AP Bio semester 2 FINAL FINAL

oceanic pelagic zone

"Open water." Any ocean water that is not near the shore or close to the bottom -constantly mixed by wind driven ocean currents -photic zone extends greater -high oxygen but low nutrients -turnover

postzygotic barriers

"after zygote" -after overcome prezygotic barriers -development errors or problems after birth -infertile or decrease surviving to reproduce -prevent hybrid zygote from developing 1) reduced hybrid viability (impair development or survival) 2) reduced hybrid fertility (cannot produce offspring) 3) hybrid breakdown (feeble/sterile)

prezygotic barriers

"before zygote" -impede members of diff species from attempting to mate -prevent an attempted mating from being completed successfully -hinder fertilization if mating completed successfully 1) habitat isolation 2) temporal isolation (time) 3) behavioral isolation 4) mechanical isolation (morphological) 5) gametic isolation (egg fertilization)

proximate causation

"how" a behavior occurs or is modified

genome

"library" of genetic instructions that an organism inherits genome sequence:entire sequence of nucleotides for member of species -large scale analysis of DNA sequences of species (genome) as well as comparison of genomes between species

autotrophs

"self feeders" or "producers of biosphere" -sustain themselves w/o eating anything derived from other living things -produce organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic raw materials from environment -ultimate sources of organic compounds for nonautotrophic organisms

recombination frequency

% of recombinant offspring -depends on distance btwn genes on chromosome

phosphate group

(-OPO3)2- -important in energy transfer(ATP) -contributes negative charge -compounds known as organic phosphate -allow ability to react w/ water -Glycerol Phosphate

peristalsis

(1) Alternating waves of contraction and relaxation in the smooth muscles lining the alimentary canal that push food along the canal. (2) A type of movement on land produced by rhythmic waves of muscle contractions passing from front to back, as in many annelids.

statolith

(1) In plants, a specialized plastid that contains dense starch grains and may play a role in detecting gravity. (2) In invertebrates, a dense particle that settles in response to gravity and is found in sensory organs that function in equilibrium.

transformation

(1) The conversion of a normal animal cell to a cancerous cell. (2) A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell. When the external DNA is from a member of a different species, transformation results in horizontal gene transfer

electron transport chain (ETC)

(1) transfer of electrons from glucose via NADH/FADH2 to transmembrane proteins and subsequently using their high energy to pump protons to intermembrane space in mitochondria or thylakoid space in chloroplasts -break fall of electrons to O into several energy-releasing steps -consists of mostly proteins built into inner membrane -form H2O at end (more stable) -lose small amount of energy each step -exergonic rxn w/ delta G=-53 kcal/mol -chain breaks large free-energy into manageable amounts to indirectly make ATP

chemiosmosis

(3) movement of protons down their concentration gradient coupled to ATP synthesis -energy stored in form of hydrogen ion gradient across membrane used to drive work -ATP synthase -energy coupling that uses H+ gradient to drive work -chloroplasts use too (light drives e- flow to make ATP) -prokaryotes (rotate flagella and pump nutrients/waste)

oxidative phosphorylation

(3) synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi at ATP synthase using energy from glucose electrons which are ultimately transferred to oxygen (final electron acceptor) using ETC in mitochondrial cristae (aerobic) -ATP synthesis powered by redox rxn of electron transport chain -energy released at each step stored to make ATP -chemiosmosis -90% of ATP generation (add inorganic phosphate to ADP)

glycolysis

(A) 1st step of cellular respiration that splits glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid and 2 ATPs (anaerobic, catabolic/exergonic) -begins degradation process by breaking glucose into two pyruvate -cytosol -pyruvate enters mitochondrion and oxidizes to acetyl CoA -"sugar splitting" -glucose split into 2 three-carbon sugars -smaller sugars oxidized and remaining atoms from pyruvate -energy investment phase (spends ATP) -energy payoff phase (ATP produced by substrate-level phosphorylation) *2 ATP and 2 NADH for each glucose -no CO2 released -occurs whether or not oxygen present

citric acid (Kreb's) cycle

(B) 2nd step of cellular respiration that breaks down AcetylCoA to 2 carbon dioxide, 1 ATP, 3NADH, and 1 FADH2 molecules in mitochondrial matrix (aerobic) -amphibolic (catabolic and anabolic)

production efficiency calculations

(net secondary production/assimilation of primary production) x 100

Citric Acid Cycle Total Yield per Glucose

* 6 NADH, 2 FADH, 2 ATP, 4 CO2 -2 acetyl CoA for each glucose (cycle runs twice)

Net gain of glycolysis per glucose

*2 pyruvate and 2 H2O *2 ATP *2 NADH + 2 H+

kilocalorie

- (1,000 cal) is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree C.

Double bond

- 2 shared pairs of valence electrons. - Represented by 2 lines

Nonpolar covalent bond

- A bond where the electrons are shared equally because the two atoms have the same electronegativity. - Ex. H2 is nonpolar

Ion

- A charged atom (or molecule). - Electrons have either been lost or gained.

Dissociation of Water

- A hydrogen atom leaves its electron behind and a hydrogen ion (H+) is transferred - The water molecule that lost a proton is now a hydroxide ion (OH-) and has a charge of 1- - The proton binds to the other water molecule making it a Hydronium ion (H30+)

Solution

- A liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of 2 or more substances.

Surface tension

- A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. - Hydrogen bonds in water give it a very high surface tension.

Single Bond

- A pair of shared electrons. - Represented by a single line

Compound

- A substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio - Has chemical and physical characteristics different from those of its elements (emergent properties) - Ex. Water (H20) is a compound that has a 2:1 ratio

Element

- A substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions - 92 naturally occurring elements -all atoms of particular element have same # of protons

Hydrophilic

- A substance that has an affinity for water. - Substances can be hydrophilic without actually dissolving (cotton).

Buffer

- A substance that minimizes changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution. - Accepts hydrogen ions when they are in excess, and donates them when they have been depleted. - Ex. carbonic acid and bicarbonate buffering system

Atomic Mass

- An approximation of the total mass of an atom. - Same number as the Mass Number.

Matter

- Anything that takes up space and has mass - Composes organisms - Made up of elements -diff from weight -exists in many forms

Evaporative Cooling

- As a liquid evaporates, the surface of the liquid that remains behind cools down. - "Hottest" molecules leave as gas first. - Contributes to the stability of temperature in bodies of water and keeps organisms from overheating.

Polar covalent bond

- Bond where an atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom. - Electrons are not shared equally.

Valence

- Bonding capacity of an atom - Usually equals the number of electrons required to complete the atom;s outermost (valence shell)

Chemical Bonds

- Bonds between atoms when they either share or transfer valence electrons. - The strongest kinds of chemical bonds are covalent and ionic bonds. - When bonds form, they make fill the atoms valence shell

Acidification

- Burning fossil fuels releases CO2 into the air, and when CO2 dissolves in seawater, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid which lowers ocean pH. - As seawater acidifies the extra hydrogen ions combine with carbonate ions to form bicarbonate ions and reduces the carbonate ion concentration. - This is bad, because carbonate ions are required for calcification by many marine organisms (reef-building corals and animals with shells).

Neutron

- Charge: electrically neutral - Location: nucleus - Mass: 1 dalton

Electron

- Charge: negative - Location: orbits around the nucleus - Mass: so small that electrons are insignificant when computing the total mass of an atom -keeps close to nucleus b/c nucleus has positive charge (opp. charges) -only directly involved in chemical rxns -tend to exist in lowest potential energy

Proton

- Charge: positive - Location: nucleus - Mass: 1 dalton

Subatomic particles

- Compose atoms. - Three relevant kinds: neutrons, protons and elections

Molecule

- Composed of 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.

Ionic compounds/salts

- Compounds formed by ionic bonds. - Does not consist of molecules, only elements.

Strong Acid/Strong Base

- Compounds that completely dissociate when mixed with water. - Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid. - Sodium hydroxide is a strong base.

