and adopting the ways of the majority culture.
adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) The hormone that causes the adrenal glands to increase androgen production.
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) Disorder characterized by difficulty in maintaining attention on a task along with a high activity level that makes self-control problematic.
adolescence-limited delinquents
(ALDs) In Moffitt's theory, delinquents who engage in criminal acts in adolescence and/or emerging adulthood but show no evidence of problems before or after these periods.
body mass index
(BMI) A ratio of height to weight; BMI thresholds for obesity are determined by medical authorities and vary depending on age group.
follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) Along with LH, stimulates the development of gametes and sex hormones in the ovaries and testicles.
graduated driver licensing
(GDL) A program that allows young people restricted driving privileges when they first receive their license, gradually increasing the privileges if the restrictions are not violated.
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) Hormone released by the hypothalamus that causes gonadotropins to be released by the pituitary.
International Labor Organization
(ILO) An organization that seeks to prevent children and adolescents from being exploited in the workplace.
life-course-persistent delinquents
(LCPDs) In Moffitt's theory, adolescents who show a history of related problems both prior to and following adolescence.
luteinizing hormone
(LH) Along with FSH, stimulates the development of gametes and sex hormones in the ovaries and testicles.
massive open online courses
(MOOCs) College courses presented electronically, via the Internet, usually at no cost to the student.
premenstrual syndrome
(PMS) The combination of behavioral, emotional, and physical symptoms that occur in some females the week before menstruation.
maximum oxygen uptake
(VO2 max) A measure of the ability of the body to take in oxygen and transport it to various organs; peaks in the early 20s.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS-V) Intelligence test for persons aged 16 and up, with six Verbal and five Performance subtests.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC-V) Intelligence test for children aged 6 to 16, with six Verbal and five Performance subtests.
cognitive-behavior therapy
(cbt) An approach to treating psychological disorders that focuses on changing negative ways of thinking and practicing new ways of interacting with others.
Argot
(pronounced ar-go) In youth culture, a certain vocabulary and a certain way of speaking.
personal fable
A belief in one's personal uniqueness, often including a sense of invulnerability to the consequences of taking risks.
Stereotype
A belief that others possess certain characteristics simply as a result of being a member of a particular group.
Ethnography
A book that presents an anthropologist's observations of what life is like in a particular culture.
secular trend
A change in the characteristics of a population over time.
Androgyny
A combination of "male" and "female" personality traits.
postmodern identity
A conception of identity as complex and as highly variable across contexts and across time.
interdependent self
A conception of the self typically found in collectivistic cultures, in which the self is seen as defined by roles and relationships within the group.
independent self
A conception of the self typically found in individualistic cultures, in which the self is seen as existing independently of relations with others, with an emphasis on independence, individual freedoms, and individual achievements.
Asymptomatic
A condition common with STIs in which an infected person shows no symptoms of the disease but may potentially infect others.
correlation versus causation
A correlation is a predictable relationship between two variables, such that knowing one of the variables makes it possible to predict the other. However, just because two variables are correlated does not mean that one causes the other.
custom complex
A customary practice and the beliefs, values, sanctions, rules, motives, and satisfactions associated with it; that is, a normative practice in a culture and the cultural beliefs that provide the basis for that practice.
reactive script
A dating script, more common for females than males, that focuses on the private domain (e.g., spending considerable time on dress and grooming prior to the date), responding to the date's gestures in the public domain (e.g., being picked up, waiting for him to open the doors), and responding to his sexual initiatives.
proactive script
A dating script, more common for males than for females, that includes initiating the date, deciding where they will go, controlling the public domain (e.g., driving the car and opening the doors), and initiating sexual contact.
dual-earner family
A family in which both parents are employed.
relational aggression
A form of nonphysical aggression that harms others by damaging their relationships, for example by excluding them socially or spreading rumors about them.
Theory
A framework that presents a set of interconnected ideas in an original way and inspires further research.
Menarche
A girl's first menstrual period.
pituitary gland
A gland about half an inch long located at the base of the brain that releases gonadotropins as part of the body's preparation for reproduction.
parental notification
A legal requirement, in some states, that minors must notify their parents before having an abortion.
parental consent
A legal requirement, in some states, that minors must obtain their parents' permission to have an abortion.
Semenarche
A male's first ejaculation.
arranged marriage
A marriage in which the marriage partners are determined not by the partners themselves but by others, usually the parents or other family elders.
cardiac output
A measure of the quantity of blood pumped by the heart.
Schema
A mental structure for organizing and interpreting information.
Schemes
A mental structure for organizing and interpreting information.
Sociometry
A method for assessing popularity and unpopularity that involves having students rate the social status of other students.
Ramadan
A month in the Muslim year that commemorates the revelation of the Koran from God to the prophet Muhammad, requiring fasting from sunrise to sunset each day and refraining from all sensual indulgences.
endocrine system
A network of glands in the body. Through hormones, the glands coordinate their functioning and affect the development and functioning of the body.
authoritative parents
A parenting style in which parents are high in demandingness and high in responsiveness, i.e., they love their children but also set clear standards for behavior and explain to their children the reasons for those standards.
life-cycle service
A period in their late teens and 20s in which young people from the 16th to the 19th century engaged in domestic service, farm service, or apprenticeships in various trades and crafts.
cognitive stage
A period in which abilities are organized in a coherent, interrelated way.
