ANT3141 Test 2

Prime Movers

. Hydraulic Society Hypothesis Karl Wittfogel (ca. 1957) "Oriental Despotism" Wittfogel was a cultural anthropologist who studied Chinese society Wittfogel observed that the great oriental societies followed a radically different path to the formation of the state than seen in Western Europe Elaborate and extensive irrigation systems required the organization, coordination, and control of large numbers of people Initially irrigation systems developed locally; through time, centralization of local authority regarding labor and access was required Coercion was possible through the denial of water to anyone resisting authority Through time, local control passed to an increasingly centralized ruling class Creation of "Great Families" Creation of a feudal system with power and authority vested in an elite that would come to have divine rights

Pizarro in the Inca Empire

1530 - departure for Peru from Panamá Aided by Hernando de Soto in his struggle against fierce native resistance When he marched against the Inca, he had only 106 foot soldiers and 62 horsemen. Atahualpa did not consider him much of a threat Pizarro seemed to Atahualpa an insignificant intruder and he refused to be Pizarro's tributary Efforts to meet with the Inca ruler were unsuccessful - dismissive and complacent Pizarro defeated Atahualpa at the Battle of Cajamarca in 1533 Executed Atahualpa's 12-man honor guard and took him prisoner A huge ransom was asked and raised for Atahualpa but the Spaniards were unwilling to let him go Atahualpa was convicted of killing his brother, plotting against Pizarro, and executed In 1533, Pizarro took Cuzco with indigenous forces and sealed the conquest of Peru

St. Augustine

1565 Pedro Menéndez de Avilés Removal of the French colony Established St. Augustine Intended that the capital of Spanish Florida (La Florida) would be at Santa Elena (present-day Beaufort, South Carolina)

The Maya 2

1841 expedition by John Lloyd Stephens to Yucatan First to describe ruins of Maya civilization Illustrations of Frederick Catherwood were first glimpses of this lost civilization

Mexican Bee-Cochineal dye

A carmine (brilliant red) dye is made from the bodies of these insects Their preferred habitat is cactus (Opuntia sp.)

Virginia: Charnel House

A charnel house is a structure within which the dead are housed The bodies decompose and the bones are gathered for further treatment They are tended by people whose job is to protect and clean bones.

Land Bridge

A land bridge formed between asia and north america. Most of southeast asia was transformed into a large low lying peninsula.

Ozette Washington Coast

A mudslide buried four structures and their sleeping residents The temperate climate and mud over-burden preserved many perishable materials: wood, netting, textiles, basketry The site was excavated in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This site is considered to be an ancestral Makah site Artifacts from this site can be viewed in the Makah tribal museum on their reservation at Neah Bay, Washington The people practiced a broad-spectrum subsistence strategy with emphasis on marine resources

Floatation

A simple floatation device: soil is placed in the top of the drum in a mesh bottomed bucket, water enters from below and froths the soil sepearating small inclusions. The plant remains are recovered in the smaller bucket.

Except Antarctica

Anatomically modern humans were present in all continents except Antarctica. When the climatic constraints of the ice age were relaxed, human populations increased in numbers and spread.

Animal and plant domesticates

Animals: llama, alpaca, vicuña, guinea pig, muscovy duck Important cultigens include: quinoa (starchy seeds), beans, squashes, bottle gourd, tomato, potato (various varieties and sweet potato), manioc (starchy root plant), avocado, guava, cotton, chili peppers, coca, and tobacco

Shell Rings and human remains

Annular accumulations of debris - in essence doughnut-shaped middens with plant and animal food remains, broken pottery, stone refuse, and occasional human remains that are not part of articulated burials Based on recent remote sensing technology, they appear to be intentional constructions, but their function is not clear When human remains are recovered from midden sites, there is a tendency to ask whether these may result from cannibalism The reasonableness of an interpretation of cannibalism is unclear

Is this a reasonable way to think about the rise of the state?

Are "prime movers," or single-cause theories reasonable? Most "prime mover" theories of state formation are inadequate because they envision a single linear development initiated by a single force

MayaGlyphs

Are found on stelae, or large stones On temple stairways On pottery In mural paintings

Warming

Around 18,000 years ago the earth began to warm, but the warming was not constant. For example about 13,000 years ago, during the period called Bolling/Allerod, deglaciation dramatically reversed in europe. Glacial conditions returned for a millennium during a phase called the Younger Dryas.

Continuation of Warming

Around 9600 BC, warmer conditions were established fairly suddenly, Temperatures rose about 12.6 degrees in only 50 years, this change marks the the real beginning of the Holocene/recent Epoch.

Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la luna

At Huaca del Sol activities produced domestic refuse At Huaca de la Luna activities assumed to have more ritual importance because the uppermost structures were decorated with painted murals and swept clean The intervening plaza area contained burials

Changes in Animal resources

At the end of the pleistocene, once abundant megafauna declined in numbers and ultimately became extinct. The animals that we see in Europe- elk, aurochs, red deer- became dominant mammalian resources for european societies.

Humane Responses to Changes

At the height of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) around 21,000 to 18,000 years ago, earth was considerably different: Land temperatures were lower by 36 degrees, tropical water temperatures were lower by 9 degrees. Northern Europe and Northern North America were blanketed by ice sheets up to 2.5 m thick. Worlds climate was marked by aridity. Sea levels fell to 100 m (328f) below current height.

Hunters and Gatherers Holocene

At the outset of the Holocene, Hunting and gathering (foraging) was the dominant life way, megafauna- once dominant in the landscape-would begin to decline and then vanish entirely in many areas. Greater organizational abilities linked to language, symbolism and art.

Codex Mendoza

Aztec tribute list Codices or books that remain provide some ideas about Aztec tribute and goods The Codex Mendoza was written in Nahuatl and Spanish

Poverty Point Objects

Baked clay objects of various shapes Assumed to be used for cooking "Stone boiling"

Beginning of the Holocene

Began over 11, 700 years ago, Temperatures rose to their current levels, vegetation spread across the northern latitudes. Sea levels approached their current height.

The Rise of the Inca

Between 1462 and 1470, the Chimú were in increasing competition and conflict with the Inca empire Their conflicts are ended by absorption of the Chimú empire into the Inca empire Chimú material culture continued to be spread by Inca trading networks The Inca empire (Tawantinsuyu) was ruled by a divine descendant of the sun god Inti The Inca rose to power through warfare and divine vision The Chanca seige of Cuzco sparked the rise of the Inca empire in A.D. 1440

Expeditions to Mexico

Between 1517-1518, two expeditions were sent In 1518, Cortés was placed in charge of the next expedition but his behavior made the governor change his mind at the last minute Cortés ignored the governor; open mutiny Landed first in Yucatan

Paracas Mummification

Body placed in a flexed, seated position and bound with cords Wrapped in textiles and seated upright in a large, shallow basket containing garments and other offerings Then wrapped in many layers of plain cotton cloth to create the final mummy bundle Grave goods include exquisite fabrics in brilliant colors, intricately embroidered clothing, and gold facial ornaments depicting mythical creatures; preference for polychrome ornamentation on ceramics

Ain Mallaha Puppy Burial

Burial is of an elderly person The puppy is buried beneath the left hand Burial is dated to 9600 BC Puppy is either a dog or wolf

Teotihuacan

By first century A.D., Teotihuacan had become the major settlement in the Valley of Mexico Covered 20 square kilometers (7.5 square miles) Strategic location relative to water control may have been a factor in its rise to prominence By the time of the Spanish conquest, the city had been abandoned for hundreds of years Temple complexes of Teotihuacán The site dates to the first century AD It was the primary settlement in the Valley of Mexico It was fully urban with extensive trade networks