Molecular Shape

- Determines how biological molecules recognize and respond to one another with specific. - Complementary molecules bind to each other. - Ex. Because opiates have similar shapes to endorphins, they bind to endorphin receptors in the brain.

Isotope

- Different atomic forms of the same element. - Same number of protons, different number of neutrons. - Behave identically in chemical reactions. Ex: carbon-12 (common) and carbon-13

Essential Elements

- Elements that an organism needs to live a healthy life and reproduce -20-25% of 92 natural elements -C,H,O,N is 96% of matter

Trace Elements

- Elements that are required by an organism in small quantities. -Fe needed by all - Ex. in vertebrates iodine is an essential ingredient of a hormone produced by the thyroid gland.

Kinetic energy

- Energy of motion.

Potential Energy

- Energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure - Matter has a natural tendency to move to the lowest possible state of potential energy.

Ionic Bond

- Formed by the attraction of cations and anions. - Electrons are transfered. - Environment affects the strength of ionic bonds. - Dry salt crystal- bonds are very strong. - Salt crystal dissolved in water- bonds are waker because each ion is partially shielded by its interactions with water molecules.

Van deer Walls Interactions

- Individually weak bonds that occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together. - Ex. Geckos can climb up walls because their toes have tiny hairs and there are van der Waals interactions between the hair tip molecules and the molecules of the wall's surface. Because they are so numerous they can support the Gecko's body.

Proofreading and Repairing DNA

- Initial pairing errors between incoming nucleotides and those in the template strand are 100,000 times more common that final pairing errors -an error rate of one in 10^5 nucleotides (initial base pairing) -an error rate of one in 10^10 nucleotides (complete DNA) -many DNA polymerases proofread each nucleotide against its template as soon as it is added to the growin strand - Upon finding an incorrectly paired nucleotide, the polymerase removed the nucleotide and then resumes synthesis -incorrectly paired or altered nucleotides can arise after replication ->usually corrected before mutates and replicates again ->each cell monitors and repairs ->many DNA repair enzymes have evolved ->from harmful chemicals or spontaneous chemical changes -mismatch repair -nucleotide excision repair

Radioactive Isotope

- Isotope where the nucleus decays spontaneously giving off particles and energy. -tendency to lose subatomic particles - Decay will lead to a change in the number of protons, and the atom transforms to an atom of a different element. -tracers for diagnostics -can be hazardous -radiometric dating -Ex: carbon-14

Anion

- Negatively charged atom. - An electron has been gained.

Atomic Number

- Number of protons. - All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number. (unique to element) - If an atom is neutral, the # of protons= # electrons -written as subscript to left of symbol

Hydrogen bonds

- Partial positive charge of a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom allows the hydrogen to be attracted to a different electronegative atom nearby. - A hydrogen bond is the nonequivalent attraction between a hydrogen and an electronegative atom.

Electron Shells

- Places of high probability of finding an electron. - First shell- lowest potential energy, and so forth - An electron can change its shell by absorbing/ loosing energy. - 1st shell holds 2 electrons, 2nd shell holds 8 electrons

Cation

- Positively charged atom. - An electron has been lost.

Mole

- Represents an exact number of objects - 6.02 * 10^23 - A mole of one substance has exactly the same number of molecules as a mole of any other substance.

Cohesion of Water

- Result of the hydrogen bonds that hold water together. - Contributes to the transport of water & dissolved nutrients.

Aqueous solution

- Solution where water is the solvent.

Toxic Elements

- Some naturally occurring elements are toxic to organisms. - Some species have adapted to environments containing elements that are usually toxic. - Ex. Sunflowers can absorb lead, zinc and other heavy metals in concentrations that would kill other organisms. -Ex. arsenic

Reactants

- Starting materials in a chemical reaction

Acid

- Substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. - When acids dissolve in water, they donate an additional H+ to the solution.

Base

- Substances that reduce the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. - Some directly accept hydrogen ions (Ammonia) - Some dissociate to form hydroxide ions which combine with hydrogen ions and form water. - Basic solutions have a higher concentration of OH- than H+

Hydrophobic

- Substances that repel water. - They are nonionic and nonpolar or otherwise cannot form hydrogen bonds.

Mass Number

- Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. -superscript to left of symbol

Calorie

- The amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1degree C.

Specific Heat

- The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change its temperature of 1 degree C. - Aka how well a substance resists changing its temperature when it absorbs/releases heat. - Water has a unusually high specific heat (heat must be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds and released when they form)

Electronegativity

- The attraction of a particular atom for the electrons of a covalent bond. - The more electronegative an atom is, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons towards itself.

Temperature

- The average kinetic energy of molecules, regardless of volume.

Energy

- The capacity to cause change by doing work.

Atomic Nucleus

- The center of an atom with protons and neutrons packed tightly at center - Has a positive charge due to the protons inside of it

Electron Distribution & Chemical Properties

- The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by the distribution of electrons in the atom's electron shells.

Adhesion

- The clinging of one substance to another.

Solvent

- The dissolving agent of a solution.

Electrons & Potential Energy

- The electrons of an atom have potential energy because of how they are arranged in relation to the nucleus. - Because negative electrons attract to the positive nucleus, it takes work to move an electron father away from the nucleus. - The farther away an electron is from the nucleus, the greater its potential energy. - An electron's potential energy is determined by its energy level. (fixed amounts at certain energy levels)

Products

- The elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction.

Thermal energy

- The kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules. - Total thermal energy of matter depends on volume.

Chemical reactions

- The making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter. - Matter is neither created nor destroyed, only rearranged. - Reactions are reversible.

Valence Shell

- The outermost electron shell. - An atom with a completed valence shell is unreactive because it is stable (inert).

Valence Electrons

- The outermost electrons. - Chemical behavior depends mostly on valence electrons. - Atoms with the same number of electrons in their valence shells exhibit similar chemical behavior.

pH

- The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration.

Chemical equilibrium

- The point at which the reactions offset one another exactly. - This is dynamic: reactions still occur, but with no effect on the concentrations of reactants and products. - Concentrations are stabilized at a ratio.

Heat of vaporization

- The quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state. - Water has a high heat of vaporization, because hydrogen bonds need to be broken.

Covalent Bond

- The sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms.

Atom

- The smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element. - Each element consists of a certain type of atom that is different from the atoms of any other element. - Most empty space -Ex. C

Hydration Shell

- The sphere of water molecules around a dissolved ion. - Water molecules pull appart compounds by surrounding each ion and separating and shielding them from one another. - To be dissolved by water you must have ionic and polar regions.

Solute

- The substance that is dissolved.

Molecular mass

- The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule.

Heat

- Thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to another.

Evaporation/ Vaporization

- Transformation from a liquid to a gas. - Even at low temperatures, fast molecules can escape (some move faster than others and temperature is an average).

Advantages of weak chemical bonds

- Two molecules can adhere temporarily by weak bonds. - Two molecules can come together, respond to one another in some way and then separate.

Water's polarity

- Unequal sharing of electrons and water's V- like shape make it a polar molecule. - The oxygen region has a partial negative charge. - Each hydrogen has a partial positive charge - Because of this, the hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen of another molecule, forming a hydrogen bond.

Frozen Water

- Water is less dense as a solid than as a liquid. - Water freezes because more and more of its molecules are moving too slowly to break hydrogen bonds. - 0 degree C, molecules are locked into a crystalline lattice, and hydrogen bonds keep them far away. - Floating ice is important so that lakes do not freeze solid.

Moderation of temperature by water

- Water moderates air temperature by absorbing heat from air that is warmer and releasing the stored heat to air that is cooler. - Water can absorb/release heat with a small change in temperature.

Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q)

- biologically active quinone -vital electron carrier associated w/ complexes I, II, and II of the e- transport chain -very oxidized -electron carrier is hydrophobic that is not protein -individually mobile within membrane

pH scale

- pH declines as H+ concentration increases. - pH less than 7- acidic - pH above 7- basic - When the pH of a solution changes slightly, the actual concentrations of H+ and OH- in the solution change substantially (logs)

Basic features of all cells

- plasma membrane - semifluid substance (cytosol) - chromosomes (carry genes) - ribosomes (make proteins)

nitrogenous bases in nucleotides

-1 or 2 rings -take up H+ from solution [basic] -pyrimidine and purines

telophase

-2 daughter nuclei form -nuclear envelopes arise from fragments of parent's nuclear envelope and endomembrane system -nucleoli reappear -chromosomes less condensed -spindle microtubules depolymerized -mitosis complete

Cretaceous extinction

-66 mya -more than half of all marine and many terrestrial plants and animals -dinosaurs -found iridium (only in meteorites) -collision and debris blocked sunlight and disturbed climate -Chicxulub crater

Helper T and antigen-presenting cell interaction

-Antigen receptors on Helper T surface bind to specific epitope of an antigen fragment and class II MHC displaying that fragment -Accessory protein on helper T Cell attaches to Class II MHC (keeps them joined) -Signals from cytokines are exchanges (antigen-presenting cell secrete cytokines to stimulate Helper T, causing the Helper T to produce cytokines) -Helper T Cell proliferates (forms Activated Helper T Cells) to stimulate cytotoxic T Cells -Clones of activated helper T -dendritic cell or macrophage activates helper T -activated helper T help stimulate cytotoxic T cells -B Cells present antigens to ALREADY activated helper T cells, which activates B Cells themselves CD4 (accessory protein) on helper T surface binds to II MHC (cells join)

Avery (experiment)

-Began with large cultures of heat-killed S cells -Through a long series of biochemical steps, progressively purified the transforming principle by washing away, separating out, or enzymatically destroying the other cellular components

Methyl group

-CH3 -tag on biological molecules -affects gene expression and sex hormones -compounds known as methylated compound

Redox process of photosynthesis

-CO2 reduced to form glucose -H2O oxidized to form oxygen -endergonic b/c need energy as electrons increase in potential energy when move from water to sugar (provided by light) -need light to split water -cell. resp. uses energy released from sugar to form H2O and ATP

immune rejection

-Cells from another person can be recognized as foreign and attacked by immune defenses -MHC proteins primary cause of rejection (more than dozen diff genes and versions/alleles) -can take medicines to suppress immune responses (but more susceptible to infections) blood groups -recipient's immune system can recognize carbs on surface of blood cells as foreign

chromosome anatomy

-DNA must be copied before division -specific genes found at same place on chromosome consistently (loci) -gene may come in more than one form (allele) -1 chromosome= 1 chromatid before replication -1 chromosome= 2 sister chromatids after DNA replication -centromere (noncoding DNA) -telomeres at ends (noncoding DNA)

topoisomerase

-Enzyme that breaks, swivels, and rejoins DNA strands. -helps to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork -stress from untwisting=tighter twisting and strain ahead of replication fork

Permeability of Lipid Bilayer

-Hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules, such as hydrocarbons, can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through the membrane rapidly -CO2 and O2 -Hydrophilic molecules including ions and polar molecules do not cross the membrane easily -glucose/sugars and water -proteins regular transport

June solstice (summer solstice)

-NH tilts toward (longest day and shortest night) -SH tilts away (shortest day and longest night)

amino group

-NH2 -base (take H+) -compounds known as amine -Glycine

Nitrogen metabolism

-Nitrogen is essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids -Prokaryotes can metabolize nitrogen in a variety of ways -nitrogen fixation

Splitting of water

-O2 given off by plants is from H2O, not CO2 -chloroplast splits water into H2 and half O2 for each -Van Niel discovered -carbon from CO2->C6H12O6 -oxygen from CO2->C6H12O6 and H2O -hydrogen from H2O-> C6H12O6 and H2O -oxygen from H2O -> Oxygen

hydroxyl group

-OH -polar -help dissolve compounds (hydrogen bonds) -compounds known as alcohol

Evasion of Innate Immunity by pathogens

-Outer capsule interferes with molecular recognition and phagocytosis -adaptations of pathogens to avoid destruction by phagocytic cell -Resist breakdown by lysosomes -Hides from innate defenses -Ex. TB

Difference between GPCRs and RTKs

-Receptor tyrosine kinase can trigger MANY pathways -G protein coupled receptors do not trigger many pathways

sulfhydryl group

-SH -"cross-link" btwn 2 helps stabilize protein -compounds known as Thiol -Cysteine

Griffith (Experiment)

-Studying streptococcus pneumonia -One pathogenic and one non pathogenic bacterium -Inject heat-killed deadly bacteria mixed with live harmless bacteria into mice, to see what combination makes them die -When killed pathogenic w/ heat and mixed w/ living nonpathogenic, some became pathogenic

benthic zone

-The bottom surface of an aquatic environment. -deep/shallow -communities of benthos -food source is detritus (dead matter) ["rains" down]

phagocytosis

-a cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole. -The vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest the particle. -extending pseudopodia around it and packaging it within food vacuole

abiotic synthesis of macromolecules

-abiotic synthesis of RNA monomers can occur spontaneously from simple precursors -dripping amino acids or RNA nucleotides onto hot sand, clay, or rock produced polymers (dehydration synthesis) -spontaneously formed w/o help of enzymes or ribosomes -created weak catalysts

vesicles

-abiotically produced vesicles can exhibit simple reproduction, metabolism, and maintenance, of internal environment different from surroundings -protocells can form spontaneously when lipids or organic molecules added to water -hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions can organize into bilayer adding montmorillonite (soft mineral clay produced by weathering of volcanic ash) greatly increase rate of self-assembly -increase likelihood molecule react to form vesicle -"reproduce" on own and increase in size w/o dilution of contents -can absorb montmorillonite -have selectively permeable bilayer -can perform metabolic rxn using external source of reagents

Oxidation of Pyruvate

-acetyl CoA has high potential energy which is used to transfer acetyl in citric acid cycle (exergonic) * 2 acetyl CoA and 2 NADH and CO2 -first to release CO2

behavior

-action carried out by nervous system -essential of acquiring nutrients and partners -homeostasis -physiology contributes to behavior, behavior influences physiology -subject to natural selection -affects anatomy b/c depend on body and appearance (recognition and communication) -develop at diff rates/times sum of animal's responses to external and internal stimuli

Evolution development

-adaptive evolution by natural selection and new genes can take on new metabolic and structural functions or new regulations -changes in gene sequence -changes in gene regulation

lactose

-aldose -disacch -shouldn't test positive for Benedict -beta -glucose+galactose

Cell theory

-all living organisms made of cells (basic unit of life) -actions based on functioning cells

ecosystem

-all living things in particular area, along with nonliving components at which life interacts -soil, water, atmospheric gases, light

Comparing Fermentation, Anaerobic, Aerobic Respiration

-all uses glycolysis (2 ATP) and NAD+ is oxidizing agent fermentation -final electron acceptor is organic molecule such as pyruvate (lactic) or acetaldehyde (alcohol) -yields 2 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation -pyruvate energy unavailable w/o electron chain Cellular Resp -electrons carried by NADH are transferred to electron transport chain which regenerates NAD+ for glycolysis -pyruvate oxidized -FADH2 and NADH -redox rxn to final e- acceptor (oxygen in aerobic; less electronegative in anaerobic) -32 ATP per glucose

Antigen recognition by T cells

-alpha chain and beta chain linked by disulfide bridge -transmembrane region anchors molecule in plasma membrane (base of T cell antigen receptor) -bind only to fragments of antigens that are displayed, or presented, on surface of host -major histocompatibility complex (MHC) -antigen presentation

Cooperativity

-amplifies response of enzymes to substrates -binding of one substrate molecule to active site of one subunit locks all subunits in active conformation -not oscillate back into inactive form -hemoglobin

benefits of multiple steps in transduction pathways

-amplify a signal -more opportunities for coordination and control

Calvin Cycle

-anabolic, building carbs and consuming energy (add high energy e- to make sugars) and NADPH -carbon enters in form of CO2 and leaves in form of sugar

antibody function

-antibodies do not directly kill pathogens -interfere w/ pathogen or mark them for inactivation/destruction (by binding to antigens) -neutralization -opsonization -membrane attack complex -presence of bound antibody at cell surface can recruit natural killer cell -B cells can express 5 class of immunoglobulin -IgD=membrane bound (antigen receptor) -others have soluble forms

