anatomy unit 2

describe the gross and microscopic anatomy of the kidneys

- between parietal peritoneum and posterior abdominal wall on either side of spine, right is slightly lower than left because of liver covered by fibrous capsule made of dense CT, renal fat pad outside of this composed of adipose tissue, renal fascia outside of this connected to peritoneum that anchors kidneys to posterior abdominal wall, inferior to adrenal glands - renal cortex outside renal medulla, renal columns extend from cortex to medulla to compartmentalize renal pyramids into 6-8 lobes, which lead to papillae that transport urine into calyces of kidney to be excreted, renal hilium emerges into renal pelvis made of smooth muscle to conduct peristalsis into ureter, descending aorta - renal arteries - segmental arteries - interlobar arteries - arcuate arteries - cortical radiate arteries - afferent arterioles to supply nephrons

list the bones of the thoracic cavity and their key landmarks

12 pairs of ribs + costal cartilages and sternum sternum: anchors anterior thoracic cage, manubrium at top with shallow jugular notch superiorly and clavicular notches laterally (sternoclavicular joint attachment) attaches to first ribs, body is central portion that joins with manubrium at sternal angle (attaches to second rib) attaches to ribs 3-7, xiphoid process inferiorly ossifies from cartilage during middle age ribs: posterior end is called heads (attaches to vertebrae at costal facet), neck is lateral to head with tubercle (articulates with transverse facet), body has angle of the rib (most curvature at this point) and costal groove for blood vessel passage - each rib ends in hyaline costal cartilage that attaches it to sternum - 1-7 are true ribs that are attached to sternum by costal cartilage directly - 8-12 are false ribs, 8-10 costal cartilage attaches to cartilage of rib above it, 11-12 are floating ribs that do not attach to sternum

describe the components of the vertebral column and its regional variations

24 vertebrae (plus sacrum and coccyx) separated and united by intervertebral disc cervical (C1-C7): small body, bifid spinous process, spinous processes of C3-C6 are short, C7 is long, U-shaped transverse processes, transverse foramen is passageway for artery that supplies the brain, C1 is ring-shaped atlas that articulates with occipital condyles, C2 has dens (held in place by transverse ligament) and is responsible for rotation of the head thoracic (T1-T12): larger bodies, long and downward angled spinous process, costal facets on lateral body are attachment sites for ribs, facets on transverse process are attachment sites for tubercle of ribs lumbar (L1-L5): large body, short transverse processes, blunt spinous processes, large articular processes sacrum: triangular, formed by five sacral vertebrae at age 20, median sacral crest shows fusion of spinous processes, lateral sacral crest shows fusion of transverse processes, sacral promontory at superior base, auricular surface joins it with hip, scral canal terminates at sacral hiatus, sacral foramina for sacral spinal nerves coccyx: fusion of four coccygeal vertebrae, only receives some body weight when sitting

describe an autonomic plexus, including the fibers carried within it

a plexus is a web of intertwined axons and ganglia travelling to their effector organ, carries axons from both sympathetic and parasympathetic division (preganglionic from parasympathetic and postganglionic from sympathetic) parasympathetic division releases acetylcholine at ganglion and effector organ synapses, sympathetic division releases acetylcholine at the first synapse and norepinephrine at the second to the effector organ

describe electrical conduction through the heart

autorhythmicity - ability to initiate electrical potential for cell to cell contraction sinoatrial node determines normal heart rhythm (in superior and posterior heart walls), spreads to atrioventricular node (within atrioventricular septum - stops impulse from spreading to ventricles without passing AV nodes) through internodal pathways, pause to allow atria to complete blood pumping contraction before impulse goes to atrioventricular bundle, divides inot left and right bundle branches that supply respective ventricles, then descend to purkinje fibers, impulse spreads to myocardial contractile cells

list the components of the conducting and respiratory portions of the respiratory system

conducting - organs and structures not directly involved with gas exchange (paranasal sinuses, respiratory epithelium, trachea, trachealis muscle, carina, primary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles) respiratory - gas exchange structures (respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts, alveolus, alveolar sac, type 1 alveolar cell, type 2 alveolar cell, pulmonary surfactant, alveolar macrophage, respiratory membrane)