Calendric systems

By its linear nature, the Long Count could be used to refer to any date, past and future The lunar cycle and the 584-day cycle of the planet Venus were critical in the calendric systems The Long Count was inherited from earlier Mesoamerican cultures Many events in the cycle of Venus, its risings as the morning and evening star, provided astrological indications of auspicious and inauspicious days

Nazca Lines

Called "geoglyphs" Located in southern Peru between Nazca and Ingenio river valleys Dug into desert surface exposing a light underlying soil Mostly geometric figures - best known are animal forms: birds, lizards, fish, insects, monkey, several plants and human-like figures

The Franciscans

Came to Florida around 1572 Established missions to the Timucua and Guales (of the Georgia coast) in the 1590s Five Franciscans murdered in 1595 in Guale ("Georgia Martyrs") Mission "chain" established Missions in the Tallahassee area after 1633

Tenochtitlan

Capital of the Aztec empire at the time of the European Contact Aztecs became dominant in the Valley of Mexico around A.D. 1440 Tenochtitlán founded around A.D. 1325 The city fell to the Spaniards led by Hernan Cortes in 1521 Invading Spaniards likened the city to Venice Cortes' map of the Aztec capital Published in Nuremberg in 1524 Tenochtitlán rivaled any European city of the time

Sipan and the Presentation Theme

Captive warriors have their throats cut, their blood collected in ritual chalices Priests and a priestess present chalices to a paramount figure ("warrior priest"?), who consumes the contents Paramount accompanied by a small spotted dog

The Chavin Art Style

Castillo ornamented with stone carvings using feline, raptors, and supernatural beings Also tenoned heads of humans, birds, and canines Inspiration for art style thought to originate in Amazon tropics since it features major predators of that region: jaguars, harpy eagles, and caymans Chavín "style" spread over much of northern and central Peru between 400 and 200 BC Era also marked by spread of innovative techniques in many technologies: tapestry-making, soldering, repoussé, and alloying gold with copper or silver Rich grave goods point to elites who probably ruled in the name of the gods

Plan of El Mirador

Central core of El Mirador Bodies of water are bajos which are clay-lined depressions that hold water for several months of the year

Promotion and Segregation

Centralization and segregation are the result of two mechanisms: promotion and linearization Promotion: when an institution in the control hierarchy rises to a higher level of authority: e.g., informal tribal headman becomes chief in a priest/manager role which ultimately results in kingship Here, new institutions are generated Linearization: occurs when lower-order institutions are by-passed or eliminated by higher-order controls e.g., state-level managers take over a local irrigation project Linearization contributes to a more centralized organization

The Invention of Ceramics

Ceramics or pottery are terms used interchangeably by archaeologists The first pottery is fiber-tempered pottery and found in the American Southeast around 4000 BC. Currently the oldest radiocarbon dates on fiber-tempered pottery come from a site near Jacksonville, Florida

Morphological Changes (domestication)

Changes in the skull, facial portion of the skull tends to be shortened relative to the cranial portion. Teeth: become smaller than wild relatives; may decrease in number (premolars/third molars) Post cranial skeleton: weaker muscle ridges in domesticated cattle. Early types of domesticated animals are smaller than their wild counter parts.

Coastal Cultural Chronology

Chinchorro Culture 6000 BC, Central Peruvian coast Sedentary fishermen Mummification provides clues to level of social complexity Moseley sees in the Chinchorro practice of mummification the beginnings of social complexity The majority of mummified individuals are newborns and children who, it is thought, inherited status from their parents Some mummies were interred as family groups also suggesting inheritance of status Mound or platform construction is another hallmark of social complexity -- public works At Aspero, coastal people were erecting platforms around 3055 BC, centuries before inland groups

Major Tribes in FLORIDA 1492

Choctaw, Miccosukee, Cree, Apalachee, Timucua, Ais, Calusa, Jeaga, Tequesta

Coasts and Islands in the Holocene

Coasts experienced substantial change as sea levels rose, in Europe, melting of ice sheets, created isostatic uplift

Spanish Nobility in New Spain

Coat of arms granted to Cortés by Charles V Cortés was named Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca Cortés conferred land (with Indians) on his followers - at odds with the Crown

Conditions of the Development of the State

Conditions: Domestication was a critical change in subsistence for humans and the cultural rearrangements necessary for domestication of plants and animals gave rise to greater social complexity Societal ranking, greater settlement organization, long-distance trade, and social distance between primary producers and an enobled or elite stratum of society developed

Architecture

Corbeled vaults Limestone used extensively in construction Terraforming and substantial remodeling of landscape is seen

Spanish Reconquista Ends-1492

Cristoforo Colon: First Voyage of Discovery - 1492 Established first European settlement at La Navidad on Hispaniola (abandoned) as part of second voyage Supported by Isabela I

Inca Accomplishments

Cusi Inca Yupanqui "Pachakuti" conducted successful wars against neighboring groups, initiating the coalescence of an empire stretching over 4200 km from north to south Established Cuzco as his imperial capital Built the Temple of the Sun at Cuzco Created a network across an empire that stretched 2600 mi from North to South Controlled trade and commerce

Ain Mallaha, Israel

Dates to 11,000 to 9,000 BC a period known as Natufian in the Near East Site overlooks swamplands in upper Jordan Valley Permanent settlement of large substantial houses (facing water) with interior stone-line hearths

MesoAmerican Hieroglyphs

Decipherment of Maya hieroglyphs has been significant in developing a literature of the ancient Maya Proskouriakoff, an architect, noticed similarities while drawing site plans

Human Sacrifice

Depiction of Aztec ritual sacrifice from a sixteenth-century codex At one time, an archaeologist proposed that human protein was critical to the maintenance of the Aztec state This is not the current idea about ritual sacrifice Other Mesoamerican societies had practiced human sacrifice The scale of Aztec human sacrifice was apparently greater than any other Blood sacrifice was necessary to secure the continuance of the world

Nazca Culture

Developed on the south coast of Peru around 200 BC Paracas culture seems to have been the stimulus Nazca ceramic art is known for polychrome vessels, much from looted sites

Ohalo II, Israel

Discovered in 1989 when the Sea of Galilee fell to a low level; usually submerged under more than 2 m of water for most of the year Site represents a tight cluster of several huts of wood and brush, several hearths, a refuse midden, and a single burial Ofer Bar-Josef principal investigator Huts had been burned and collapsed sealing the material on the floor Tens of thousands of seeds have been recovered from this waterlogged site: acorns, emmer wheat, barley, a variety of legumes, and many other plants Food collected from a variety of habitats at varying altitudes from valley bottom to more than 1000 m above sea level Dates to 18,000 BC - Kebaran culture GOOD PRESERVATION

Mesoamerican Dogs

Dog meat made up much of the meat diet of Mesoamericans Dogs were fed plants foods, maize and avocado have been reported A hairless, medium-sized dog was bred for food Xolo- Hairless dogs for food

AD 650-1000

Dominant culture groups are Wari which governed almost all of highland and coastal Peru from its capital at Ayacucho And Tiwanaku ruling in southern Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile from its metropolis located on the plains of Lake Titicaca

Wari, Peruvian Highlands

Dominated the northern highlands and coastal area Archaeologists' findings suggest it is a militaristic polity with a shorter span of dominance than Tiwanaku Art and iconography similar to Tiwanaku featuring jaguars and raptors Relationship between the two cultures is unclear

El Mirador

El Mirador was mapped in the late 1960s by Ian Graham Its remoteness makes it a difficult site to study In the 1980s, Ray Matheny (BYU) also conducted investigations at the site The site is extensive and complex

The Apalachee Missions

Established in the Tallahassee area between 1633 and 1634 Apalachees were matrilineal sedentary agriculturalists Apalachee Revolt in 1647 Repartimiento - required that Apalachee males leave home to work in St. Augustine or other far flung places; tribute in maize and other goods Families and women left to maintain home - physical anthropology shows increased skeletal stress and increased mortality from epidemics

Evidence at Ohalo II

Evidence at Ohalo II of broad spectrum plant and animal exploitation Stone grinding implements Suggests a tendency toward sedentism at a time when other sites indicate repeated, short occupations by hunting and gathering bands

Mesolithic Sites: Vedbaek, Denmark

Excavated by University of Copenhagen, Erik Petersen, principle investigator, 1975. Shows a shift from the interior to the coastlines, subsistence base features marine species- both vertebrate and invertebrates as well as taking advantage of all local environments (broad-spectrum). Brackish inlet with excellent post-depositional preservation.