Proliferation of B and T cells

-antigen presented to steady stream of lymphocytes in lymph nodes until match made -once activated, B and T undergo cell division and create clones -EFFECTOR CELLS -MEMORY CELLS -CLONAL SELECTION

Allosteric regulation

-any case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site -change shape -inhibition or stimulation -noncovalent -reversible noncompetitive inhibitors -weak bond -complex of 2 or more polypeptides -result in functional (activators, +) or nonfunctional (inhibitors, -) enzyme -oscillates btwn active or inactive -regulates ATP synthesis and glyclosis

mesophyll cells

-between the bundle sheath and leaf surface -closely associated and never more than 2 to 3 cells away from bundle sheath -Calvin preceded by CO2 incorporation into organic compounds -pump CO2 into bundle sheath, keeping [CO2] high for rubisco to bind CO2 not O2 -contain chloroplasts

evolution of mitosis

-binary fission gave rise to mitosis -mitosis evolved from prok. ancestral mechanisms unchanged -dinoflagellates, diatoms, yeasts -nuclear envelope intact

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)

-binding forms a dimer through dimerization, which activates tyrosine kinase region of each monomer of tyrosine kinase proteins -when active kinase adds phosphate from ATP to tyrosine -recognized by relay proteins -activates protein to lead to cellular response through transduction pathway

membrane attack complex

-binding of complement protein to an antigen-antibody complex on foreign cell -forms pore in membrane of cell -results in lysis of foreign cell -produces factors that promote inflammation or stimulate phagocytosis

Insulin

-binds to cells to receptor and influences glucose transporter (activates) -bring glucose in from bloodstream -pancreas -need insulin to allow glucose to enter cell -glycogenisis -high blood sugars signals pancreas to make insulin

Beta oxidation

-breaks fatty acids down to 2-carbon fragments, which enter citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA -fatty acids=most energy -NADH and FADH generated (can enter e- chain)

tundra

-btwn taiga and polar ice -extremely cold -little light (fall and winter) -arctic tundra -alpine tundra

Evolution development (changes in gene regulation)

-can be limited to one cell type -may have fewer harmful side effects than change to sequence -changes in form of organisms may be caused mutations that affect regulation of developmental genes and not sequences -Ex. threespine stickleback fish (spines absent w/o predators)

spectrophotometer

-can measure ability of pigment to absorb various wavelengths of light -measure fraction of light transmitted -absorption spectrum

spontaneous process

-can proceed w/o req. input of energy that leads to increase of entropy -energetically favorable and occur on own -slow or instantaneous

limitations of biological species concept

-cannot be applied to fossils or asexual organisms (prok) -not applied to gene flow -many pairs of species that are morphologically and ecologically distinct HAVE gene flow -natural selection -> species remain distinct even w/ gene flow

beta glucose

-carbon #6 and OH of #1 on same side (up) -structure -cellulose

recessively inherited disorders

-carriers can pass on recessive when phenotypically normal (heterozygous at given genetic locus) -recessive homozygotes who are able to reproduce occur less than heterozygous carriers -probability of passing on recessive high if close relatives -more likely to carry same recessive -consanguineous mating -produce homo recessive -more harmful defects shown albinism, cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell disease

Why protein phosphatases crucial in phosphorylation cascade

-catalyze removal of phosphate groups from proteins -make proteins inactive again -turn off transduction pathway when signal no longer present

glucose broken down in steps to efficiently harness energy

-catalyzed by enzyme at each step -electrons stripped from glucose at key steps -electron travel w/ H+ (coenzymes gain and transport) -NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is oxidizing agent -dehydrogenase

Biosynthesis (anabolic)

-cells need substrate and energy -provide calories and carbon skeletons to make own molecules -intermediates of glycolysis and citric -> synthesize molecules -do not generate ATP but consume it -enable cells to convert molecules to needed ones (store fat if eat more fat-free)

Prophase I

-centrosome movement, spindle formation, nuclear envelope breakdown (same as mitosis) -chromosomes condense -each chromosome pairs w/ its homolog aligned gene by gene -crossing over -microtubules attach to kinetochores to move homologous pairs toward metaphase plate

metaphase

-centrosomes now at opp. poles -chromosomes arrived at metaphase plate -kinetochores of sister chromatids attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from opp. poles for each chromosome -spindle complete w/ asters

antigenic variation

-changes in epitope expression -reinfect or remain in host w/o triggering response that memory cells provide -main reason "flu" virus remains (influenza) -freq. mutations (change surface proteins) -forms new strains by exchanging genes

plasmodesmata

-channels that perforate cell walls -allow for connections between cells in plants -unify plant -water and small solutes can freely pass -macromol reach by moving along cytoskeleton

Evolution of early cells

-chemoautotrophs -heterotrophs -hydrogen sulfide splitting photosynthesizers -water splitting photosynthesizers -heterotrophs -endosymbiosis (origin of euk) -multicellularity

photosystem I (PS I)

-chlorophyll a at rxn center complex called P700 b/c most effectively absorbs 700 nm wavelength (far-red) -cyclic system -independent -oldest system -forms ATP only (photophosphorylation) -no O2 and no NADPH used -don't need new e- but slow -light drives synthesis of ATP and NADPH by energizing photosystems in thylakoid membranes

anaphase II

-chromatids separate b/c proteins at centromere breakdowns -chromatids move toward opp poles as individual chromosomes

metaphase II

-chromosomes positioned at metaphase plate -2 sister chromatids of each chromosome not identical (cross over) -kinetochores attached to microtubules extending from poles

temperate rain forests

-coastal N.A. -warm, moist air -dominated by few tree species -coniferous forests

Condition of early earth

-collision generated heat -> water vaporized first atmosphere had little oxygen, thick w/ water vapor, and volcanic eruption compounds -water vapor condensed into oceans and hydrogen escaped into space as Earth cooled -mainly N2 and CO2

Evolutionary Novelties

-complex eye evolved through series of steps that benefitted eye's owners at every stage -independent evolution of eyes -can arise when structures that originally played one role gradually acquire a diff one (exaptations) -natural selection cannot predict future and only improve structure in context of current utility -novel features can arise gradually via series of intermediate stages

photosystem

-composed of reaction-center complexes surrounded by several light harvesting complexes -small organic molecules and proteins -create NADPH, ATP, CO2 -numerous copies in thylakoid

photoprotection

-compounds absorb and dissipate excessive light energy that would otherwise damage chlorophyll or interact w/ oxygen -form reactive oxidative molecules that are dangerous -cartenoids

coniferous forests

-cone bearing evergreen trees dominate -taiga -temperate rain forests

light-harvesting complex

-consists of various pigment molecules (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, multiple carotenoids) bound to proteins -variety of pigments enable photosystem to harvest light over larger SA and portion of spectrum than single pigment alone -act as antenna for reaction-center complex -photon energy transferred from pigment to pigment until passed to pair of chlorophyll a in reaction-center complex

trans fat

-containing one or more trans double bonds. -hydrogenate unsat by adding hydogren -common in baked and processed foods

adaptive evolution

-continuous, dynamic process (environ changes) -genetic drift and gene flow not consistent -natural selection only consistently leads to adaptive evolution

climax community

-controlled by climate' -found together -superorganism b/c function as unit -reached steady state

Caffeine

-convert glycogen to glucosis -"wake up call" -glycogenolysis

Cholesterol

-crucial in animals -type of steroid -animal cell membranes -synthesize steroids/hormones -made in liver and from diet

descent w/ modifications

-darwin -unity of life -> descent from ancestor that lived in remote past -as descendants lived in various habitats, gradually accumulate diverse modifications/adaptations (morphological gaps) -responsible for rich diversity -viewed history of life as tree w/ branches -99% of species now extinct