outline the pattern of blood flow through the heart

deoxygenated blood from right ventricle into pulmonary trunk, left and right pulmonary arteries carry to lungs' pulmonary capillaries where gas exchange occurs, oxygenated blood returns to heart through pulmonary veins into left atrium, then left ventricle, then oxygenated blood pumped through aorta onto systemic unit targets blood returns to the heart either through the inferior or superior vena cava to the right atrium, then right ventricle

explain dual innervation by the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions

dual innervation means that organ/effector is acted on by both parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions, depending on situation one is more active on the other - when the heart is racing the sympathetic division is active, when it is slowing down, sympathetic division is active short preganglionic axons in the sympathetic division and can cause secretion of NE and E from the adrenal gland into the bloodstream, long preganglionic axons in the parasympathetic division that have either terminal ganglia near the effector or intramural ganglia within the wall of the target organ

explain the anatomy of the esophagus and stomach

esophagus: muscular tube connecting pharynx and stomach, in collapsed form unless swallowing through mediastinum into esophageal hiatus through diaphragm, non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, upper 1/3 of muscularis layer is skeletal, then skeletal and smooth, then smooth, esophageal glands proper secrete mucus to coat esophagus, esophageal cardiac glands secrete basic substance to counteract acid entering tract stomach: between esophagus and small intestine, holding chamber for 2-4 hrs that allows only small amounts of food into small intestine at a time, cardia to fundus to body to pylorus (pyloric sphincter controls release into SI), oblique muscle allows vigorous churning along with normal contractions from muscularis layer, rugae (folds), simple columnar epithelium with gastric pits marking gastric glands - surface mucus cells: secrete alkaline mucus with bicarbonate ions - parietal cells: hydrochloric acid that activates pepsin and intrinsic factor that absorbs B12 - chief cells: secrete pepsinogen that combines with HCl to digest proteins - mucous neck cells: secretes acidic mucus cells that surround bolus - enteroendocrine cells: secrete gastrin that triggers secretion from other cells

identify and describe the structure and function of the muscles of the thoracic and abdominal walls

external oblique - extend inferiorly and medially, responsible for rotation and lateral flexion (twisting of waist and bending to side) internal oblique - extend superiorly and medially, responsible for rotation and lateral flexion (twisting of waist and bending to side) transversus abdominis - deepest, arranged like a belt, responsible for compression (squeezing during forceful exhalations, defecation, urination, birth) rectus abdominis - long and linear, originate at pubic crest/symphysis and extend superiorly, with linea alba band at anterior midline, segmented by three ransverse bands called tendinous intersections posterior abdominal wall - psoas major and iliac muscles, quadratus lumborum muscle, stabilizes body and posture back - erector spinae is primary extensor (flexion, lateral flexion, rotation of vertebral column + maintenance of lumbar curve), composed of iliocostalis, longissimus, spinalis muscles

identify the blood supply to lung tissue

from pulmonary circulation - deoxygenated blood travels to lungs and the erythrocytes (red blood cells) pick up oxygen to supply tissues of body, pulmonary artery comes from pulmonary trunk and carries deoxygenated blood to alveoli (branching several times along bronchi) to become pulmonary capillary networks with small vessels and no smooth muscle fibers at alveoli, respiratory membrane is created where the capillary wall meets the alveolar wall and oxygenates the blood to be carried out via pulmonary veins through hilium