Adolescence
A period of the life course between the time puberty begins and the time adult status is approached, when young people are in the process of preparing to take on the roles and responsibilities of adulthood in their culture.
latency period
A period, common with STIs, between the time a person is infected with a disease and the time symptoms appear.
possible selves
A person's conception of the self as it potentially may be. May include both an ideal self and a feared self.
self-esteem
A person's overall sense of worth and well-being.
actual self
A person's perception of the self as it is, contrasted with the possible self.
baseline self-esteem
A person's stable, enduring sense of worth and well-being.
sensation seeking
A personality characteristic defined by the extent to which a person enjoys novelty and intensity of sensation.
Leptin
A protein, produced by fat cells, that signals the hypothalamus to initiate the hormonal changes of puberty.
overproduction or exuberance
A rapid increase in the production of synaptic connections in the brain.
dyadic relationship
A relationship between two persons.
experimental research method
A research method that entails assigning participants randomly to an experimental group that received a treatment and a control group that does not receive the treatment, then comparing the two groups in a posttest.
Mikveh
A ritual bath that Jewish Orthodox women are obliged to take a week after their period as a way of cleansing themselves of the impurity believed to be associated with menstruation.
Method
A scientific strategy for collecting data.
Collectivism
A set of beliefs asserting that it is important for persons to mute their individual desires in order to contribute to the well-being and success of the group.
Worldview
A set of cultural beliefs that explain what it means to be human, how human relations should be conducted, and how human problems should be addressed.
natural experiment
A situation that occurs naturally but that provides interesting scientific information to the perceptive observer.
Correlation
A statistical relationship between two variables, such that knowing one of the variables makes it possible to predict the other.
Cerebellum
A structure in the lower brain, well beneath the cortex long thought to be involved only in basic functions such as movement, now known to be important for many higher functions as well, such as mathematics, music, decision making, and social skills.
longitudinal study
A study in which data is collected from the participants on more than one occasion.
scientific method
A systematic way of finding the answers to questions or problems that includes standards of sampling, procedure, and measures.
fMRI
A technique for measuring brain functioning during an ongoing activity.
diathesis-stress model
A theory that mental disorders result from the combination of a diathesis (biological vulnerability) and environmental stresses.
Continuous
A view of development as a gradual, steady process rather than as taking place in distinct stages.
Discontinuous
A view of development as taking place in stages that are distinct from one another rather than as one gradual, continuous process.
sexual harassment
A wide range of threatening or aggressive behaviors related to sexuality, from mild harassment such as name-calling, jokes, and leering looks to severe harassment involving unwanted touching or sexual contact.
gap year
A year between finishing secondary education and beginning tertiary education.
crystallized intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and enhanced judgment based on experience.
rejected adolescents
Adolescents who are actively disliked by their peers.
controversial adolescents
Adolescents who are aggressive but who also possess social skills, so that they evoke strong emotions both positive and negative from their peers.
neglected adolescents
Adolescents who have few or no friends and are largely unnoticed by their peers.
tertiary education
All education and training beyond the secondary level, including colleges, universities, and occupational training programs.
sexual coercion
An act of sexual aggression in which a person, usually a woman, is forced by a romantic partner, date, or acquaintance to have sexual relations against her will.
identity status model
An approach to conceptualizing and researching identity development that classifies people into one of four identity categories: foreclosure, diffusion, moratorium, or achievement.
information-processing approach
An approach to understanding cognition that seeks to delineate the steps involved in the thinking process and how each step is connected to the next.
family systems approach
An approach to understanding family functioning that emphasizes how each relationship within the family influences the family as a whole.
divorce mediation
An arrangement in which a professional mediator helps divorcing parents negotiate an agreement that both will find acceptable.
Apprenticeship
An arrangement, common in Europe, in which an adolescent "novice" serves under contract to a "master" who has substantial experience in a profession, and through working under the master, learns the skills required to enter the profession.
working memory
An aspect of short-term memory that refers to where information is stored as it is comprehended and analyzed.
Bulimia
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by purging (self-induced vomiting).
depressed mood
An enduring period of sadness, without any other related symptoms of depression.
Depression
An enduring period of sadness.
identity foreclosure
An identity status in which young people have not experimented with a range of possibilities but have nevertheless committed themselves to certain choices—commitment, but no exploration.
identity diffusion
An identity status that combines no exploration with no commitment. No commitments have been made among the available paths of identity formation, and the person is not seriously attempting to sort through potential choices and make enduring commitments.
identity moratorium
An identity status that involves exploration but no commitment, in which young people are trying out different personal, occupational, and ideological possibilities.
hybrid identity
An identity that integrates elements of various cultures.
Slang
An informal vocabulary and grammar that is different from that of the native language.
Peace Corps
An international service program in which Americans provide service to a community in a foreign country for 2 years.
role preparation
An outcome of socialization that includes preparation for occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions such as marriage and parenthood.
sex hormones
Androgens and estrogens that cause the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics.
communal manhood
Anthony Rotundo's term for the norm of manhood in 17th- and 18th-century colonial America, in which the focus of gender expectations for adolescent boys was on preparing to assume adult male role responsibilities in work and marriage.
self-made manhood
Anthony Rotundo's term for the norm of manhood in 19th-century America, in which males were increasingly expected to become independent from their families in adolescence and emerging adulthood as part of becoming a man.
passionate manhood
Anthony Rotundo's term for the norm of manhood in the 20th-century United States, in which self-expression and self-enjoyment replaced self-control and self-denial as the paramount virtues young males should learn in the course of becoming a man.
cultural psychology
Approach to human psychology emphasizing that psychological functioning cannot be separated from the culture in which it takes place.
individual differences
Approach to research that focuses on how individuals differ within a group, for example, in performance on IQ tests.
cognitive-developmental approach
Approach to understanding cognition that emphasizes the changes that take place at different ages.
uses and gratifications approach
Approach to understanding media that emphasizes that people differ in numerous ways that lead them to make different choices about which media to consume and that even people consuming the same media product will respond to it in a variety of ways, depending on their individual characteristics.