Mesolithic Sites: Elands Bay, South Africa

Excavated by the University of Capetown, John Parkington, Principal Investigator: Coastal location, cave site. Research question: did the people who used this site live there year round or did they practice an annual round of movement within different environments.

Marajo Island

Excavations by Betty Meggars and Clifford Evans of the Smithsonian Institution in the late 1950s for many years served to represent the Amazon as a "false paradise" Fundamentally, they saw the area as incapable of supporting dense populations and therefore not an area where complex cultures developed

Extensive Agriculture

Extensive agriculture is practiced where soil or climatic conditions lead to depletion of soils under agricultural conditions Fallowing time will vary dependent on the soil regime of the area and the climatic conditions that occur It also may include fish farming where conditions permit

Quetzalcoatl

Feathered serpent iconography was a major feature of Aztec religion Quetzalcoatl was worshipped by many Mesoamerican societies as the god of civilization and learning

Conquest of Mexico

First battle won against natives of Tabasco Cortez received 20 young indigenous women as a gift; among them La Malinche who knew both Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs) and Maya In July of 1519, Cortes and his company of 600 men took over Vera Cruz and dismissed the authority of the governor of Cuba; placed himself directly under the authority of Charles V

European Contact in the New World

First contact is in the Caribbean Contact takes the form of entradas, expeditions of armed and mounted men The number of "camp followers" is often undocumented Horses and fighting dogs accompanied these groups

Woodland Period (100 BC AD900)

First cultural phenomenon involving a regional spread - Hopewell culture of the Midwest Trade networks Copper tablets, ceramics, iconography seen in sites away from central area Maize (corn) introduced during this time in Midwest

Muscovy Duck

First domesticated in Central America

Fishing Implements

Fishing implements included cotton nets Spears and harpoons Hooks and gorges made from bone and shell also have been recovered

Poverty Point Microliths

Flint flake tools thought to be drills or perforators "Jaketown perforators" one of the most common artifacts recovered at Poverty Point

Inca Road Networks

Foot traffic and llama caravans Roads and bridges linked the far-flung parts of the empire Tampus, served as nodes in the network Storehouses and religious shrines

The French in Florida

Fort Caroline (Jacksonville) 1562 End of the French colonial effort occurred in 1565 with the destruction of Fort Caroline, the loss of the French fleet in a hurricane, and the subsequent massacres at Matanzas These massacres gave impetus to the so-called "Black Legend"

The Conquest of the Inca Empire

Francisco Pizarro Ca. 1471-1541 Came to the New World in 1502 with the governor of Hispanola, Nicolas de Ovando Before PERU: Pizarro accompanied Vasquez Nuňez de Balboa in crossing the Isthmus of Panamá and was present when the Pacific coast was first identified in 1513 He became a close associate of Pedro Arias de Avila (Pedrarias Davila) who succeeded Balboa as governor of Panamá Arrested Balboa on Pedrarias' orders

Conquest State

From a site in the Monte Albán locality, Cuicatlan Cañada, there are indications of Monte Albán's conquest nature Cuicatlan Cañada was apparently sacked and a rack, or tzompantli, with 61 skulls was erected Tzompantli are associated with military conquest during the later Aztec times

Sahara during the Holocene

From the 9th millennium to the 3rd millennium BC, the south and central Sahara was settled by pottery- using hunters and fishers, Faunal evidence indicates the presence of domesticated cattle in the central sahara by the 5th millennium BC.

Geogylphs

Geoglyph of a long-beaked hummingbird Cannot be seen from the ground level because of its size Each geoglyph was probably created separately, used for a time, and then forgotten

The Olmecs

Gulf Coastal Plain location in the Mexican states of Tabasco and Veracruz Initial evidence of this civilization was the "colossal heads" made from basalt Artificial mounds and other artifacts were located in this area Sites show a controlled settlement layout and have a number of elements (mounds, pavements, structures) Recently, hieroglyphic writing has been recovered Olmec civilization is Mesoamerica's first major civilization Both La Venta and San Lorenzo were ceremonial centers Most of our information about this civilization comes from excavations in ceremonial centers Kent V.Flannery and William Sanders suggest that they were chiefly centers occupied by elites with permanent leadership positions and lower status people, but they do not think they represent urbanism or state government

Cortes before Mexico

He participated in the expedition to conquer Cuba Diego Velásquez, the governor, was impressed; became secretary to Velásquez Established himself as a man of means but came into conflict with governor After 15 years, mayor of Havana

Mississippi Period (AD 900-1492+)

Hierarchically ranked societies Ascribed status Maize agriculture, sedentary life Long-distance trade networks Shared iconography Truncated pyramidal mounds for burial and for the placement of structures

Eastern North America Chronology

Historic - colonial settlement to present Protohistoric - 1492- settlement European Contact - 1492+ Mississippi - AD 900 to 1492+ Woodland - 1000 BC to AD 900 Archaic - 8000 to 1000 BC Paleoindian -- ? To 8000 BC

Modern Humans

Homo Sapiens (modern humans) arose in africa and made their way north, they are present in Europe by at least 30,000 years ago

Horn Cores (Morph changes domestication)

Horn Cores: Tend to decrease in size. Cross section of the horn base show the difference between goats then and now.

Olmec Iconography

Iconography of Olmec culture features jaguars Seen here is a jade carving of a human with "werejaguar" features Often an infantile appearance

Evidence of Domestication in Plants

Identification is based on the correlation between the morphology of ancient grains and seeds and their modern counter parts, preservation conditions can distort specimens, a modern comparative collection of seeds, nuts and plant parts is necessary for this research

Olmec Cultural Icon

In 1860, the discovery of a large stone head was the first notice of Olmec culture Matthew Stirling of the Smithsonian Institution dated these heads to 31 BC Termed "Colossal Heads"

Asia during the Holocene

In Asia, Sundaland lost half of its land mass, Asia and North America were now seperated (Water Rise) and by 5000 BC the continents that we recognize today were shaped.