The source(s) of organic molecules

-deep sea vents (rich in sulfur and iron (important in ATP synthesis)) -meteriorites

innate immunity of vertebrates

-defenses coexist w/ recently evolved system of adaptive immunity Barrier defenses Cellular innate defenses Inflammatory response Antimicrobial peptides and proteins

chapparel

-dense, spiny shrubs w/ tough evergreen leaves -cool ocean currents circulate offshore -mild, rainy winters -hot, dry summers -Mediterranean Sea -adapted to fires

Evolution

-descent with modification (Darwin) -measured as change in relative proportions of heritable variation in pop over generations -freq. of alleles -change in genetic composition from each generation -PATTERN=revealed by data/observations -PROCESS=mechanisms caused observed pattern (natural causes) -shuffling of alleles after meiosis and random fertilization alone will NOT drive evolution

gametes only cells NOT produced by mitosis

-develop from specialized cells (germ cells) -if go through mitosis, # of chromosomes would double each time -meiosis

paleontology

-developed by Cuvier -Cuvier noted that older stratum=more dissimilar its fossils were to current life -Cuvier observed that from layer to layer, new species appeared while others disappeared -inferred that extinctions must have been common (opposite of evolution)

Linnaeus

-developed two part (binomial) format for naming species -adopted nested classification system -grouped similar species -consistent w/ Church views -ascribed resemblances among species to pattern of creation rather than evolution

problem solving

-devising method to proceed from one state to another in face of real/apparent obstacles -highly developed -varies w/ individual experience and abilities

behavioral diff btwn related species are common

-diff can be found within species but less obvious -variation in environmental conditions (natural selection) -location variations -ability to recognize stimuli -diff migration patterns reflect genetic diff (environmental influences)

evolutionary history documented in its genome

-diff genes can evolve at diff rates even in same lineage -trees can represent short or long periods of time depending on genes -Ex. rRNA changes slowly (investigate taxa that diverged long ago) -Ex. mtDNA evolves rapidly (explore recent)

Fats

-digested to glycerol and fatty acids -glycerol converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (intermediate) -beta oxidation -twice as much ATP as carbs

problems with molecule clocks

-direction of natural selection change repeatedly (genes selected) [irregularities] -if use to date divergences bya, then must assume clocks constant (uncertain) -avoid problems by calibrating clocks w/ data on rates gene evolved at diff taxa ad use many genes

Sucrose

-disacch -glucose+fructose -ketose and aldose -alpha

photons

-discrete particles -each has fixed quantity of energy -amount of energy is inversely related to wavelength -shorter wavelength, greater energy of photon

cytokinesis

-division of cytoplasm -under way by late telophase -involves cleavage furrow (animals) -2 daughter cells appear shortly after mitosis -actin microfilaments and motor proteins (animals) -vesicles from golgi move along spindle producing cell plate (plants)

Freq of dominant allele

-dominant not always most common Ex. polydactyly (dominant but rare) -multiple alleles Ex. blood type (IA, IB, i) -pleiotropy: multiple phenotypic effects Ex. sickle-cell disease and cystic fibrosis

savanna

-dominated by grasses and scattered trees -temp is warm -rainfall varies -poor soils+lack moisture+grazing+fires=no more trees -survive droughts -many of world's large herbivores and predators

Loss of controls in cancer cells

-don't stop dividing when growth factors depleted -may make req. growth factor themselves or have abnormality in signaling pathway that conveys growth factor -abnormal cell cycle control -stop dividing at random points in cycle and not normal checkpoints -transformation -evade normal controls that trigger cell to undergo apoptosis when something is wrong -evades destruction and detection by immune system

deserts

-driest -low and unpredictable rainfall -very hot w/ daily temp fluctuations -cold -growth and reproduction keyed to rainfall -desertification

3 events unique to meiosis

-during meiosis I 1) synapsis and crossing over -during prophase I -duplicated homologs and cross over 2) alignment of homologous pairs at metaphase plate -metaphase I of meiosis -pairs of homologs positioned at metaphase plate rather than individual chromosomes 3)separation of homologs -anaphase I -sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome remain attached when move toward opp. poles

NADH

-each give enough force to drive 3 ATP and 10 H+ out

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

-each half has complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes -each chromosome=2 sister chromatids -cytokinesis occurs simultaneously w/ telophase I -form 2 haploid daughter cells -cleavage furrow (animals) or cell plate (plants) -no chromosome duplication btwn meiosis I and II -chromosomes can decondense and nuclear envelope form in some species

excitation of chlorophyll by light

-each pigment has unique absorption spectrum -only photons absorbed are those whose energy is exactly equal to energy diff btwn ground and excited state -plants can absorb UV -when excited e- falls, releases heat and photon (fluorescence)

Evolutionary significance of glycolysis

-early prokaryotes may have generated ATP by glycolysis (no oxygen then) -glycolysis most wide-spread pathway=evolved early -glycolysis in cytosol= doesn't req. membrane-encolsed

Sunlight

-electromagnetic waves are disturbances of electric and magnetic fields

chloroplast and mitochondria similarities

-electron transport chain pumps H+ across membrane (proton-motive force) -cytochromes (electron carriers) and ATP synthase complexes are similar -inner membrane (M) pump protons from mitochondrial matrix (M) to intermembrane space or -thylakoid membrane (C) pump protons from stroma (C) to thylakoid space

receptor-mediated endocytosis

-endocytosis that enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific materials that may be in low concentrations in the environment. -solutes bind to receptors that are clustered in coated pits to form vesicle -emptied receptors recycled to membrane by vesicle -specialized pinocytosis -LDL cholesterol

electromagnetic spectrum

-entire range of radiation -visible light

phosphofructokinase

-enzyme that cataylzes step of converting fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by investing ATP (glycolysis) -first step that commits substrate irreversibly -can speed or slow catabolic processes -inhibited by ATP and citrate (more ATP, slow glycolysis) -stimulated by AMP (from ADP) -allosteric enzyme w/ receptor sites for specific inhibitor and activators

Select inhibition

-essential regulation to control metabolism -natural

Hershey and Chase (purpose)

-establish whether bacteriophage, a virus, injected DNA or protein into host bacteria

fossil record

-evolutionary changes that occurred -origins of new organisms -document steps in transition from life on land to life in sea -fill gaps btwn ancestor and living organisms -descent w/ modification produced increasingly large diff among related organisms (diversity)

Proteins

-excess amino acids converted to intermediates of glycolysis and citric acid cycle -deamination

habitat differentiation (sympatric speciation)

-exploit habitat or resource not used by parent pop -prezygotic barrier (habitat isolation) -natural selection can favor one over other (temporal isolation) -Ex. trees that mature faster for flies

polar ice

-extremely cold -precipitation very low -interconnected w/ marine biome

Morgan (findings)

-eye color expressed as sex-linked trait in fruit flies -discrete pairs of factors on chromosomes bear hereditary info

zygote

-fertilized egg -diploid b/c contain two haploid sets of chromosomes from both parents -mitosis of zygote generates all somatic cells w/ chromosomes and genes passed on

prophase

-first and longest phase of mitosis, -chromatin fibers become tightly coiled into discrete chromosomes (observable w/ light microscope) -nucleoli disappear -each chromosome appears as 2 identical sister chromatids joined at centromeres and along arms by cohesins -mitotic spindle begins to form (made of tubulin) -centrosomes move away from each other as microtubules btwn them lengthen

Watson, Crick (findings)

-first to come up with complete 3D structure with double helix -took account of Chargaff ratios

cisternae

-flattened membranous sacs -opp sides differ in thickness and composition -cis face (near ER; vesicle from ER fuse) -trans face (rise to vesicles that pinch off and travel to other side)

intrinsically disordered proteins

-flexibility and indefinite structure are important -req. binding w/ diff targets at diff times -do not have distinct 3-d shape until interact w/ target protein -mammalian proteins

linear electron flow

-flow of e- through photosystems and other molecular components built into thylakoid membrane -occur during light rxn of photosynthesis

declining population approach

-focuses on threatened and endangered populations that show a downward trend, regardless of population size -emphasizes the environmental factors that caused a population to decline -best estimated by calc effective population size