Areola
Area surrounding the nipple on the breast; enlarges at puberty.
debt bondag
Arrangement in which a person who is in debt pledges his labor or the labor of his children as payment.
psychometric approach
Attempt to understand human cognition by evaluating cognitive abilities using intelligence tests.
Secular
Based on nonreligious beliefs and values.
Spermarche
Beginning of development of sperm in boys' testicles at puberty.
problem behavior
Behavior that young people engage in that is viewed by adults as a source of problems, such as unprotected premarital sex and substance use.
imaginary audience
Belief that others are acutely aware of and attentive to one's appearance and behavior.
negative attributions
Beliefs that one's current unhappiness is permanent and uncontrollable.
informational support
Between friends, advice and guidance in solving personal problems.
instrumental support
Between friends, help with tasks of various kinds.
companionship support
Between friends, reliance on each other as companions in social activities.
critical relationship
Between siblings, a relationship characterized by a high level of conflict and teasing.
caregiver relationship
Between siblings, a relationship in which one sibling serves parental functions for the other.
rival relationship
Between siblings, a relationship in which they compete against each other and measure their success against one another.
buddy relationship
Between siblings, a relationship in which they treat each other as friends.
casual relationship
Between siblings, a relationship that is not emotionally intense, in which they have little to do with one another.
secondary sex characteristics
Bodily changes of puberty not directly related to reproduction.
Reductionism
Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as a whole becomes lost.
Cyberbullying
Bullying via electronic means, mainly through the Internet.
Neurons
Cells of the nervous system, including the brain
Gametes
Cells, distinctive to each sex, that are involved in reproduction (egg cells in the ovaries of the female and sperm in the testes of the male).
Amenorrhea
Cessation of menstruation, sometimes experienced by girls whose body weight falls extremely low.
cognitive development
Changes over time in how people think, how they solve problems, and how their capacities for memory and attention change.
Reliability
Characteristic of a measure that refers to the extent to which results of the measure on one occasion are similar to results of the measure on a separate occasion.
Generalizable
Characteristic of a sample that refers to the degree to which findings based on the sample can be used to make accurate statements about the population of interest.
Representative
Characteristic of a sample that refers to the degree to which it accurately represents the population of interest.
protective factor
Characteristics of young people that are related to lower likelihood of participation in risk behavior.
Hormones
Chemicals, released by the glands of the endocrine system, that affect the development and functioning of the body, including development during puberty.
child soldier
Child or adolescent forced to become a soldier.
gender identity
Children's understanding of themselves as being either male or female, reached at about age 3.
Advanced Placement (AP) classes
Classes for gifted students in high schools that have higher-level material than normal classes in order to provide a challenging curriculum.
Relativism
Cognitive ability to recognize the legitimacy of competing points of view but also compare the relative merits of competing views.
mental operations
Cognitive activity involving manipulating and reasoning about objects.
multiple thinking
Cognitive approach entailing recognition that there is more than one legitimate view of things and that it can be difficult to justify one position as the true or accurate one.
sexual scripts
Cognitive frameworks, often different for males and females, for understanding how a sexual experience is supposed to proceed and how sexual experiences are to be interpreted.
formal operations
Cognitive stage from age 11 on up in which people learn to think systematically about possibilities and hypotheses.
concrete operations
Cognitive stage from age 7 to 11 in which children learn to use mental operations but are limited to applying them to concrete, observable situations rather than hypothetical situations.
preoperational stage
Cognitive stage from ages 2 to 7 during which the child becomes capable of representing the world symbolically—for example, through the use of language—but is still very limited in ability to use mental operations.
sensorimotor stage
Cognitive stage in first 2 years of life that involves learning how to coordinate the activities of the senses with motor activities.
Commitment
Cognitive status in which persons commit themselves to certain points of view they believe to be the most valid while at the same time being open to reevaluating their views if new evidence is presented to them.
dualistic thinking
Cognitive tendency to see situations and issues in polarized, absolute, black-and-white terms.
Familismo
Concept of family life characteristic of Latino cultures that emphasizes the love, closeness, and mutual obligations of family life.
emotional loneliness
Condition that occurs when people feel that the relationships they have lack sufficient closeness and intimacy.
social loneliness
Condition that occurs when people feel that they lack a sufficient number of social contacts and relationships.
filial piety
Confucian belief, common in many Asian societies, that children are obligated to respect, obey, and revere their parents, especially the father.
patriarchal authority
Cultural belief in the absolute authority of the father over his wife and children.
Individualism
Cultural belief system that emphasizes the desirability of independence, self-sufficiency, and self-expression.
gender roles
Cultural beliefs about the kinds of work, appearance, and other aspects of behavior that distinguish women from men.
permissive cultures
Cultures that encourage and expect sexual activity from their adolescents.
semirestrictive cultures
Cultures that have prohibitions on premarital adolescent sex, but the prohibitions are not strongly enforced and are easily evaded
restrictive cultures
Cultures that place strong prohibitions on adolescent sexual activity before marriage.
Qualitative
Data that is collected in nonnumerical form, usually in interviews or observations.
Quantitative
Data that is collected in numerical form, usually on questionnaires.
nature-nurture debate
Debate over the relative importance of biology and the environment in human development.
Roles
Defined social positions in a culture, containing specifications of behavior, status, and relations with others. Examples include gender, age, and social class.