Animal Domesticates

In Mesoamerica, there are five primary animal domesticates: Turkey Muscovy duck Dog Bee Cochineal beetle

Acculturation

In contact situations, inequality is a factor in how groups are treated Spanish military tactics and strategy were quite different from indigenous warfare as were their weapons Acculturation is the result of culture contact and generally affects both groups although it may be unequal

Slash and burn Agriculture

In many parts of Mesoamerica, slash and burn agriculture (called "swidden" agriculture in Europe) is practiced This kind of agriculture may quickly diminish soil fertility in areas where the soil is not deep - e.g., Yucatan peninsula

Raised Field Agriculture

In some cases, water was brought to fields by systems of canals that separated the fields In other cases, fields called chinampas were created along lake and river margins and effectively increased agricultural production In addition to bringing water to artificially created fields or ridges, other crops were possible Various kinds of fish, turtles, alligators and birds lived or were drawn to the irrigation canals CHINAMPAS-RAISED Field

The End of Dayz

Inca empire destroyed by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro aided by a smallpox epidemic and native allies Spaniards witnessed lavish construction for the kuraka (Inca elite) with amazing appointments of precious metals and gems Temple of the Sun in Cuzco particularly heavily ornamented with gold testified to the treasures to be won in this region

Natural Mummification

Individuals have faces painted with red ocher and black manganese; may be wrapped in mats or animal skins Late examples are wrapped in elaborate woven woolen and cotton textiles The body was buried and the hot, dry sand accomplished the mummification

Ciudadelas

Interpretation: compounds in which the Chimú kings lived and from which they ruled At the death of the king, the compound became his mausoleum

Intensive Agriculture

Is more and more a product of the industrialized world Requires less land and may involve little soil Is highly mechanized Requires chemical or natural fertilizers Requires fewer primary producers

Contacts between North and south america

James A. Ford proposed (1969) that there was evidence of intentional contact between the northern coast of South America and the Southeastern U. S. around 4,000 BC Evidence included fiber-tempered ceramics and shell ring settlements in coastal Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina This pottery is the earliest type of ceramic recovered in Southeastern sites The pottery is hand molded and contains fibers - possibly decorticated Spanish moss or other fibers The radiocarbon dates on the South American coast predate those in the Southeast by several centuries

El Paraiso, Peru

Jeffrey Quilter -- most recent excavator Early preceramic site Monumental stonework with clay mortar and faced with painted mud plaster Dated 1800 to 1500 BC Subsistence base is unclear - various plants have been recovered there: starchy tropical tubers, cultivated common and lima beans, domesticated chili peppers, and domesticated gourds and squashes

The Jesuit Mission

Jesuits came to Florida in 1565 with Menéndez They were first established at small forts along the east coast and Gulf coast They also worked along the north Florida and Georgia coast, but had little success Five Jesuits were killed in the Chesapeake Bay area - Jesuits withdrew

Mesolithic Sites: Sannai Maruyama, Japan

Jomon Culture: 10,000 to 300 BC, site is located inland along a river at about 20 m elevation and covers 60,000 sq m. The site has architectural remains, features, and numerous artifacts. Pit dwellings-two types: Semi-Subterranean, circular, 3-4 m diameter thought to be family residences, a few large pit houses (up to 32m) possibly functioning as public space.

Atahualpa

Just before Pizarro's arrival, the empire had been embroiled in a power struggle between two brothers, Husacar and Atahualpa Atauhualpa had defeated his brother Huascar and had established himself at Cajamarca At the time of the European invasion of Peru, Atauhualpa was Inca (son of the deity Inti)

Sipan (ca AD 50-400)

Located about 200 km north of the Moche site in the Lambayeque Valley Area is well-watered and suitable for intensive agriculture Area known in modern times for the richness of tombs and the tradition of looting Walter Alva, Archaeologist - principal investigator of recent excavations In 1986, extremely rich tombs identified Three tombs were excavated; each contained an individual that was sumptuously dressed with precious metals Costume elements enabled excavators to identify them as participants in the Sacrifice Ceremony

Chavín de Huántar, Ecuador

Located high in northern sierra Excavated by Wendell Bennett and Julio Tello John H. Rowe has written extensively on the artistic style of Chavín culture Main complex of masonry buildings is called the "Castillo" Environmental setting well suited to mixed subsistence strategy that combined camelid herding and the cultivation of high altitude tubers (oca - potato) and native grains such as quinoa. Well-suited to irrigation from glacial lakes and natural grasslands for pasturage Ideally suited to control trade between coast and Amazonia The Castillo is comprised of two conjoined U-shaped platform mounds Two structures, the Old and New Temples are built upon these and surround a sunken courtyard Platforms are not solid, but have numerous long, narrow galleries roofed by great slabs of stone Site was built ca. 400 BC and abandoned ca. 200 BC

Maccu Pichu

Located in the Andes Discovered by Hiram Bingham in 1911 Royal retreat - dry season occupation Spectacular architecture and terraforming of the valley in which it was constructed

Tiwanaku, Bolivia

Located in the altiplano Mixed agrarian subsistence base Site begins around 800 BC and was occupied for the next 600 to 800 years Urban; population estimated at 25,000 to 40,000 people Dominated Lake Titicaca Region Capital of large empire Contained largest platform mound in the Andes Employed llama caravans to move goods

Paracas Culture, Peru

Located on south-central coast Necropolis for elites Subterranean vaults in the form of large, bell-shaped pits; also rectangular masonry crypts Use spanned generations -- some crypts contained up to 40 mummy bundles presumed to be family members -- ossuary

Canyon de Chellys

Located on the Navajo reservation, many modern Navajo live and farm in the valley depending on the river for water Tours must be arranged with Navajo guides

The Florida Colony

Located on the east coast to protect Spanish shipping through the Bahama Channel Supported by an unpredictable subsidy from Mexico Its distance from Spain made communications and support intermittent Its population always included more Spanish males than females making recruitment of indigenous women a factor in the social dynamics of the settlement

Medicine Wheel, Wyoming

Looks like a wagon wheel.

Classifications of Archaeological Plant Remains

Macrobotanicals- pieces of wood, large husks, leaves, rinds, large seeds, or nutshells. Microbotanicals- small seeds, phytoliths, and pollen. Floatation is a means to recover very small materials. Watterlogged materials need special handling in the lab.

Maize

Maizes wild ancestor: teosinte Two rows of grain Teosinte: Zea Mexicana: This ear is approximately 4 cm in length For comparison (ITS TINEY), a cob of teosinte is placed upon a modern cob of Hopi blue corn Hopi blue corn is Zea mays

Maya Archaeology

Many archaeologists have worked at Chichen Itza and in surrounding Maya sites Often the structures became the living and work spaces for the archaeologists

North American Archaeological Sites (Road Trip)

Many of the premier archaeological sites in North America are the center pieces of national parks and monuments Most can be visited year round These sites represent different time periods and cultures Some are located within reservations and specific arrangements must be made to visit them Some are World Heritage Sites

Investigations at Teotihuacan

Mapping - Rene Millon - estimated that the site was 20 square kilometers at its height William Sanders and Barbara Price of Penn State University conducted excavations during the 1960s and 1970s After the fall of Teotihuacán, various groups held power for a time

Origins of the Mayas

Maya civilization flourished in the tropical forests of the Petén in northern Guatemala between AD 250 and 900 El Mirador, an inaccessible site in the Petén, indicates a large and structurally complex site earlier -- between 300 BC and AD 250 suggesting considerable cultural development at an early time

Maya Number System

Maya numbers are expressed by three symbols Stylized shell for zero A dot for one A bar for 5 Instead of a decimal or base ten system, the Maya system is base twenty

Archaic Period (8000-1000BC)

Megafauna become extinct at the end of the Pleistocene. Archaic hunter/gatherers on the North American continent adapted their lifeways to the plants and animals currently in existence Projectile points feature stems and side-notching; more typical of the "arrowhead" form Preceramic -The earliest centuries of this period have no ceramics; just stone tools and where preservation is good, bone, wood, and textile artifacts are recovered

Pleistocene, Holocene, Mesolithic SUMMARY

Megafaunal extinctions at the end of the Pleistocene meant that human populations must find other animal resources to exploit The Mesolithic period is the time between the end of the Pleistocene and the achievement of agriculture Archaeological sites of the Mesolithic show increased sophistication in social organization (mortuary and settlement evidence) and technological innovation

Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica is the area in which several "high civilizations" have been identified, the best known are Aztec or Mexica- Major power in the Valley of Mexico at the time of European Contact The Maya- Already in decline at the contact The olmec- among one of the earliest civilizations in the area.