Pathway of Electron Transport

-folding of inner membrane increase SA to allow components of chain -series of sequential redox rxns -prosthetic groups -NADH only start complex I -FADH only start from II (1/3 less energy than NADH and adds at lower energy level) -flavoprotein -unbiquinone (CoQ)

Hexose shunt

-form 6 carbon sugars

fossil fuels

-formed from dried remains of organisms that dried long ago -stores of sun energy from past

glyoxysome

-found in fat-storing tissues of seeds -initiate conversion of fatty acids to sugar for seedling to use as energy and carbon

Chargaff (experiment)

-fractionated out nuclei from cells before isolating DNA and breaking down it into nucleic acids -used chromatography to separate purines and pyrimidines -exposed diff parts of solution to UV as each base absorbs light of diff wavelength

mitosis in euk evolution

-from binary fission in bacteria -bacteria uses proteins related to tubulin and actin for fission -mechanism behind movement of chromosomes is proteins bind to DNA to membrane dinoflagellates -replicated chromosomes attached to nuclear envelope which remains intact while dividing diatoms -spindle develops within nucleus

Morgan (experiment)

-fruit flies -found mutation in gene affecting fly eye color (caused white eyes)

Carotenoid

-function in photoprotection -absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll, accessory pigment

Protein

-gelatin -albumin

diff in behavior arise

-gene inactivation -variation in activity or amount of gene product Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin: peptide released during mating and binds to specific receptor in central nervous system -regulate postmating behavior -sufficient to alter development of behaviors

gene expression

-genes program cell's protein production by being transcribed into mRNA and then translated into specific proteins -all forms of life employ same genetic code -diff reflect diff btwn nucleotide sequences rather than genetic codes -genes encode proteins -life is all related -produces RNAs that are not translated into proteins as well but serve other functions

Why Cambrian explosion resulted in a lot of diversity

-genes sufficient to produce complex animals existed before Cambrian explosion and increased diversity -increased diversity b/c adaptive evolution by natural selection and new genes can take on new metabolic and structural functions or new regulations

meiosis and fertilization alternate in sexual life cycles

-genetic variation -timing of events varies (3 main types of life cycles) 1) animals and humans 2) plants and algae 3) fungi and protists

inheritance patterns exception to Mendel

-genomic imprinting (depend on which parent gave allele) -inheritance of organelle genes

absorption spectrum

-graph plotting pigment's light absorption vs wavelength

chlorophyll

-green pigment that gives leaves color -inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplast -light energy absorbed drives synthesis of organic molecules in chloroplast

net primary production

-gross primary production minus energy used by primary producers (autotrophs) [plant respiration] -half of GPP -represents storage of chemical energy that will be available to consumers -amount of new biomass added -can have positive NPP but still lose carbon if heterotrophs release carbon dioxide more quickly than producers incorporate -increase when temp, solar, precip. increase (decrease in cloud cover) -decrease when droughts, wildfires, insect outbreaks -NPP=GPP-Ra -Ra=total amount of carbon that is respire by plants per time

PDGF

-growth factor -made of blood cell fragments called platelets -req. for division of fibroblasts (connective tissue) -triggers signal transduction pathway that allows cells to pass G1 checkpoint and divide -w/o PDGF cells fail to divide -heal wounds -Ex. Insulin growth factor, Epidermal growth factor

Goal of cell division

-growth of organism -tissue or organ repair -cell replacement -development of organism from zygote (nerve cells cannot reproduce) -mitosis and fission= 2 identical daughter cells identical to originals (clones) with full compliment of chromosomes (diploid) -somatic cells go through mitosis (have back-up genes) -germ cells are reproductive that go through more complex division meiosis producing gametes (haploid)

photosystem II (PS II)

-has rxn center complex primary electron acceptor and special chlorophyll a -rxn center chlorophyll a known as P680 b/c best absorb 680 nm wavelength (red) -associate w/ diff proteins in thylakoid membrane and accounts for diff in light absorbing properties (diff e- distribution in photosystem I and II pigments) -diff in chlorophyll a of two photosystems -results in formation of ATP, O2, and NADPH

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)

-have class I and class II MHC molecules -class II molecules provide molecular signature (recognize)

Prok rapid growth

-have limits as can exhaust their nutrient supply, poison themselves, face competition, or be consumed -short generation times rapid reproduction and mutation allow variation

Evolution of GPRCRs and RTKs

-have similar structures in diverse organisms -GPCR systems widespread and diverse

Bodies of water

-heat and cool air masses that pass across land -local moderation of climate can be limited to coasts and lakes

CRISPR-Cas 9 system

-helps bacteria and archaea defend against attack by viruses -repair by providing normal copy if target gene mutated ->repair enzymes use normal gene to synthesize correct seq. ->gene therapy

Benefits of reduced efficiency of cellular resp

-hibernation -brown fat allows protons to flow back down concentration gradient w/o generating ATP -decoupled -oxidation of stored fuels w/o ATP

alpine tundra

-high winds -cold temps -dont have permafrost -high mountains

extreme environments prok can be found

-highly saline environments (extreme halophiles) -hot environments (extreme thermophiles)

anaphase I

-homologs separate by breakdown of proteins from sister chromatid cohesion -homologs move toward poles guided by spindle apparatus -chromatids move as unit toward pole b/c sister chromatid cohesion persists

macromolecule

-huge and complex -carbs, proteins, nucleic acids -not lipids

cartenoids

-hydrocarbons that are various shades of yellow and orange b/c absorb violet and blue green light -broaden spectrum of color that can drive photosynthesis -photoprotection -human eye -found naturally in vegetables and fruits -antioxidants

evaluating molecular homologies

-if closely related, sequences differ at only one or few sites -comparable nucleic acid sequences in distantly related species have diff bases at many sites and/or have diff lengths (insertions and deletions accumulate) molecular homoplasies -organisms that do not appear closely related -bases that diff seq. happen to share by coincidental matches

G0 phase

-if not receive go ahead signal at G1 checkpoint, may exit cycle -nondividing state -most of human cells -nerve and muscle cells never divide -can be "called back" from G0 phase (liver cells) by external cues such as growth factors

humoral and cell-mediated immune responses

-include primary and secondary immune responses -memory cells (helper T, B cell, cytotoxic T cell) enable secondary

Calvin cycle

-incorporate CO2 from air into organic molecules already present in chloroplast first (carbon fixation) -reduces fixed carbon to carbs by NADPH -ATP used to convert CO2 to carbs -makes sugar from NADPH and ATP produced by light rxn -light-independent rxns or dark rxns -occur during daylight b/c need light rxn

gene duplication

-increase # of genes in genome= more opp. for further evolutionary changes -molecular phylogenies must account for repeated duplications -gene families -orthologous genes -paralogous genes

latency

-infect, then enter inactive site -production of most viral proteins and free viruses ceases -don't trigger adaptive immune response -persists until conditions arise that are favorable for viral transmission or unfavorable for host -Ex. host infected by another pathogen -Herpes

mountains

-influence air flow over land like water -cool air flows from water, air cools at higher alt. and release precipitation, less moisture=less precipitation (rain show can create desert on leeward side) -affect amount of sunlight reaching area, temp, and rainfall -higher alt= drop in temp

activation of B cells

-involves helper T cells and proteins on surface of pathogens -stimulated by antigen and cytokines -proliferates and differentiates into memory B cells and antibody-secreting plasma -B cell presents only antigen to which specifically binds -takes in foreign molecules by receptor mediated endocytosis -cell to cell contact critical leads to robust humoral immune response -single activated B gives rise to thousands of identical plasma cells -plasma cells produce antibodies and stop expressing antigen receptor antigens recognized by B contain multiple epitopes -activates variety of B from exposure to single antigen -diff plasma cells -> antibodies -> against diff epitopes

Fructose

-ketone (carbonyl inside) -monosacch -chain broken from inside -pentagon (2 carbons outside) -strong base mutates to test positive in Benedict