Automaticity
Degree of cognitive effort a person needs to devote to processing a given set of information.
multisystemic approach
Delinquency prevention strategy that addresses risk factors at several levels, including the home, the school, and the neighborhood.
componential approach
Description of the information-processing approach to cognition, indicating that it involves breaking down the thinking process into its various components.
occupational deviance
Deviant acts committed in relation to the workplace, such as stealing supplies.
binge drinking
Drinking a large number of alcoholic drinks in one episode, usually defined as drinking five or more alcoholic drinks in a row.
anorexia nervosa
Eating disorder characterized by intentional self-starvation.
cathartic effect
Effect sometimes attributed to media experiences, in which media experience has the effect of relieving unpleasant emotions.
health promotion
Efforts to reduce health problems in young people through encouraging changes in the behaviors that put young people at risk.
affective functions
Emotional functions of the family, pertaining to love, nurturance, and attachment.
psychosocial moratorium
Erikson's term for a period during adolescence when adult responsibilities are postponed as young people try on various possible selves.
negative identity
Erikson's term for an identity based on what a person has seen portrayed as most undesirable or dangerous.
intimacy versus isolation
Erikson's term for the central issue of young adulthood, in which persons face alternatives between committing themselves to another person in an intimate relationship or becoming isolated as a consequence of an inability to form an enduring intimate relationship.
identity versus identity confusion
Erikson's term for the crisis typical of the adolescent stage of life, in which individuals may follow the healthy path of establishing a clear and definite sense of who they are and how they fit into the world around them, or follow the unhealthy alternative of failing to form a stable and secure identity.
identity crisis
Erikson's term for the intense period of struggle that adolescents may experience in the course of forming an identity.
Vulva
External female sex organs, including the labia majora, the labia minora, and the clitoris.
Homophobia
Fear and hatred of homosexuals.
synaptic pruning
Following overproduction, the process by which the number of synapses in the brain are reduced, making brain functioning faster and more efficient but less flexible.
coming out
For homosexuals, the process of acknowledging their homosexuality and then disclosing the truth to their friends, family, and others.
Bicultural
Having an identity that includes aspects of two different cultures.
caste system
Hindu belief that people are born into a particular caste based on their moral and spiritual conduct in their previous life. A person's caste then determines their status in Indian society.
Gonadotropins
Hormones (FSH and LH) that stimulate the development of gametes.
social cognition
How people think about other people, social relationships, and social institutions.
theory of multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner's theory that there are eight separate types of intelligence.
gender intensification hypothesis
Hypothesis that psychological and behavioral differences between males and females become more pronounced at adolescence because of intensified socialization pressures to conform to culturally prescribed gender roles.
Hypotheses
Ideas, based on theory or previous research, that a scholar wishes to test in a scientific study.
Machismo
Ideology of manhood, common in Latino cultures, which emphasizes males' dominance over females.
Image
In Brake's description of the characteristics of youth culture, refers to dress, hair style, jewelry, and other aspects of appearance.
Demeanor
In Brake's description of youth cultures, refers to distinctive forms of gesture, gait, and posture.
bonding phase
In Brown's developmental model of adolescent love, the final phase, in which the romantic relationship becomes more enduring and serious; partners begin to discuss the possibility of a lifelong commitment to each other.
initiation phase
In Brown's developmental model of adolescent love, the first phase, usually in early adolescence, when the first tentative explorations of romantic interests begin, usually superficial and brief, often fraught with anxiety, fear, and excitement.
status phase
In Brown's developmental model of adolescent love, the second phase, in which adolescents begin to gain confidence in their skills at interacting with potential romantic partners and begin to form their first romantic relationships, assessing not just how much they like and are attracted to the person, but also how their status with friends and peers would be influenced.
affection phase
In Brown's developmental model of adolescent love, the third phase, in which adolescents come to know each other better and express deeper feelings for each other, as well as engaging in more extensive sexual activity.
relative performance
In IQ tests, performance results compared to those of other persons of the same age.
absolute performance
In IQ tests, performance results compared to those of other persons, regardless of age.
consummate love
In Sternberg's theory of love, the form of love that integrates passion, intimacy, and commitment.
companionate love
In Sternberg's theory of love, the type of love that combines intimacy and commitment, but without passion.
romantic love
In Sternberg's theory of love, the type of love that combines passion and intimacy, but without commitment.
fatuous love
In Sternberg's theory of love, the type of love that involves passion and commitment without intimacy.
empty love
In Sternberg's theory of love, the type of love that is based on commitment alone, without passion or intimacy.
Liking
In Sternberg's theory of love, the type of love that is based on intimacy alone, without passion or commitment.
Infatuation
In Sternberg's theory of love, the type of love that is based on passion alone, without intimacy or commitment.
Median
In a distribution of scores, the point at which half of the population scores above and half below.
internal working model
In attachment theory, the term for the cognitive framework, based on interactions in infancy with the primary caregiver, that shapes expectations and interactions in relationships to others throughout life.
control group
In experimental research, the group that does not receive the treatment.
experimental group
In experimental research, the group that receives the treatment.
self-socialization
In gender socialization, refers to the way that children seek to maintain consistency between the norms they have learned about gender and their behavior.
driving curfews
In graduated licensing programs, a feature of the restricted license stage in which young drivers are prohibited from driving late at night except for a specific purpose such as going back and forth to work.
Bullying
In peer relations, the aggressive assertion of power by one person over another.
reciprocal effects
In relations between parents and children, the concept that children not only are affected by their parents but affect their parents in return. Also called bidirectional effects.
bidirectional effects
In relations between parents and children, the concept that children not only are affected by their parents but affect their parents in return. Also called reciprocal effects.
learning disability
In schools, a diagnosis made when a child or adolescent has normal intelligence but has difficulty in one or more academic areas and the difficulty cannot be attributed to any other disorder.
consensual validation
In social science studies of interpersonal attraction, the principle that people like to find in others an agreement or consensus with their own characteristics and view of life.
men's house
In some traditional cultures, a dormitory where adolescent boys sleep and hang out along with adult men who are widowed or divorced.