list the components of the nephron and explain their roles in urine formation

glomerulus - high pressure capillaries formed by afferent arterioles Bowman's capsule - tubule surrounding glomerulus at proximal end renal corpuscle - glomerulus and Bowman's capsule, filters into PCT, pariteal layer transitions into glomerular capillaries into visceral layer with podocytes and pedicels that form filtration slits proximal convoluted tubule - collects filtered fluid from glomerular capsule, simple cuboidal cells with microvillli to increase secretion and absorption, many mitochondria to transport ions across membranes - 67% of water and other substances that are reabsorbed are returned via vasa recta and peritubilar capillaries (use concentration gradient, pumping of salt into interstitial spaces, to get water into capillary), called obligatory reabsorption loop of henle - descending starts with short and thick portion, ascending starts with short and thin portion - simple squamous epithelium cells allow for easy passage of 15% of water from descending loop to interstitial space - simple cuboidal eputhelium allows for reabsorption of Na and Cl, contributes to hyperosmotic environment in kidney's medulla distal convoluted tubule - shorter than PCT, simple cuboidal epithelium, fewer microvilli and mitochondria than PCT as not as much as activity - recovers Ca from remaining filtrate, plus 10-15% of water, passed to peritubular capillaries to return to circulation, forming urine enters collecting ducts collecting ducts - continuous with but not part of nephron, formed by merged collecting tubules, about 30 of them in medulla that empty into papilla, simple squamous epithelium with ADH receptors that trigger aquaporin channel proteins to open and supply water to vasa recta

list the muscles of the pelvic floor and describe their functions and innervation

iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus, puborectalis, superficial transverse perineal muscle, coccygeus, deep transverse perineal muscle - supports pelvic viscera bulbospongious, ischiocavernosus - acts on external genitalia external anal sphincter - fecal continence external urethral sphincter - urinary continence

list the components of the perineum in males and females

inferior to pelvic diaphragm, anterior to coccyx, posterior to pubic symphysis, in between ischial tuberosities, divided into triangles - urogenital + anal

analyze and describe the functions of the digestive system

ingestion, propulsion, digestion (mechanical and chemical), secretion, absorption, compaction, excretion peristalsis propels food along tract with contraction of smooth muscles segmentation isolates small intestine to mechanically break up food using circular muscle of muscularis food passes through (alimentary canal organs): oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines assist in breakdown of food (accessory digestive organs): teeth, tongue, salivary glands, gallbladder, liver, pancreas

distinguish how valves regulate blood flow through the heart

left ventricle has thicker muscles to propel blood through systemic circuit, both lined with trabeculae carnae (cardiac muscle covered by endocardium) interatrial septum is between atria (starts as foramen ovale and become fossa ovalis), interventricular septum is between ventricles (thicker due to greater pressure in ventricles) tricuspid valve between right atrium and ventricle is attached to chordae tendinae that connects to papillary muscles, pulmonary semilunar valve prevents backflow from pulmonary trunk, bicuspid valve between left ventricle and atrium connected to papillary muscle by chordae tendinae,aortic semilunar valve between left ventricle and aorta valves composed of three endocardium flaps

describe the structure, function, and other key features of the accessory organs of the digestive system

liver: biochemical processing plant, packages nutrients, produces plasma proteins + clotting factors + bile, disposes of waste products - in right upper quadrant, has right lobe, left lobe, quadrate lobe, and caudate lobe - porta hepatis is entry for hepatic artery proper (branches off common hepatic artery to deliver oxygenated blood to liver), hepatic portal vein (transfers deoxygenated blood with toxins absorbed by SI to liver to be processed), common hepatic duct (carries bile into small intestine) - hepatocyte is main cell type that processes nutrients and waste in blood and secrete bile (stored in gall bladder, flows into bile ducts, then right and left hepatic duct, then common hepatic duct, which joins with cystic duct to form common bile duct into SI) pancreas: in upper left quadrant, has exocrine and endocrine functions - exocrine: enzyme-rich pancreatic juice secretions through pancreatic duct, essential for digestion of sugars + proteins + fats - endocrine: islets of Langerhans produce insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar gallbladder: on posterior nferior aspect of right lobe of liver, stores and concentrates bile, then propels it into duodeum through common bile duct - simple columnar epithelium with rugae - muscular layer is smooth muscle that contracts to eject contents through cystic duct into bile duct - mucosa concentrates bile by absorbing water and ions

describe the anatomy of the mammary glands

modified sweat glands, alveoli produce milk and secrete it into lactiferous ducts into lactiferous sinus, secreted through nipple pores, pushed out to sinuses by myoepithelial cells