MesoAmerica

Mesoamerica is the term used to refer to the majority of central america. The northern most areas of mexico are no included. The southern most parts of Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and all of Panama also are not included- these constitute a "transitional" area (with south american cultures)

After 8,000 BC

Mesolithic Period in Europe and Parts of Asia dates from the end of the pleistocene to the beginnings of agriculture. In the Americas, the end of the paleoindian period and the beginning of the archaic period marks this change.

Mesolithic Sites: Mortuary Evidence at Vedbaek

Mesolithic graveyard, radiocarbon dated back to about 4800 BC, Population-22 individuals, fully extended, powdered red ochre, reindeer antler, males buried with flint knives, females with jewelry. Swan Burial: Evidence of conflict at Vedbaek Multiple burials Projectile points of bone located in suggestive areas of body Differential treatment of the dead may indicate social ranking The "Swan Burial" child was buried with a flint knife, a male marker Status in a society may be ascribed or achieved

The European Conquest

Mexica or Aztecs were the dominant group in the Valley of Mexico Highly organized, militant group Aztec religion combined various Mesoamerican practices Aztec religion was highly focused on maintaining the balance in nature and assuring that in the battle between light and darkness the sun would win; this required substantial numbers of human sacrifices

Moche Pottery

Moche portrait head vessels usually portray elite individuals who were warriors This type of vessel is called a "stirrup jar" and is common in Moche ceramic art

Significance of Mummification

More than 1,500 mummies known; fewer than 250 were elaborate Archaeologists believe that status can be indicated by mortuary treatment Four varieties of mummies: natural, black, red, and mud coated

Windover Site, Florida (Late Early Archaic to Middle Archaic)

Mortuary pond near Titusville 169 individuals of all ages recovered Burials wrapped in textiles Burial goods few No residential site has been identified People affiliated with the site are thought to be nomadic hunter/gatherers moving within the St. Johns River system

AGRICULTURE 1

Most important among new human endeavors will be articulture. Developed independently in at least 7 areas of the world during the early holocene, great yields available through food production meant the steady decline of hunting and gathering lifeways.

PALYNOLOGY CONT

Most plants produce pollen, pollen is preserved in the soil: soil samples. Microscopic examination is necessary. Pollen analysis can identify particular plants in an archaeological context and also provide information for environmental reconstruction.

Mummification and the Andean Cultures

Mummification continues to be an important treatment of the dead, in arid environments Textiles, made of cotton and the hair of various members of the New World camelid family (vicuña, guanaco, alpaca, and llama) become very important in developing cultures and used in mummification In addition to the coastal areas, the heights of the Andes is also a place where mummies were ritually deposited Many of these mummies are children

Other mission systems

New Mexico Arizona Baja California Alta California Texas Louisiana All of these mission systems postdate Florida

Evolution of the State

Now we turn to consider why and how the state evolved There are two general categories of thought that we might call "prime movers" and "multiple cause theories"

Theories about the Origin of Domestication

Oasis Theory- V. Gordon Childe Hilly Flanks Theory-Robert Braidwood Nuclear Zone Theory-Kent V. Flannery Demographic Pressure Theory-Lewis R. Binford Food Crisis-Mark N. Cohen Population Control-Malthus and Boserup Co-evolutionary theory-David Rindos Social Theory-Brian Hayden, Barbara Bender

CASE STUDIES

Ohalo II, Israel- pre-domestication- dated to 18,000 BC- KEBARAN CULTURE Ain Mallaha, Israel- 11,000 to 9,000 BC- Natufian Culture Abu Hureya, Syria- 11,000 to ca 6,000BC-- Natufian Culture

MesoAmerican Writing

Olmec hieroglyphic writing was once thought to be the earliest form of writing in Mesoamerica, but recent work suggests that the Maya may have been the first Maya hieroglyphs contained both number glyphs and text Maya archaeologists had deciphered the numbers by the 1950s and had a grasp of the way the Maya kept time

Pulltrouser Swamp, Belize

On the ground, raised field features may be difficult to appreciate In this photo, the photographer is standing on one field looking across a canal to another field

Amazonian Prehistory

Once thought to be a cultural backwater, Michael Heckenberger of the University of Florida, is changing attitudes His Xingu Project is developing the prehistory of an interior Amazonian region

Effects of Holocene

Open Tundra shrank in expanse, Evidence of these changes come from pollen recovered in soil cores from lakes and bogs-- Palynology

Summary 10-14

Paleoindians: first New World settlers; associated with megafauna, but probably had a broad-spectrum subsistence base Archaic: adapted to post-Pleistocene flora and fauna; broad-spectrum; nomadic but some sedentism; ceramics appear in last millennia Woodland: increasing social complexity, sites with enclosures and mounds; first maize Mississippi Indians: hierarchical societies, long distance trade, social complexity, mounds and mortuary iconography, sedentary agriculture

Parkington's Evidence for Sedentism

Parkington investigated two sites: Elands bay on the coast and de hangen inland. A general pattern of winter residence on the coast and summer residence in the mountains is suggested based on the seasonal availability of animals and plants, bone chemistry does NOT support this interpretation.

Research Area: Elands Bay, South Africa

Parkington's research area stretched from the coast inland to interior mountains. Major environmental zones- ocean coast, strand veld, fynbos, karoo, and inland mountains. Examination of sites in these zones suggested a pattern of transhumance- following migratory herds.

Sipan

Photograph of the tomb after excavation Note the side offerings and the retainers buried with the central individual A richly attired warrior priest lies in the central coffin with attendants at his side A small spotted dog was among the tomb contents

Aftermath

Pizarro and Almagro had a falling out that led to Almagro's defeat and execution Pizarro was killed in 1541 by Diego Almagro (son, avenging father's death) and supporters Almagro was caught and executed the next year

Red Mummies 3800BC-2100BC

Preparation of the body less elaborate Not disarticulated, but body was eviscerated and the central body cavity dried then filled with ash, grass, shells, feathers, or other material. Exterior coating of clay for painting and sculpting of body details Wigs of human hair sometimes attached

Direct and indirect evidence: Domestication in Plants

Preserved plant evidence survives as impressions in mud, daub and pottery. Carbonized seeds, phytoliths- opal silicate bodies in stems of plants. Direct Evidence: Phytoliths from soil samples, carbonized seeds and nuts. Indirect Evidence: Impressions on pottery, impressions on mud daub used in construction of walls of houses.

San Jose Mogote

Principal investigators at San Jose Mogote have been Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus of the University of Michigan This site has evidence for 3,500 years of occupation beginning before 1400 BC Between 1500 BC and 1150 BC the site became the largest (and assumed to be the most important) in the Valley of Oaxaca Sculptures depicting "dancing" figures or danzantes, suggest affiliation with Zapotec culture Zapotec culture dominated the Valley of Oaxaca from its major center at Monte Alban Monte Alban also is located on a prominent ridge with a commanding view of the area surrounding it

Reading Maya Texts

Prior to the 1970s, the textual material could not be read Epigraphers argued about whether the writing was a number of simple word-pictures or a sophisticated phonetic system Our phonetic system is based on combinations of 26 signs; but nearly 800 for the Maya

Environments

Puña - high grassland plateaus in the Peruvian Andes Montaña - specifically refers to the wet, tropical slopes of the Amazonian Andes Altiplano - the high-altitude plain between the eastern and western ridges of the Andes in Peru Lomas - vegetation that is supported by fog in otherwise arid environments

Tikal

Rain forest setting Limestone used for construction These pyramids rise over 45 m in height Tikal was an extensive city; the rain forest makes it difficult to determine its extent

Floatation 1

Recovered remains are in two "fractions". Light Fraction: Captured in the finest mesh-small seeds, plant parts, possibly bone. Heavy Fraction: captured in the coarser mesh-larger seeds, nutshells, bone, other cultural materials as well.