Dormitory
In some traditional cultures, a dwelling in which the community's adolescents sleep and spend their leisure time.
Performance subtests
In the Wechsler IQ tests, subtests that examine abilities for attention, spatial perception, and speed of processing.
Verbal subtests
In the Wechsler IQ tests, subtests that examine verbal abilities.
Disequilibrium
In the family systems approach, this term is used in reference to a change that requires adjustments from family members.
Separation
In the formation of ethnic identity, the approach that involves associating only with members of one's own ethnic group and rejecting the ways of the majority culture.
Biculturalism
In the formation of ethnic identity, the approach that involves developing a dual identity, one based in the ethnic group of origin and one based in the majority culture.
Marginality
In the formation of ethnic identity, the option that involves rejecting one's culture of origin but also feeling rejected by the majority culture.
Protect
In the manhood requirements of traditional cultures, the requirement of being able to assist in protecting one's family and community from human and animal attackers.
Procreate
In the manhood requirements of traditional cultures, the requirement of being able to function sexually well enough to produce children.
Provide
In the manhood requirements of traditional cultures, the requirement of being able to provide economically for one's self as well as a wife and children.
Globalization
Increasing worldwide technological and economic integration, which is making different parts of the world increasingly connected and increasingly similar culturally.
Identity
Individuals' perceptions of their characteristics and abilities, their beliefs and values, their relations with others, and how their lives fit into the world around them.
nonshared environmental influence
Influences experienced differently among siblings within the same family, e.g., when parents behave differently with their different children.
Jean Piaget
Influential Swiss developmental psychologist, best known for his theories of cognitive and moral development.
bar mitzvah
Jewish religious ritual for boys at age 13 that signifies the adolescents' new responsibilities with respect to Jewish beliefs.
bat mitzvah
Jewish religious ritual for girls at age 13 that signifies the adolescents' new responsibilities with respect to Jewish beliefs.
cognitive-developmental theory of gender
Kohlberg's theory, based on Piaget's ideas about cognitive development, asserting that gender is a fundamental way of organizing ideas about the world and that children develop through a predictable series of stages in their understanding of gender.
Crowds
Large, reputation-based groups of adolescents.
Cohabitation
Living with a romantic partner outside of marriage.
Ovum
Mature egg that develops from follicle in ovaries about every 28 days.
Cultivation Theory
Media theory proposing that TV consumption shapes people's worldviews to resemble what is depicted on TV.
long-term memory
Memory for information that is committed to longer-term storage, so that it can be drawn upon after a period when attention has not been focused on it.
short-term memory
Memory for information that is the current focus of attention.
mnemonic devices
Memory strategies.
fluid intelligence
Mental abilities that involve speed of analyzing, processing, and reacting to information.
Recapitulation
Now-discredited theory that held that the development of each individual recapitulates the evolutionary development of the human species as a whole.
evocative genotype → environment effects
Occur when a person's inherited characteristics evoke responses from others in their environment.
active genotype → environment effects
Occur when people seek out environments that correspond to their genotypic characteristics.
super peer
One of the functions of media for adolescents, meaning that adolescents often look to media for information (especially concerning sexuality) that their parents may be unwilling to provide, in the same way they might look to a friend.
set point
Optimal level of sex hormones in the body. When this point is reached, responses in the glands of the feedback loop cause the production of sex hormones to be reduced.
age-graded
Organized by age, for example in schools.
women's movement
Organized effort in the 20th century to obtain greater rights and opportunities for women.
Resilience
Overcoming adverse environmental circumstances to achieve healthy development.
authoritarian parents
Parenting style in which parents are high in demandingness but low in responsiveness; i.e., they require obedience from their children and punish disobedience without compromise, but show little warmth or affection toward them.
disengaged parents
Parenting style in which parents are low in both demandingness and responsiveness and relatively uninvolved in their children's development.
permissive parents
Parenting style in which parents are low in demandingness and high in responsiveness. They show love and affection toward their children but are permissive with regard to standards for behavior.
Clitoris
Part of vulva in which females' sexual sensations are concentrated.
labia majora
Part of vulva; Latin for "large lips."
labia minora
Part of vulva; Latin for "small lips."
addictive substance use
Pattern of substance use in which a person has come to depend on regular use of substances to feel good physically and/or psychologically.
Transsexuals
People who experience a fundamental mismatch between their gender and their sex, and who may address this misalignment through physical transformations ranging from adopting clothes characteristic of the other sex to sex reassignment surgery.
gender nonconforming
People who typically identify as either female or male but whose behaviors are androgynous to a degree that falls outside conventional norms.
Transgender
People whose self-identification does not match their biological sex.
emerging adulthood
Period from roughly ages 18 to 25 in industrialized countries during which young people become more independent from parents and explore various life possibilities before making enduring commitments.
early adolescence
Period of human development lasting from about age 10 to about age 14.
late adolescence
Period of human development lasting from about age 15 to about age 18.
expressive traits
Personality characteristics such as gentle and yielding, more often ascribed to females, emphasizing emotions and relationships.
instrumental traits
Personality characteristics such as self-reliant and forceful, more often ascribed to males, emphasizing action and accomplishment.
Undercontrolled
Personality characterized by a lack of self-control, sometimes ascribed to adolescents who have externalizing problems.
Overcontrolled
Personality characterized by inhibition, anxiety, and self-punishment, sometimes ascribed to adolescents who have internalizing problems.