explain the histology of the GI tract wall

mucosa: epithelium- direct contact with food with goblet cells, lamina propria- areolar connective tissue with MALT that responds to pathogens and lymphatic/blood vessels, muscularis mucosa- smooth muscle with folds that increase digestions and absorption submucosa: dense CT beneath mucosa muscularis: smooth muscle, deep circular layer and superifical longitudinal layer, helps mechanical digestion and has oblique muscle in stomach to help with churning serosa: superficial to muscularis, layer of visceral peritoneum above loose CT, called adventitia in retroperitoneal organs esophagus to anus has enteric nervous system innervation, myenteric plexus controls rhythm of contraction lies in between circular and longitudinal layers of muscularis, sympathetic generally restricts movement along GI tract and parasympathetic increases GI secretion

describe the functions of the respiratory system

provides oxygen to body tissues for cellular respiration, removes waste CO2, maintains acid-base balance sometimes sensing odors, speech production, and straining (non-vital)

describe the gross anatomy of the female reproductive organs

ovaries - female gonads, within pelvic cavity and supported by mesovarium (extension of peritoneum) that is connected to broad ligament, suspensory ligament extends from mesovarium and contains vessels, ovarian ligament attaches ovaries to uterus, cuboidal/ovarian surface epithelium superficial to tunica albuginea (dense CT), then cortex composed of ovarian stroma that develops oocytes (follicle is oocyte and supporting cell), medulla is within cortex (vessels and nerves) uterine tubes - from ovary to uterus, indfundibulum with fimbrae, to ampulla (site of fertilization), to isthmus that narrows and connect to uterus at uterine part, serosa + smooth muscle + mucosa layers (mucosa has mucus cells and ciliated cells that move oocyte along tract) uterus - nourishes and supports embryo, fundus is superior, body is middle, narrowing is isthmus, cervix is narrow inferior portion (internal os closest to isthmus, external os closest to vagina, cervical canal between internal and external openings), round ligament attaches uterus to labia majora, uterosacral ligament connects cervix to pelvic wall - serous membrane/perimetrium: exterior epithelial tissue, myometrium: smooth muscle responsible for uterine contractions with muscle fibers in all directions, endometrium: contains lamina propria (CT lining), stratum baslais does not shed and is part of lamina propria, stratum functionalis contains glandular part of lamina propria and grows in response to hormones to either fertilize egg or shed during menstruation

identify the components of the layers of the pelvic floor

pelvic diaphragm - deepest layer - pubis to coccyx, contains levator ani muscle group, coccygeus - openings are anal canal and urethra + vagina in women urogenital diaphragm - deep transverse perineal muscle, external anal sphincter, external urethral sphincter superficial perineal layer - superficial transverse perineal muscle, bulbospongiosus, ischiocavernus

describe the peritoneum and mesenteries

peritoneum: a broad membranous sac surrounded by CT (simple squamous epithelium), parietal peritoneum lines wall of abdominopelvic cavity, visceral peritoneum lines organs in cavity, continuous with each other and form peritoneal cavity that surrounds organs, visceral peritoneum has folds with vessels and nerves to supply organs within contact - greater omentum: between body wall and anterior surface of small intestine - falciform ligament: anchors liver to anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm - lesser omentum: suspends stomach inferiorly from liver - mesentery proper: tissue band anchoring small intestine to lumbar vertebrae - mesocolon: anchors large intestine to posterior abdominal wall

explain the mechanics of breathing

pleural fluid in pleural cavity reduces friction during breathing and allows lungs to expand during inhalation, serous cavities (filled with serous fluid and within serous membrane) cushion and reduce friction as organs expand ability is dependent on pressure within lungs and in atmosphere, pressure is inversely related to volume, contraction and relaxation of diaphragm causes pressure changes within lungs, type 2 alveolar cell's pulmonary surfactant prevents collapse of alveoli, ability of the thoracic wall to expand affects size of lungs air flows from higher pressure to lower pressure environment, assisted by diaphragm and intercostal muscles active inspiration contracts diaphragm and intercostal muscles, passive exhalation uses no muscles, forced inspiration requires diaphragm and intercostals plus other muscles, forced exhalation uses internal intercostals and other muscles

identify and describe the great vessels carrying blood immediately to and from the heart and the major vessels of the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities

pulmonary trunk, left and right pulomanry arteries, pulmonary capillary beds, pulmonary veins aorta, ascending aorta, aortic arch (brachiocephalic trunk into right common carotid and right subclavian, left common carotid and left subclavian directly off arch) descending aorta (thoracic aorta, abdominal aorta wich branches into celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, renal arteries, gonadal arteries, inferior mesenteric artery), through diaphragm, common iliac arteries (at 4th lumbar vertebra), external and internal iliac arteries to pelvic region

describe the organ quadrant system and nine region system for dividing the abdominal cavity

quadrant (lines intersect at umbilicus/navel): right-upper quadrant, left-upper quadrant, right-lower quadrant, left-lower quadrant nine-region: right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac

list the blood vessels supplying the structures of the urinary system

renal artery, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries, cortical radiate arteries, afferent arterioles

describe the anatomy and function of the male accessory reproductive organs and external genitalia

seminal vesicles: produce fluid that mixes with sperm at ampulla of ductus deferens, about 60% of semen volume, includes fructose that mitochondria use to produce ATP needed to move throughout female, moves into ejaculatory duct before reaching prostate gland prostate gland: anterior to rectum at base of bladder, muscular and glandular tissue, milky fluid excreted to thicken semen to help it retain ATP, then decoagulates to help move further into female reproductive tract bulbourethral glands: release salty fluid to lubricate urethra and vagina and clean urine residue, releases at arousal and right before ejaculation, can pick up sperm left in the urethra penis: shaft is composed of three columnar chambers and surrounds urethra - lateral chambers: corpus cavernosum - corpus spongosium: around spongy urethra, raised ridge when erect - glans penis: many nerve endings to help with ejaculation - prepuce: foreskin with many nerve endings that lubricates glans penis

describe the pericardium, including its layers, and its functions

separates heart from other structures within mediastinum fibrous pericardium - outer layer of dense CT, protects heart and maintains its position serous pericardium - inner layer with parietal (fused to fibrous pericardium) and visceral (lines heart and forms part of epicardium) layers, continuous with each other and form flat serous fluid-filled sac to reduce friction as heart beats visceral layer is continuous with heart wall: epicardium, myocardium (thickest layer, cardiac myocytes, contraction pumps blood into arteries as they are arranged in figure 8 pattern), endocardium (lines chambers, covers valves, simple squamous epithelium continuous with lining of blood vessels)

describe the anatomy of the small intestines and large intestines

small intestine: - duodenum is shortest region, begins at duodenum and bends behind peritoneum, then curves around pancreas to reenter peritoneum and join jejunum, jejunum meets ileum (longest region), which joins cecum at ileocecal valve - segmentation occurs to combine chyme with digestive juices to be absorbed through mucosa layer, then peristalsis, completes carb and protein digestion from stomach, bile and pancreatic lipase start lipid digestion, aided by circular folds + villi + microvilli - lamina propria contains MALT to prevent absorption of bacteria into blood stream large intestine: - finishes absorption (mostly water) and forms and eliminates feces, frames small intestine - cecum is sac-like structure inferior to ileocecal valve and attaches to appendix (immunologic function due to lymphoid issue), ascending colon, right colic flexure, transverse colon, left colic flexure, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum (with rectal valves that prevent pooping and farting at same time), anal canal (with internal and external anal spincters)has straitified squamous epithelium and longitudinal folds called anal columns in mucosa layer and anal sinuses that secrete mucus and pectinate line marking start of external skin - teniae coli make up longitudinal muscle layer, haustra are pouches created by contraction of teniae coli, omental appendices are sacs of visceral peritoneum

compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

somatic - voluntary contraction of the skeletal muscles, includes corticospinal tract and lower motor neurons, which can only excite their effector (contractions of muscle), no synapses or ganglia, only one motor neuron that originates in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, these neurons are highly myelinated autonomic - involuntary action of cardiac and smooth muscle + glandular tissue, stimulation can excite or inhibit effector (muscle contraction or secretion, or prevention of these actions), two motor neurons that originate in lateral horn of spinal cord and synapse at ganglion (cllection of cell bodies), these neurons are unmyelinated or lightly myelinated