Amazonias Atlantic Coast

Research by Anna Roosevelt and Brazilian colleagues have shown that coastal shell mounds (called sambaquis) indicate that preceramic populations were sedentary The first ceramics are dated to 5500 BC, significantly older than the coastal traditions of Ecuador and Colombia and earlier by several thousand years than North American ceramics Recent research has indicated that humans were responsible for widespread prehistoric land changes in Amazonia Extensive mounding, ditching, and fish weir structures have been identified, mostly by aerial photography Our understanding of the cultural accomplishments of Amazonian groups is increasing through research currently underway

Maritime Hypothesis

Returning to the other side of the Andes Michael Moseley (1975) proposed that the roots of Andean civilization lay on the Pacific Coast He believed that a focus on marine resources was the basis for the development of complex societies with monumental architecture (mound and plaza complexes) In Chile, bone chemistry has indicated that the diet of some preceramic coastal groups was as high as 90% seafood

Circumscription and Warfare

Robert L. Carneiro Member of the National Academy of Sciences Research has focused on cultural evolution, primarily in the New World Carneiro's initial focus was Peru and the rise of the Inca state Where agricultural lands are "circumscribed" either environmentally by mountains, seas, or deserts --- or socially, by neighbors impinging on all sides - and where migration was not a possibility Intense competition for scarce resources triggered warfare State governments developed to mobilize and direct the armies and, eventually, to control the conquered people, keep the peace, and reallocate resources As population increased, the state continued to push outward, and the cycle of events was repeated further expanding the state A fundamental premise for Carneiro is that autonomous groups never willingly surrender their sovereignty Egalitarian settlements transform into ranked societies only when coercive force is used Carniero believes that warfare is the only mechanism powerful enough to impose bureaucratic authority on a large scale Warfare is older than the state, however, and does not invariably lead to state formation But where agricultural land is circumscribed - the Nile Valley, Tigris-Euphrates Valley, Indus Valley, Valley of Mexico, Peru - Carniero maintained, warfare led predictably to state formation

Evidence of sedentism

Seasonal indicators: Migratory waterfowl, plant remains indicating seasonal collecting, Hard clams as seasonal indicators, recovery of remains of plants and animals from all seasons of the year.

Jomon Culture: Mesolithic Sites

Settlement features: Storage-large storage pits, burials- adults along the roads or pathways that cross the site, children buried in ceramic containers near the pit houses, elaborate cord marked ceramics in a range of shapes and sizes, stone tools- arrowhead, axes, and grinding stones. Obsidian, jade, amber, bitumen-indicate acquisitions from distant sources (trade network)

Cortes and La Malinche

She is a problematic figure in native life She is seen as making Cortés' conquest possible, as betraying her people Also called Doňa Marina

Changes

Significant changes occurred at the beginning of the Holocene: Sea Level Rise, mammalian extinctions, and changing environments.

Abu Hureya, Syria

Site contains evidence of the transition from foraging to farming Located on the edge of the Euphrates Valley in northern Syria Earliest settlement had round houses sunk into the ground, thatched roofs supported by wooden poles Villagers hunted gazelle, wild cattle and sheep Gathered wild cereals and grasses from a variety of ecological zones. Two components: A small village settled just before the Younger Dryas cold phase (ca. 11,000 BC) Abandoned around 9,000 BC at the end of Younger Dryas reversal A pre-ceramic Neolithic village settled around 8,800 BC - population estimated in the thousands Abandoned in the early Neolithic when pottery was coming into use; occupied for about 2000 years This photo shows how the early houses were dug into the limestone substrate The small holes represent the placement of support posts In upper right, a later mud-brick house of pre-ceramic Neolithic period

Chan Chan

Site experienced rapid growth By 15th century, Chan Chan had become a dense coastal urban settlement Capital of the Chimú state (southernmost Ecuador to central Peru) Has a settlement pattern of what archaeologists call "ciudadelas" or little cities

Criteria Summarized

Society is divided into sharply differentiated social classes Membership is based on residence within the territory controlled by the state One, or a few individuals, along with an elite group (the ruling class) monopolize political power The state's apparatus is run by a bureaucracy of officials - coercive force and laws

Problems with the Maritime Hypothesis

Some archaeologists have argued that a subsistence adaptation that depended on marine resources would have risked El Niño event problems They contend that domesticated and cultivated plants played a greater role than had been realized Given that we do not know the periodicity of El Niño events, it is difficult to evaluate this argument

Funding the Florida Colony

Spain merged State and Church in a way that created stresses in the New World All representatives of the Crown - clerical, administrative, and military - were paid from the Patronado Real de las Indias The "King's Purse" was the source for all funding. This approach created competition among the factions

Archaeobotany

Specialists who identify plant remains from paleoanthropological and archaeological contexts, includes palynologists (pollen), starch grain analysis, phytolith identification in addition to seeds, nutshells, stones or pits, and wood.

Mesa Verde

Spruce tree house, Inside Cliff Palace,

Copan, Honduras

Staircases with inscriptions (glyphs) were painstakingly transcribed Tatiana Proskouriakoff's architectural drawings at Copan provided the link to understanding Maya texts

Subsistence changes in the Holocene

Subsistence Changes (subsistence strategies): hunting and gathering, horticulture, pastoralism (transhumance), Extensive Agriculture (slash and burn- swidden agriculture) Intensive agriculture (industrialized- less land required- mechanization and fertilizers- some chemicals required)

Monte Alban

Systematic investigations begun in 1931 by Mexican archaeologists Alfonso Caso, Ignacio Bernal, and Jorge Acosta Richard Blanton of Purdue University mapped the site in 1971 Believed to be a conquest state in its second phase (Monte Albán II - 200 BC to AD 200 Architectural plan Zapotec culture achieved state level political organization Mesoamerica's first urban civilization

Multiple Cause Theories

Take the view that there are interacting factors that result in the formation of the state These factors may vary from area to area

The Valley of Mexico

Teotihuacán rose in the Basin of Mexico, and area once the largest extent of flat, agricultural land in highland Mexico The basin contained significant bodies of water This area was ringed by a series of volcanoes, most dormant; the elevation was around 7000 feet The word chichimeca is used to refer to barbarian cultures living outside the civilized areas of the Valley of Mexico The Aztec were chichimecs who migrated into the Valley of Mexico and, as time passed, became more successful Ultimately, through military might and alliances, they gained control of the area and were the dominant culture at the time of the Spanish conquest

The Maya and Caves

The Balancanche cave complex lies several km distant from the main Chichen Itza temple complex This natural formation within the cave is reminiscent of the Maya "World Tree"

Holocene

The Holocene or recent epoch began at 11,700 years ago

Pre-historic South America

The Isthmus of Panama was a funnel or "bottleneck" between Mesoamerica and South America Ideas or people had to pass through this area Early Archaic sites in this area are small campsites left by nomadic hunters and gatherers: Aguadulce, Cueva de los Vampiros, Cueva Ladrones Sites such as Aguadulce, Cuevas de Los Vampires, and Cueva Ladrones show that plant collecting and gathering was probably augmented by the cultivation of plants Squashes, bottle gourd, leren (a tuber), and arrowroot have been identified as potential cultivars

Lamanai, Belize

The Lamanai site is located inland on a freshwater river system After the conquest, a Spanish mission was established at the site