Unknown B

-ketose sugar -complex sugar (polysacch) STARCH and SUCROSE

Unknown A

-ketose sugar -monosaccharide -not protein or polysacch FRUCTOSE and SUCROSE

G2 of Interphase

-know in this phase b/c spindle fibers form -nuclear envelope encloses nucleus -MPF (cyclin and Cdk complex) dependent -nucleus contains one or more nucleoli (singular, nucleolus) -2 centrosomes formed by duplication of a centrosome -chromosomes, duplicated during S phase, cannot be seen individually b/c not condensed

purines

-larger, w/ 6-membered ring fused to a 5-membered ring -adenine, guanine (Both)

Aquatic ecosystems

-light and nutrients are important in controlled primary production

Biomes

-major life zones characterized by vegetation type or physical environment (temp and water) -species vary from one location to another

Toll-like receptors (TLRs)

-mammalian recognition protein similar to Toll protein of insects -produce signals that initiate responses tuned to invading microorganisms -binds to fragments of molecules characteristic of set of pathogens -TLR3 binds to double stranded RNA -TLR4 recognizes lipopolysaccharide (immune plasma membrane) -TLR5 recognizes flagellin

Brown fat

-mammals -burn glucose in beta oxidation -no ATP created -lose ATP through heat -decoupling

Boveri (experiment)

-manipulated sea urchin eggs -found that all chromosomes had to be present for proper embryonic development -specific assortment of chromosomes possess diff qualities -segregation and assortment (Mendelian) -individual chromosomes impact

REason for Mendel to work w/ peas

-many varieties in peas -short generation time -large # of offspring from each mating -could strictly control mating

Equilibrium

-max stability (G at lowest value) -no further net change (chem rxn reversible) -free energy decreases as proceeds toward equilibrium -free energy increases as pushed away from equilibrium -never spontaneous move away from equilibrium and do not work (change from will have positive delta G) -spontaenous and can work only when move toward equilibrium

natural selection

-mechanism for evolutionary change in pop -situational -driven by selective pressures, which change -Ex. "Mesozoic murders" -maintains sexual reproduction -factors can increase prop. of favorable traits -can increase frequency of adaptations -new species can arise as adaptation to new conditions in new environment can arise -always operating as traits favored depends on environment -adaptive evolution -differential success in reproduction (unequal ability to survive and reproduce) -occurs as genetically diff organisms interact w/ each other -artificial selection

animals and humans (meiosis and fertilization timing)

-meiosis in germ cells during production of gametes -diploid zygote divides by mitosis

fungi and protists (meiosis and fertilization timing)

-meiosis w/o multicellular diploid offspring after form diploid zygote from gametes (only diploid stage) -single celled zygote -meiosis produces haploid cells that divide by mitosis and give rise to unicellular descendants or haploid adult -haploid organism carries out more mitosis, producing cells that develop into gametes

Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

-metaphase of meiosis I -each pair might orient w. either mom or dad homolog (random) -50% chance -first meiotic division results in each pair of homologous chromosomes sorting its maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of every other pair -2^n possibilities (n is haploid #) -Ex. humans n=23 so 2^23 possibilities -single parent cell would have one or other possible chromosomal arrangement not both

basal

-microtubule assembly anchored in -similar to centriole -9+0 (nonmotile primary cilia as lack pair microtub) -becomes centriole in fertilized egg

temperate broadleaf forests

-midlat -sufficient moisture support growth of large trees -trees drop seasonally -very cold to hot temps -precipitation high and evenly distributed -soils rich in nutrients

stimuli

-migration -behavioral rhythms -animal communication -pheromones -fixed action patterns

primary electron acceptor

-molecule capable of accepting electrons and becoming reduced -in reaction center complexes -chlorophyll a transfer energy to primary electron acceptor (first step of light rxns) -prevents excited e- to not be dissipated as light and heat -creates NADPH (photosystem I) by using Fd (ferredoxin) -passes e- to Pq, cytochrome complex, Pc then to photosystem I (photosystem II) -pump H+ into thylakoid space and create ATP

systematic inflammatory response

-more extensive tissue damage/infection -stimulate release of additional neutrophils from bone marrow -increase white blood cells -involves fever (enhance phagocytosis and accelerate tissue repair) SEPTIC SHOCK: characterized by very high fever, low blood pressure, and poor blood flow through capillaries -overwhelming systemic inflammatory response -fatal -very old and very young people

Cancer development

-more than one somatic mutation needed -increased chance w/ increased age b/c accumulation of mutations -colorectal (1st) and breast (2nd) -first sign often polyp (small, benign growth in colon lining) -lymph nodes, lungs, liver (filtering areas) development of tumor paralleled by accumulation of mutations -convert proto oncogenes to oncogenes (ras oncogene and mutated p53) -knockout tumor supressor genes (both alleles b/c recessive) -changes at DNA level

visible light

-most important to life -380 nm to 750 nm -can be detected as various colors by human eyes -drives photosynthesis

barrier defenses of innate immunity

-mucous membranes and skin -mucous traps pathogens and inhibits bacteria colonization (ciliated epithelial cells) -saliva and tears -body secretions create hostile environment (lysozyme, stomach pH 2, skin secretions give skin pH 3-5)

formation of new alleles (genetic variation)

-mutations (only mutations in cell lines can be passed to offspring in gametes) -neutral variation -CUMULATIVE mutations can be significant -mutations occur in somatic and not passed on (animals) -many diff cell lines can produce gametes (plants not limited by mutations)

evolutionary change (direct observations)

-natural selection in response to introduced species -evolution of drug-resistant bacteria

evolution of genetic variation

-natural selection=accumulation of genetic variations -new and diff combos of alleles work better sexual reprod. -greatly increases genetic variation -energy expensive

Cancer

-neither density dependent inhibition or anchorage dependence

isotonic (animal cell)

-no net movement of water across the plasma membrane. -Stays the same and stable -water diffuses across at same rate in both directions

Cofactors

-nonprotein enzyme helpers -inorganic (zinc, iron, copper in ionic form) -organic (coenzyme, vitamins) -bound tightly or loosely

opportunitistic pathogens

-normal residents of host, illness when host's defenses are weakened

taiga

-northern coniferous -largest -cool, high elevations -long, cold winters -short, wet summers -soil is thin and acidic -few nutrients available due to slow decomposition -conical shaped conifers

inheritance of organelle genes

-not all euk genes located on nuclear chromosome -extranuclear gene or cytoplasmic genes (outside cell genes) mitochondrial disorders -reduce ATP -affect nervous system and muscles -inherited only from mother Ex. Leber's neuropathy mitochondrial myopathy

Evolution

-not goal oriented -origin of species affected by small-scale and large-scale factors new forms arise by modification of existing structure or existing developmental genes (Francois Jacob's "tinkering") -led to ... -striking ways which organisms suited for life -many shared characteristics of life -rich diversity of life

prometaphase

-nuclear envelope fragments -spindle migrated to poles -chromosomes fully condensed -microtubules extending from each centrosome invade nuclear area -chromosomes more condensed -kinetochore -"kinetochore microtubules" jerk chromosomes back and forth -non kinetochore microtubules interact w/ those from opp. poles of spindle (lengthen cell)

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

-nuclei form -chromosomes decondensing -cytokinesis occurs -division of one parent cell -> 4 daughter cells each w/ haploid set of unduplicated chromosomes -daughter cells genetically distinct

Watson, Crick (experiment)

-observed X-ray diffraction image of DNA from Franklin -showed pattern was helical -showed width of helix and spacing of bases -studied other data and stereochemical configurations of polynucleotides

tropical forests

-occur in equatorial areas -temps warm -tropical dry forests -tropical rain forests -layers (trees above closed upper canopy, lower trees, shrub, ground layer) -soil poor -high temps and rainfalls lead to decomp.