explain the function and anatomy of the male reproductive duct system and each component

sperm exit epididymis during ejaculation into ductus deferens (muscular tube inside scrotum that combines with vessels and nerves into spermatic cord) through contraction of smooth muscle,

describe the anatomy of the four pathways of the sympathetic division

spinal nerve - only pathway that uses gray rami communicantes, travels to skin (arrector pilli, sweat glands, blood vessels) postganglionic sympathetic - originate in T!-T5 levels of sympathetic chain, ascend into middle and inferior cervical ganglia to synapse and exit into plexuses (esophageal, cardiac, pulmonary) splanchnic nerve - originate at T5-L2 level of chain, go to splanchnic nerves (greater to celiac plexus, lesser to superior mesenteric plexus, least to inferior mesenteric plexus, sacral to hypogastric plexus after synapsing in chain ganglia) adrenal medulla - no ganglion, axons travel straight from spinal cord to adrenal medulla to release norepinephrine into bloodstream

explain the functions of the urinary systems

stores waste, protects tissues from damage, prevents infection, reproductive causes for males, filters blood, recovers water

list the components of the mediastinum

superior - thymus, great vessels, vagus and phrenic nerves, trachea, esophagus inferior anterior - loose CT, fat, lymphatic vessels, some vasculature inferior middle - heart, great vessel roots, pericardium inferior posterior - thoracic aorta, esophagus, veins, lymphatic structures, nerves

Divide the mediastinum into the sub-divisions.

superior and inferior mediastinum (anterior, middle, posterior)

identify and describe the location, origins, and branches of the coronary blood vessels

surface of the heart has sulci (fat-filled grooves) - deep coronary sulcus between atria and ventricles, anterior interventricular sulcus on anterior surface, posterior interventricular sulcus on posterior surface of heart aorta is origin of right and left coronary arteries left - distributes blood to left side of heart: circumflex artery supplies atrium and ventricles through coronary sulcus, anterior interventricular artery supplies interventricular septum and anterior portion of ventricles through anterior interventricular sulcus right - supplies right side of heart and heart conduction system: right marginal artery to superficial portion of right ventricle, posterior interventricular artery supplies interventricular septum and portions of ventricles great cardiac vein drains anterior aspect of ventricles and interventricular septum, middle cardiac vein drains other portion of ventricles and interventricular septum, small cardiac vein drains posterior aspects of right atrium and ventricle, coronary sinus drains into coronary sinus

describe the anatomy of the testes

surrounded by scrotum (muscular sack that keeps sperm below body temp - dartos muscle is subcutaneous muscle layer and continues into scrotal septum to divide scrotum into two parts - cremaster muscles extend from inferior oblique and cover testes like a net - contraction of these muscles moves scrotum into body to keep warmer - relaxation of these muscles keeps further from body to cool - raphae is raised medial thickening testis are male gonads, produce sperm and androgens, active throughout reproductive lifespan - serous layer is tunica vaginalis, inner CT layer is tunica abluginea that also invaginates to form septa in testis that divide them into lobules - seminiferous tubules within lobules develop sperm - testes descend during 7th month of fetal male development through abdominal musculature - seminiferous tubules compose most of testes, made up of developing sperm cells surrounding lumen through which they pass when fully developed - seminiferous tubules to straight tubules to rete testes to efferent ductules within tunica albuginea

describe the sympathetic chain and the rami connecting it to the spinal nerve

sympathetic chain runs alongside the vertebral column, majority of sympathetic ganglia are here, the superior+middle+inferior cervical ganglia extend above trunk originating off of the upper thoracic regions of the chain, chain also extends inferiorly originating in lower thoracic and lumbar region splanchnic nerves relay information to prevertebral ganglia (celiac, superior mesenteric, inferior mesenteric) that are anterior to the vertebral column and send it to abdominal cavity organs neuron cell body in lateral horn of the spinal cord and leaves through ventral root where it is passed onto spinal nerve to the white rami communicantes (contains myelinated preganglionic axons that are passed to sympathetic chain), fibers then either ascend/descend on chain, leave the chain, synapse, or go back to the spinal nerve via the gray rami communicantes (contains postganglionic myelinated axons that are passed to spinal nerves)

compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

sympathetic division - fight or flight response, also active when exercising or experiencing fear/rage, often called the thoracolumbar division parasympathetic division - rest and digest system, active in energy storing and conducting maintenance, travel to effectors via either cranial nerves or sacral region spinal cord, often called craniosacral division

describe the anatomy of the parasympathetic divisions

the cranial division preganglionic fibers send information via the cranial nerves from the brainstem vagus nerve carries information to thorax (through esophageal, cardiac, and pulmonary plexus) and abdomen (through celiac and superior mesenteric plexus) pelvic splanchnic nerves carry information from S2-S4 of spinal cord to alimentary organs (through inferior mesenteric and hypogastric plexus)

describe the structure and functions of the trachea, bronchi, and lungs

trachea - from larynx toward lungs, stacked hyaline cartilage c-shaped rings that are connected by CT, posteriorly is trachealis muscle which combines with elastic CT to form fibroelastic membrane that closes the posterior surface and allows stretching of the structured rings, trachealis muscle contraction forces air out during exhalation, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium continuous with larynx (anterior to esophagus) bronchi - right and left formed from trachea at carina (specialized nervous tissue that induces violent coughing), pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium have goblet cells (produce mucus that traps debris), primary bronchi enter lungs at hilium (also entry site for vessels and nerves), branches into secondary bronchi and tertiary bronchi, which branches into bronchioles (no cartilage, just muscular wall) then terminal bronchioles that lead to gas exchange lungs - sit on top of diaphragm and enclosed in pleura (attached to mediastinum), left is slightly shorter and wider because of cardiac notch, fissures separate lungs into lobes (right has superior, middle, and inferior, left only has superior and inferior), interlobar septum creates bronchopulmonary segments within lobes that are supplied separately by own artery and bronchus

describe the anatomy, location, and function of the ureters, urinary bladder, and male and female urethras

ureters - retroperitoneal and anchored between parietal peritoneum and abdominal wall by loose adventitial layer (collagen and fat), renal pelvis narrows to become ureter, propels urine through peristalsis, hug pelvis wall laterally, pierce bladder wall obliquely to prevent reflux from bladder, inner mucosa has transitional epithelium lined with goblet cells, muscular layer has longitudinal and circular layers that allow passage of urine without gravity bladder - anterior to rectum and uterus, posterior to pubic bone, prostate is inferior, partially retroperitoneal as peritoneal dome extends into abdomen when full, detrusor muscle forceful in children but weakens with age urethra - inferior and central to trigone (triangular. shaped area at base of bladder), posterior and inferior to pubic symphysis, autonomic internal urinary sphincter and skeletal muscle external urinary sphincter - female: superior to vaginal opening and medial to labia minora, external urethral sphincter controlled voluntarily by pudendal nerve from S2-S4 of sacral plexus - male: prostate gland to pubic symphysis, prostatic + membranous + spongy urethra regions, bulbourethral glands secrete mucus into urethra during sex to netralize acidic environment, mucous glands along most of urethra

explain the anatomy of the vagina and external female genitalia

vagina is muscular canal and entrance to reproductive tract, exit from uterus, outer walls of anterior and posterior vagina made of longitudinal columns, superior portion is fornix that meets with cervix, walls lined with fibrous adventitia + smooth muscle layer + mucous membrane with rugae, inner 2 allow expansion of vagina during sex and birth, greater and lesser vestibular glands secrete mucus to keep area moist, lactobacillus is predominant bacteria in healthy vagina to protect from harmful bacteria by maintaining acidic environment, lactic acid cleans vagina

explain referred pain

when strong visceral sensations become conscious and are presented in unexpected places, based on idea that visceral sensory fibers enter spinal cord at same level of whatever area the pain was felt in

explain the internal and external anatomy of the heart

within thoracic cavity between lungs and mediastinum, veins+venae cavae+arteries+aorta+pulmonary trunk exit through base (superior surface), apex is to the right of sternum