The Lanzon

The Lanzón, a stela depiction of a figure of ritual significance was placed deep within the Old temple This stela divinity is thought to have been an oracle that communed with supplicants through attendant priests Made from white granite and tenoned into floor and ceiling

Calendars

The Maya calendar is an ancient system devised in prehistoric times and still in use in some Maya communities today These calendars provide cycles when they are interlocked The Tzolkin or 260-day cycle is the most ancient

The Maya Codices

The Maya recorded their history and sacred information in fan-folded books called codices (singular = codex) Three or four remain in existence Paris Dresden Madrid ?Grolier (Grolier Club of New York City)

Pleistocene Epoch

The Pleistocene Epoch ended over 11,700 years ago based on greenland ice cores

The landscape

The South American landscape is highly varied - ranging from sea level to 22,000 feet in the Andes The Andes are second only to the Himalayas in height; longest mountain range on the planet World's largest river - Amazon World's largest rainforest is present World's driest desert is located on the Pacific coast

Kabah, Mexico

The Temple of the Masks at Kabah The sculpture includes masks of the "long-nosed" god generally associated with Tlaloc, god of rain

Tzolkin and Haab

The Tzolkin is combined with the Haab, a 365-day calendar and their intersection occurs every 52 years This is called the Calendar Round The Long Count was used to track longer periods of time and counts the number of days from a mythical beginning on August 11, 3114 BC to a projected ending, December 21 or 23, 2012.

Sedentism

The ability to live in an area for an extended period of time, nomadic lifestyle declines, suggest to archaeologists that there is an adequate base and greater social complexity.

Mudcoated Mummies

The body was smoke dried and covered with a thick layer of mud Painted and wrapped in mats or textiles After 1700 BC, the Chinchorro returned to dependence on the hot sands for mummification

Wari and Tiwanaku

The domains of the Wari and Tiwanaku empires They dominated the western portion of South America between AD 650 and 1000

Earthworks

The earliest mounds occur during the Late Middle Archaic in Louisiana ca. 6000 BC During the Woodland period, conical sand mounds are present for burial of the dead Earthworks, both enclosing space and in effigy form are features of this time period

The Encomienda

The encomienda was a system in which a conquistador was granted an estate and the Indians who lived on it Although the Indians were supposed to be taught the Catholic faith and instructed in Hispanic life, in truth they were little more than slaves in many instances The encomienda was forbidden in Florida but the need for a labor force remained

Anglo-Creek Problems

The establishment of Charlestown and Savannah began the serious encroachment on Spanish settlements and missions Slave raiding was encouraged by the British in both colonies and fueled by trading alcohol and firearms Final destruction of missions in our area led by Colonel James Moore of South Carolina and his Creek allies - began 1702; ended 1704

The End of Apalachee Culture

The final dispersal of Apalachee Province populations occurred in 1704 Some fled to St. Augustine; others west to Pensacola and on to the French at Old Mobile The fort at Mission San Luis was dismantled and burned by the Spaniards as they left the province Many indigenous people were enslaved and removed to Georgia and Carolina

Expeditions to South America

The first attempt was by Pascual de Andagoya in 1522 The natives he encountered told him of a gold-rich country Andagoya turned back because of illness at about the Columbia/Ecuadorian border Spread the word in Panamá about the place called Pirú Pizarro formed a partnership for exploration with a soldier, Diego de Almagro, and a priest, Hernando de Luque. Pizarro's first attempt, in 1524, only reached Colombia Pizarro's second attempt in 1526 netted just enough gold to go on - near Ecuador

The MesoAmerican Ballgame

The game was a team sport played with a rubber ball weighing up to 5 pounds The rules were variable from place to place The game was associated with fertility, death, sacrifice, and militarism Spanish chroniclers who witnessed the game in the sixteenth century described it as rough, often resulting in injury The ball had to be kept in motion but could not be touched by hands or feet Sacrifice of defeated team members is recorded - tzompantlis often nearby Tzompantlis- head on stick/fence

10-18 Summary

The indigenous people of Eastern North America were the first to experience the expeditions of exploration called entradas The precise year of first contact is unknown but celebrated as 1513 But direct (slaving) and indirect (through trade networks) contacts may have preceded Ponce de Leon to Florida

Split Inheritance

The inheritance customs of the Chimú are thought to be like those of the later Inca Split inheritance is a system within which the heir to the throne receives the supreme leadership position and the authority and power that comes with the title, but the land, the palace, and the personal wealth of the former ruler are left to the junior kinsmen The new ruler must raise his own revenues and build his own residential compound (ciudadela)

Domestication

The intentional manipulation of plants or animals for the benefit of humans, Domestication involves the genetic level, mutations that are advantageous to humans are often those selected, are for example, wool on sheep, body size in dogs, color and body conformation in cattle. Domestication results in altered life for the plant or animal, a dependency on humans for existence.

The Kuraka

The kuraka were the wealthy families of the Inca empire The Spaniards observed their wealth in their homes, their personal ornamentation, and the luxury of their lifestyles Compared favorably with European nobility

Chan Chan Settlement Pattern

The major ciudadelas at Chan Chan that have been identified archaeologically Ten Chimú kings have been identified, possibly corresponding to the ciudadelas

Zooarchaeological Analysis

The material recovered from archaeological contexts is identified using a comparative skeletal collection. Identifications are made to class, family, genus, or the species where possible. Identified species indicate the composition of the diet, environments exploited, technology required to take and process the animal.

Inca Architecture

The mit'a system of conscript labor built the monumental architecture Architecture featured fitted stones, many of astounding size

mit'a labor system

The mobilization of artisans and laborers needed to build the large edifices of this culture was met by a system called mit'a In this system, laborers were conscripted Michael Moseley has studied the marks on adobe bricks from Moche, apparently maker's marks, and proposed that these indicate many different groups of workers at the site

Black Mummies 5800-3800BC

The most complex of artificial treatment Body was eviscerated, defleshed, disassembled, then reassembled with wood and fibers to stiffen the bones The skin was sewn back on and the body coated with a layer of clay. A facial mask was prepared and the body stuffed with ashes and clay

Mesolithic Period

The period of time between the end of the pleistocene and the beginnings of agriculture (13,711 BC to ca 9,000 BC) Europe North Africa Asia

Primary Plant Domesticates

The primary plant domesticates in Mesoamerica are: Maize varieties Bean varieties Squashes Agave Chilis Cacao

Amazonia

The region is the largest ecological zone of the continent Dominated by the Amazon, Orinoco, and other large rivers

Clovis First

The reigning explanation of Paleoindian origins has held that the trans-Bering landbridge from Asia was the method of entry That glacial ice blocked their entry until around 13,500 years ago That the Clovis point, first identified at Blackwater Draw, New Mexico was the major cultural marker That a hallmark of Clovis technology was overshot flaking (also called outre passe)

Paleo Indian Lifeways

The reigning theory of Paleoindian lifeways held that they were nomadic hunter/gatherers who focused on megafauna However, sites such as the Gault site in Texas have shown that they were broad spectrum hunter/gatherers who may have had more stable residence patterns and occasionally killed megafauna

Indigenous People and the Mission System

The results of missionization for Florida's indigenous people were: Loss of population from forced labor and exposure to epidemic diseases Loss of cultural autonomy Displacement through slave raids and resettlement because of population loss and St. Augustine's need for native laborers Enslavement, cultural loss, loss of homelands

The Desert Coast

The richest New World fishing grounds stretch along the dry coasts of Peru and Chile The upper level waters off Peru are swept northward by coastal currents The lower level colder waters are swept southward Upwellings, where the deeper water flows upward, bring rich nutrients that supports a diverse and abundant marine life - where fish, sea mammals, and birds congregate Local people began consuming seafood more than 11,000 years ago