Juveniles
Persons defined by the legal system as being younger than adult status.
pendulum problem
Piaget's classic test of formal operations, in which persons are asked to figure out what determines the speed at which a pendulum sways from side to side.
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Piaget's term for the process by which the formal operational thinker systematically tests possible solutions to a problem and arrives at an answer that can be defended and explained.
internalizing problems
Problems such as depression and anxiety that affect a person's internal world, for example: depression, anxiety, and eating disorders.
externalizing problems
Problems that affect a person's external world, such as delinquency and fighting.
risk behavior
Problems that involve the risk of negative outcomes, such as risky driving and substance use.
Maturation
Process by which abilities develop through genetically based development with limited influence from the environment.
Myelination
Process by which myelin, a blanket of fat wrapped around the main part of the neuron, grows. Myelin serves the function of keeping the brain's electrical signals on one path and increasing their speed.
driver education
Programs designed to teach young drivers safe driving skills before they receive their driver's license.
Interventions
Programs intended to change the attitudes and/or behavior of the participants.
Prosocial
Promoting the well-being of others.
major depressive disorder
Psychological diagnosis that entails depressed mood or reduced interest or pleasure in all or almost all activities, plus at least four other specific symptoms. Symptoms must be present over at least a 2-week period and must involve a change from previous functioning.
closed question
Questionnaire format that entails choosing from specific responses provided for each question.
open-ended question
Questionnaire format that involves writing in response to each question.
social and conventional system perspective taking
Realizing that the social perspectives of self and others are influenced not just by their interaction with each other but by their roles in the larger society.
Lamarckian
Reference to Lamarck's ideas, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that evolution takes place as a result of accumulated experience such that organisms pass on their characteristics from one generation to the next in the form of memories and acquired characteristics.
Identifications
Relationships formed with others, especially in childhood, in which love for another person leads one to want to be like that person.
placebo design
Research design in which some persons in a study receive medication and others receive placebos, which are pills that contain no medication.
ethnographic research
Research in which scholars spend a considerable amount of time among the people they wish to study, usually living among them.
case study
Research method that entails the detailed examination of the life of one person or a small number of persons.
Interview
Research method that involves asking people questions in a conversational format, such that people's answers are in their own words.
Lev Vygotsky
Russian psychologist who emphasized the cultural basis of cognitive development.
comprehensive sexuality education
Sex education programs that begin at an early age and include detailed information on sexual development and sexual behavior, with easy access to contraception for adolescents who choose to become sexually active.
abstinence-plus programs
Sex education programs that encourage adolescents to delay intercourse while also providing contraceptive information for adolescents who nevertheless choose to have intercourse.
passive genotype → environment effects
Situation in biological families that parents provide both genes and environment for their children, making genes and environment difficult to separate in their effects on children's development.
social skills
Skills for successfully handling social relations and getting along well with others.
the new basic skills
Skills identified by Murnane and Levy that are required for high school graduates who wish to be able to obtain the best jobs available in the new information-based economy.
Cliques
Small groups of friends who know each other well, do things together, and form a regular social group.
Ontogenetic
Something that occurs naturally in the course of development as part of normal maturation; that is, it is driven by innate processes rather than by environmental stimulation or a specific cultural practice.
mutual perspective taking
Stage of perspective taking, often found in early adolescence, in which persons understand that their perspective-taking interactions with others are mutual, in the sense that each side realizes that the other can take their perspective.
informed consent
Standard procedure in social scientific studies that entails informing potential participants of what their participation would involve, including any possible risks.
Procedure
Standards for the way a study is conducted. Includes informed consent and certain rules for avoiding biases in the data collection.
withdrawal symptoms
States such as high anxiety and tremors experienced by persons who stop taking the substance to which they are addicted.
gifted students
Students who have unusually high abilities in academics, art, or music.
field studies
Studies in which people's behavior is observed in a natural setting.
cross-sectional research
Study that examines individuals at one point in time.
medicinal substance use
Substance use undertaken for the purpose of relieving an unpleasant emotional state such as sadness, anxiety, stress, or loneliness.
feedback loop
System of hormones involving the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads, which monitors and adjusts the levels of the sex hormones.
age norms
Technique for developing a psychological test, in which a typical score for each age is established by testing a large random sample of people from a variety of geographical areas and social class backgrounds.
organizational core
Term applied especially to cognitive development, meaning that cognitive development affects all areas of thinking, no matter what the topic.
peer contagion
Term for the increase in delinquent behavior that often takes place as an unintended consequence of bringing adolescents with problems together for an intervention, because in the intervention setting they reinforce each other's delinquent tendencies and find new partners for delinquent acts.
reaction range
Term meaning that genes establish a range of possible development and environment determines where development takes place within that range.
Hypothalamus
The "master gland," located in the lower part of the brain beneath the cortex, that affects a wide range of physiological and psychological functioning and stimulates and regulates the production of hormones by other glands, including the ones involved in the initiation of puberty.
theory of mind
The ability to attribute mental states to one's self and others, including beliefs, thoughts, and feelings.
executive functioning
The ability to control and manage one's cognitive processes.
divided attention
The ability to focus on more than one task at a time.
selective attention
The ability to focus on relevant information while screening out information that is irrelevant.
perspective taking
The ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others.
transracial adoption
The adoption of children of one race by parents of a different race.
vital capacity
The amount of air that can be exhaled after a deep breath, which increases rapidly during puberty, especially for boys.
Testosterone
The androgen most important in pubertal development among boys.
Templates
The basic human pattern of moral development for the three ethics, subject to variation depending on the beliefs and values of a specific culture.
Marianismo
The belief, common in Catholic cultures, that females should emulate the Virgin Mary by being submissive and self-denying.
Ethos
The beliefs about education that characterize a school as a whole.
normal distribution or bell curve
The bell-shaped curve that represents many human characteristics, with most people around the average and a gradually decreasing proportion toward the extremes.
Sex
The biological status of being male or female.
Metacognition
The capacity for "thinking about thinking" that allows adolescents and adults to reason about their thought processes and monitor them.
self-regulation
The capacity for exercising self-control in order to restrain one's impulses and comply with social norms.
reflective judgment
The capacity to evaluate the accuracy and logical coherence of evidence and arguments.
Puberty
The changes in physiology, anatomy, and physical functioning that develop a person into a mature adult biologically and prepare the body for sexual reproduction.
dating scripts
The cognitive models that guide dating interactions.
Accommodation
The cognitive process that occurs when a scheme is changed to adapt to new information.
youth culture
The culture of young people as a whole, separate from children and separate from adult society, characterized by values of hedonism and irresponsibility.
Scaffolding
The degree of assistance provided to the learner in the zone of proximal development, gradually decreasing as the learner's skills develop.
Retention
The degree of success in maintaining students in college until they graduate.
Responsiveness
The degree to which parents are sensitive to their children's needs and express love, warmth, and concern for them.
parental monitoring
The degree to which parents keep track of where their adolescents are and what they are doing.
Demandingness
The degree to which parents set down rules and expectations for behavior and require their children to comply with them.
Intimacy
The degree to which two people share personal knowledge, thoughts, and feelings.
Style
The distinguishing features of youth culture, including image, demeanor, and argot.
second shift
The domestic work shift performed in the household by women after they complete their first shift in the workplace.
Population
The entire group of people of interest in a study.
Estradiol
The estrogen most important in pubertal development among girls.
Extremities
The feet, hands, and head.
breast buds
The first slight enlargement of the breast in girls at puberty.
barometric self-esteem
The fluctuating sense of worth and well-being people have as they respond to different thoughts, experiences, and interactions in the course of a day.
prefrontal cortex
The foremost part of the frontal lobe, involved in distinctively human functions such as planning and reasoning.
comprehensive high school
The form of the American high school that arose in the 1920s and is still the main form today, which encompasses a wide range of functions and includes classes in general education, college preparation, and vocational training.
zone of proximal development
The gap between how competently a person performs a task alone and when guided by an adult or more competent peer.
Koran
The holy book of the religion of Islam, believed by Muslims to have been communicated to Muhammad from God through the angel Gabriel.
sources of meaning
The ideas and beliefs that people learn as part of socialization, indicating what is important, what is to be valued, what is to be lived for, and how to explain and offer consolation for the individual's mortality.
identity achievement
The identity status of young people who have made definite personal, occupational, and ideological choices following a period of exploring possible alternatives.
social information processing
The interpretation of others' behavior and intentions in a social interaction.
AmeriCorps
The national service program in the United States in which young people serve in a community organization for up to 2 years for minimal pay.
the forgotten half
The nearly half of young Americans who enter the workplace following high school rather than attending college.
mental structure
The organization of cognitive abilities into a single pattern, such that thinking in all aspects of life is a reflection of that structure.
dependent variable
The outcome that is measured to evaluate the results of the experiment.
gray matter
The outer layer of the brain, where most of the growth in brain cells occurs.
family structure
The outward characteristics of a family, such as whether or not the parents are married.
Gonads
The ovaries and testicles. Also known as the sex glands.
custodial parent
The parent who lives in the same household as the children following a divorce.
frontal lobes
The part of the brain immediately behind the forehead. Known to be involved in higher brain functions such as planning ahead and analyzing complex problems.
white matter
The part of the brain that consists of myelinated axons.
parenting styles
The patterns of practices that parents exhibit in relation to their children.
Sample
The people included in a given study, who are intended to represent the population of interest.
ideal self
The person an adolescent would like to be.
primary caregiver
The person mainly responsible for caring for an infant or young child.
research design
The plan for when and how to collect the data for the study, for example the decision of whether to collect data at one time point or at more than one point.
peak height velocity
The point at which the adolescent growth spurt is at its maximum rate.
Synapse
The point of transmission between two nerve cells.
midlife crisis
The popular belief, largely unfounded according to research, that most people experience a crisis when they reach about age 40, involving intensive reexamination of their lives and perhaps sudden and dramatic changes if they are dissatisfied.
commercial sexual exploitation
The practice of coerced or forced sex work for purposes of economic gain.
cultural beliefs
The predominant beliefs in a culture about right and wrong, what is most important in life, and how life should be lived. May also include beliefs about where and how life originated and what happens after death.
selective association
The principle that most people tend to choose friends who are similar to themselves.
Socialization
The process by which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of the culture in which they live.
narrow socialization
The process by which persons in a collectivistic culture come to learn collectivism, including values of obedience and conformity.
broad socialization
The process by which persons in an individualistic culture come to learn individualism, including values of individual uniqueness, independence, and self-expression.
gender socialization
The process through which cultures communicate gender expectations to children and adolescents.
primary sex characteristics
The production of eggs and sperm and the development of the sex organs.
incest taboo
The prohibition on sexual relations between family members. Believed to be biologically based, as children born to closely related parents are at higher risk for genetic disorders.
Psychohistory
The psychological analysis of important historical figures.
Relatedness
The quality of being emotionally close to another person.
Autonomy
The quality of being independent and self-sufficient, capable of thinking for one's self.