Maya Paintings

The site of Bonampak in Chiapas has some of the most remarkably preserved murals

The Maya

The site of El Mirador in northern Guatemala's Petén lowlands has evidence of Maya civilization between AD 250 and 900. The origins of Maya civilization were once thought to have been a direct extension of Olmec culture This idea has been questioned because it seems that there were several contemporaneous early cultures in the Gulf coastal area and inland of which the Olmecs and Maya were but two

10-9 Summary

There are a number of different views regarding the development of the state in prehistory Prime movers are most likely too narrow a focus for understanding all of the factors and conditions Multiple cause theories have the advantage of considering a number of factors

Summary 10-7-13

There are a number of theories about how domestication occurred and it is most likely that a number of co-evolutionary factors are causal Information provided at sites like Ohalo II and Abu Hureya reveals that the transition from foraging to farming was not a sudden shift from one lifestyle to another, but more a gradual process extending over several centuries During this time, domesticates - both plant and animal - made an ever-increasing contribution to subsistence

Paleo Indian Period

These Clovis-style points are found throughout North America In the United States, more have been recovered east of the Mississippi river than in the Southwest where the type was originally identified

Zooarchaeology

This field is a relatively recent development in archaeology. In Europe, it is often called archaeozoology, specialists who study the prehistoric (and historic) uses of animals, vertebrate and invertebrate remains: bones, shell, horns, antler, teeth.

Chimu Metallurgy

This gold mask was made by the repoussé method A form is carved in wood and the metal placed over it and hammered

New World Turkeys

This is the ocellated turkey of Mesoamerica In real life, it is larger than the wild turkey of Florida 8,000 turkeys sold every 5 days in one market near Tenochtitlán

Martin-Desoto Site

This site, in the Myers Park area of Tallahassee, is one of the few sites in the southeastern United States that is credited to DeSoto The expedition spent the winter of 1539-1540 in the Tallahassee area Chain mail, crossbow quarrels, ceramics, coins The site was discovered in 1987 when an office complex was being built on the site

Caracol, Chichen Itza

This structure is very much like a contemporary astronomical observatory There is evidence that it served that function for the Maya as well

Evidence of Domestication

Today we look at the kinds of evidence that indicate the achievement of domestication in animals and plants. For the archaeologist, this will involve examining changes in skeletal morphology of animals and morphological changes in plants.

Other Plant Domesticates

Tomato: widespread significance in world cuisines Avocado Yucca Chili peppers Cacao

Principal Olmec Sites

Tres Zapotes - the first colossal head was found at this site La Venta - occupation of site dated by radiocarbon to between 900 - 400 BC San Lorenzo - long occupation; reached its peak between 1150 to 900 BC La Venta (Offering )

The Tropics in the Holocene

Tropical areas were also affected, the inter-tropical convergence zone moved north to pass over the sahara desert, the sahara became a region of lakes with extensive savanna grassland until the 3rd millennium BC when climatic conditions changed.

Childe's Criteria

V. Gordon Childe About 1945, proposed ten criteria by which archaeologists and prehistorians could measure whether civilization had been achieved in an area 1. Urbanism - large populations and large settlement size 2. Surplus accumulation - based on intensive land use, taxation, centralized administrative authority, and increased agricultural productivity 3. Monumental public works 4. Writing 5. The appearance of exact and predictive sciences 6. Proliferation of specialists, particularly non-agricultural specialists 7. Division of society into different classes 8. Political organization based on social class and territorial residence rather than kinship 9. Long-distance trade networks for both subsistence and luxury goods 10. Naturalistic or representational art reflecting sophisticated conceptualization and technique ARE THEY REALISTIC? In general, we do not today use Childe's ten criteria as a measure However, the criteria contain within them the basic accomplishments that we recognize as containing the cultural complexity that embodies "civilization" and signals the rise of the state

Forests and Deserts in the Holocene

Vegetation zones expanded in the post-glacial conditions. In north america, the boreal forest belt pushed north (birch and pine) cold climate trees. Desert was replaced int he more temperate latitudes by forests of oaks, elms and beech.

El Nino Conditions

Warm water weather event that makes coastal life risky May last for several months or over a year Today, El Niño warming events occur approximately every five years Their prehistoric periodicity is unknown El Niño brings warmer temperatures and changes in salinity

Sacrifice Ceremony

Warrior Priest was often featured in the iconography At Sipan, one of the burials had features of the Presentation Ceremony It is clear that some Moche art documents actual events

Preservation in WET Mesolithic Sites

Waterlogged deposits, artifacts are normally perishable-cordage, rope, textiles, and wooden canoes. Plant and animal remains for food, lacier wares, building materials, fuel. Pollen analysis suggests that residents were cultivating chestnut trees. Food remains suggest a combination of terrestrial and marine resources at Sannai Maruyama- water fowl, land mammals, fish, shark and blowfish.

Interglacial Period

We are currently in an interglacial period, while we might expect more glacial episodes, global warming may change the periodicity of glacial activity.

band type

We assume that band type social organization was the norm for early homo sapiens and that hunting and gathering (also called foraging) is the subsistence base

The rise of the State

We begin now to consider one of the major questions posed by philosophers, historians, and archaeologists... How have human beings, human groups, come to be organized as they are? Particularly, how have states arisen across the globe? Fundamental to this question also is how have we become "civilized?

What is the State?

What is the State? This characterization of the state is from Kent V. Flannery (1972) The state is a type of very strong, usually highly centralized government, with a professional ruling class, largely divorced from the bonds of kinship which characterize simpler societies. It is highly stratified and extremely diversified internally, with residential patterns often based on occupational specialization rather than blood (consanguineal) or relatives' (affinal relationships) status. The state attempts to maintain a monopoly of force and is characterized by true law.

Moche Culture

When Chavín culture declined, around 200 BC, a period characterized by the development of small local polities began Polity: a group with a political and social organization that dominates an area Moche culture begins around AD 200 and ends around AD 600; its primary site was called Moche also Located on the north coast of Peru in the Moche Valley Excavated by Max Uhle in the 1890s Composed of two major pyramids (Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna) separated by a plaza some 500 m wide. The Moche culture dominated the area between the Lambayeque Valley in the north to the Nepeña Valley in the South Moche culture is considered by many archaeologists to be first native state in South America The Moche realm was united by a shared ideology expressed in iconography This iconography survives today in mostly mural form and ceramic arts Moche society marked by greater differentiation in wealth - mortuary evidence

Questions???

Within this question are several major questions: What is this body of behaviors and accomplishments that we call civilization? What are the factors that led to the formation of states?

The cultures of Mesoamerica

Zapotec Olmec Aztec Maya

What indicates domestication?

because tissue and hair are rarely recovered in archaeological contexts, what kind of evidence persists that provides such information? Non-Native (exotic) species, and morphological changes. Exotic animals- presence of a foreign species- examples: sheep in southern france, corsica, and south africa. Sheep and goats in greece and britain. Horses in Levant. Cats in cyprus. Dogs in south america.

Other evidence of sedentism

deep deposits of refuse (middens, tells), tree ring records that indicate long periods of time, permanent architecture, radiocarbon dates that provide evidence of lengthy occupation of a site.

Season of Sites (clams)

mercenaria, also known as hard or quahog clams, the clam is cut, the annual growth rings are examined to determine season of death, captive studies.

Fallowing

plowing but NOT seeding, letting it sit

PALYNOLOGY

the study and analysis of fossil pollen as an aid to the reconstruction of past vegetation and climates.