Engagement
The quality of being psychologically committed to learning, including being alert and attentive in the classroom and making a diligent effort to learn.
school climate
The quality of interactions between teachers and students, including how teachers interact with students, what sort of expectations and standards they have for students, and what kinds of methods are used in the classroom.
family process
The quality of relationships among family members.
adolescent growth spurt
The rapid increase in height that takes place at the beginning of puberty.
immigrant paradox
The research finding that the more generations an immigrant family has been in the United States, the worse the children do in school.
secondary school
The schools attended by adolescents, usually including a lower secondary school and an upper secondary school.
feared self
The self a person imagines it is possible to become but dreads becoming.
false self
The self a person may present to others while realizing that it does not represent what he or she is actually thinking and feeling.
symbolic inheritance
The set of ideas and understandings, both implicit and explicit, about persons, society, nature, and divinity that serve as a guide to life in a particular culture. It is expressed symbolically through stories, songs, rituals, sacred objects, and sacred places.
Estrogens
The sex hormones that have especially high levels in females from puberty onward and are mostly responsible for female primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Androgens
The sex hormones that have especially high levels in males from puberty onward and are mostly responsible for male primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Gender
The social categories of male and female, established according to cultural beliefs and practices rather than being due to biology.
Unemployed
The status of persons who are not in school, not working, and who are looking for a job.
first-generation families
The status of persons who were born in one country and then immigrated to another.
second-generation families
The status of persons who were born in the country they currently reside in but whose parents were born in a different country.
esteem support
The support friends provide each other by providing congratulations for success and encouragement or consolation for failure.
guided participation
The teaching interaction between two people (often an adult and a child or adolescent) as they participate in a culturally valued activity.
optimistic bias
The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases, and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to other people than to one's self.
differential gender socialization
The term for socializing males and females according to different expectations about what attitudes and behavior are appropriate to each gender.
unstructured socializing
The term for young people spending time together with no specific event as the center of their activity.
Hymen
The thin membrane inside a girl's vagina that is usually broken during her first experience of sexual intercourse. Tested in some cultures before marriage to verify the girl's virginity.
Validity
The truthfulness of a measure, that is, the extent to which it measures what it claims to measure.
self-medication
The use of substances for relieving unpleasant states such as sadness or stress.
social substance use
The use of substances in the course of social activities with one or more friends.
independent variable
The variable that is different for the experimental group than for the control group.
Interdependence
The web of commitments, attachments, and obligations that exist in some human groups.
gender schema theory
Theory in which gender is viewed as one of the fundamental ways that people organize information about the world.
attachment theory
Theory originally developed by British psychiatrist John Bowlby, asserting that, among humans as among other primates, attachments between parents and children have an evolutionary basis in the need for vulnerable young members of the species to stay in close proximity to adults who will care for and protect them.
storm and stress
Theory promoted by G. Stanley Hall asserting that adolescence is inevitably a time of mood disruptions, conflict with parents, and antisocial behavior.
Media Practice Model
Theory proposing that media use begins with identity, then proceeds to selection, attention, interaction, application, and back to identity.
Social Learning Theory
Theory proposing that people tend to imitate behaviors they see rewarded when performed by others.
theory of genotype → environment effects
Theory that both genetics and environment make essential contributions to human development but are difficult to unravel because our genes actually influence the kind of environment we experience.
social roles theory
Theory that social roles for males and females enhance or suppress different capabilities, so that males and females tend to develop different skills and attitudes, which leads to gender-specific behaviors.
Mean World Syndrome
Theory that the more people watch television, the more likely they are to believe that the world is dangerous and that they are at risk for being a crime victim.
abstract thinking
Thinking in terms of symbols, ideas, and concepts.
critical thinking
Thinking that involves not merely memorizing information but analyzing it, making judgments about what it means, relating it to other information, and considering ways in which it might be valid or invalid.
complex thinking
Thinking that takes into account multiple connections and interpretations, such as in the use of metaphor, satire, and sarcasm.
experimental substance use
Trying a substance once or perhaps a few times out of curiosity.
dizygotic (DZ) twins
Twins with about half their genotype in common, the same as for other siblings. Also known as fraternal twins.
monozygotic (MZ) twins
Twins with exactly the same genotype. Also known as identical twins.
double standard
Two different sets of rules for sexual behavior, one applying to males and the other females, with rules for females usually being more restrictive.
insecure attachment
Type of attachment to caregiver in which infants are timid about exploring the environment and resist or avoid the caregiver when she attempts to offer comfort or consolation.
secure attachment
Type of attachment to caregiver in which infants use the caregiver as a "secure base from which to explore" when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened.
adolescent egocentrism
Type of egocentrism in which adolescents have difficulty distinguishing their thinking about their own thoughts from their thinking about the thoughts of others.
postformal thinking
Type of thinking beyond formal operations, involving greater awareness of the complexity of real-life situations, such as in the use of pragmatism and reflective judgment.
dialectical thought
Type of thinking that develops in emerging adulthood, involving a growing awareness that most problems do not have a single solution and that problems must often be addressed with crucial pieces of information missing.
Pragmatism
Type of thinking that involves adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of real-life situations.
Asynchronicity
Uneven growth of different parts of the body during puberty.
substance use
Use of substances that have cognitive and mood-altering effects, including alcohol, cigarettes, and illegal drugs such as marijuana, LSD, and cocaine.
subterranean values
Values such as hedonism, excitement, and adventure, asserted by sociologists to be the basis of youth culture.
Delinquency
Violations of the law committed by juveniles.
community service
Volunteer work provided as a contribution to the community, without monetary compensation.
peer reviewed
When a scholarly article or book is evaluated by a scholar's peers (i.e., other scholars) for scientific credibility and importance.
differential parenting
When parents' behavior differs toward siblings within the same family.
consent form
Written statement provided by a researcher to potential participants in a study, informing them of who is conducting the study, the purposes of the study, and what their participation would involve, including potential risks.