December solstice (winter solstice)

-occurs around December 21 -NH tilts away (shortest day and longest night) -SH tilts toward (longest day and shortest night)

photorespiration

-occurs in light and consume O2 while producing CO2 (resp) through peroxisomes and mitochondria -when CO2 scarce in plant, rubisco adds O2 to Calvin instead of CO2 to create product -uses ATP rather than generating -produces no sugar -decreases photosynthetic output by drawing off organic material from Calvin and releasing CO2 (not fixed) -energetically costly -metabolic relic from when less O2 and more CO2 than today -provide protection against damaging products of light rxn -inevitable as rubisco retains affinity for O2 -drains 50% of carbon fixed by Calvin

First Eukaryotes

-oldest are 12.1 bill yrs old -have nuclear envelope, mitochondria, ER, cytoskeleton (change shape) endosymbiosis serial endosymbiosis

Early multicellular eukaryotes

-oldest known fossils=small red algae that lived 1.5 bya -do not appear in fossil record until 600 mya -fossils (Ediacaran biota)=algae and animals -diversification of Ediacaran biota set stage for "Cambrian explosion" -before Ediacaran period was microbial world -only inhabitants were single celled prok. and euk. w/ microscopic, multicellular euk.

bacterial chromosome

-one double-stranded -circular DNA molecule associated with a small amount of protein -some proteins cause chromosome to coil and "supercoil" (densely packing it into nucleoid)

antibiotics

-only effective against bacteria, not viruses, nor archaea -more than half come from soil bacteria (Streptomyces)

alpha glucose

-opp side of carbon #6 and OH of #1 down -food source -starch

peroxisome

-organelle w/ various specialized metabolic functions -produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to create H2O -enzymes transfer H from toxins to O to create H2O2 -breakdown harmful compounds and alcohol -glyoxysome -split in 2 when reach size -incorporate proteins

Oxidation of glucose

-organic molecules w/ lot of H+=good fuel -fuels w/ C-H bonds oxidize into products w/ C-O bonds -H+ transferred from glucose to oxygen -carbs and fats are main energy-yielding (C-H bonds) -activation energy prevents flood of electrons to lower state -supply energy by enzymes (lower activation energy)

range expansion

-organisms reach area where did not previously exist -can lead to adaptive radiation -show influence of dispersal

endosymbiont theory

-original chloroplast was photosynthetic prokaryotes that lived inside ancestor of eukaryotes -euk evolved whereby different prok became incorporated inside larger prok cells and developed mitochondria and chloroplast

metaphase I

-pairs of homologous chromosomes arranged at metaphase plate w/ one chromosome of each pair facing each pole (sister chromatid cohesion and crossing over essential) -both chromatids of homolog attached to kinetochore microtubules -2 homologs of each pair held together b/c still cohesion in arms beyond cross over

monocot

-parallel veins -thin leaf -stomata at top and bottom -5 ATP per C fixed -C4 -easy way for O2 to get out w/ stomata (decrease in O2) -higher [CO2] in mesophyll (exterior)

Parasitism

-parasites and pathogens are predators -endoparasites: live inside -ectoparasites: live outside -parasitoidism: where parasite kills host; rare; easily spread

Evolution development (changes in gene sequence)

-particular changes in nucleotide sequence of developmental gene contributed to major evolutionary change -Ex. origin of six-legged insect body plan (exact amino acid changes) -difficult to establish casual links btwn genetic and morphological changes -new developmental genes after duplication prob facilitated origin of morphological forms -may affect its function wherever gene expressed

Electron transport chain

-passes electrons in series of steps instead of one explosive reaction -O2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy - yielding tumble -Energy yield is used to regenerate ATP

Mendel (experiment)

-pea plants -crossed true breeding parent with another

logistic population growth

-per capita rate of growth approaches zero as population nears K -"S" curve

arctic tundra

-permafrost keep soil saturated and prevents plant roots from penetrating too far -no trees -low precipitation

evolutionary significance of altered DNA nucleotides

-permanent change in DNA=mutation -mutations are original source of variation on which natural selection operates during evolution (responsible for new species) -resulted in new proteins that contribute to phenotypes w/ correct replication

Methyl Cellulose

-polysacch -beta glucose

Galapagos Finches

-process of radiation of new species from common ancestor -became adapted to diff food sources on islands

Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle

-produce CO2 -breakdown of glucose to CO2 completed -redox rxns (NAD+ or FAD)

Glucagon

-promotes release of blood sugar (blood glucose concentration) -offsets overshoot -opposite of insulin -glycogenolysis (w/o insulin)

Hutton and Lyell

-proposed Earth's geologic features could be explained by gradual mechanisms (Hutton) -same geologic processes operating today as in past and at same rate (Lyell) -influenced Darwin (Earth much older b/c slow geologic changes and allow substantial biological change)

Euk closely related to archae

-rRNA genes suggest related Share features -no peptidoglycan in cell wall -coenzymes -tRNA and multiple RNA polymerases -protein synthesis begins with methionine (start codon) -histones associated with DNA -do NOT respond to some antibiotics

factors that give rise to increased levels of genetic diversity in prok

-rapid reproduction -mutation -genetic recombination

Equilibrium and metabolism

-reactions in a closed system eventually reach equilibrium and then do no work -cells are not in equilibrium; they are open systems experiencing a constant flow of materials -a defining feature of life is that metabolism is never at equilibrium -a catabolic pathway in a cell releases free energy in a series of reactions

Darwin (voyage)

-read Lyell's Principles of Geology -experienced Chile earthquake and studied fossils -primary mission was to chart South America -Captain FitzRoy on Beagle -Wallace did similar conclusion

internal signal (M checkpoint)

-receives stop signal when chromosome not attached to spindle fibers -only when kinetochores of chromosomes properly attach to spindle does regulatory protein complex become activated (anaphase) -complex sets off chain of events that activates separates (cleaves cohesins and allow sister chromatids to separate) -ensure daughter cells don't have missing or extra chromosomes

Diff btwn G protein-coupled receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases

-receptor tyrosine kinase can trigger many pathways -G protein-coupled receptors do not trigger multiple pathways

Alfred Sturtevant's hypothesis

-recombination freq -farther apart 2 genes are, higher probability that crossover will occur btwn them and higher recombination freq -increased distance btwn genes, some points there are btwn where crossing over can occur -mapped genes

Prok essential to health of environment

-recycling of elements in ecosystems -many prok are symbiotic

consequences of mass extinctions

-reduce thriving and complex ecological community -course of evolution changed forever b/c cannot reappear once gone -take millions of years to recover -can change types of organisms residing in ecological communities -can curtal lineages w/ novel and advantageous features -pave way for adaptive radiations (new organisms)

Changes in fates of groups

-reflect diff in speciation and extinction rates Ex. -anaerobic prok. decreases as oxygen increases in atmosphere -amphibians replaced by tetrapods -plate tectonics, mass extinctions, adaptive radiations

kinases

-regulatory molecules of cell cycle -enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating them -present at constant concent. in growing cell -much of time in inactive form

cyclin

-regulatory molecules of cell cycle -protein that gets name from cyclically fluctuating concent. in cell -kinase must be attached to cyclin to be active -cause cell to move from G1 to S or G2 to M along with Cdk proteins

Replicating the ends of DNA molecules

-replication machinery cannot complete 5' ends of daughter DNA strands for linear DNA (euk) ->repeated replication produce shorter DNA w/ uneven ends -shortening of DNA does not occur in prokaryotes b/c have circular chromosomes (prok) -telomeres -telomerase

Immunological Memory

-responsible for long term protection that a prior infection provides against many diseases -Ex. chicken pox -prior exposure alters speed, strength, and duration of immune response -PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE -SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE

fossil record

-sedimentary rocks richest source of fossils -biased in favor of species that existed for long time, abundant and widespread, and had parts that facilitated fossilization (skeleton/ shells) -gaps filled continuously -detailed account of biological change -hard bodied animals that lived in shallow seas have most complete record incomplete chronicle of evolution -not die in right place and time -some fossils destroyed b/c geologic processes -some discovered

Meiosis II

-separates sister chromatids -four haploid daughter cells -develop into egg or sperm

bash wetlands

-shallow basins -ranging from upland depressions to filled-in lakes and ponds

Most common way signal transduced along pathway

-shape change in next protein brought by phosphorylation

chromosomal basis of sex

-short segments at either end of Y are only regions that are homologous w/ regions on X -allow male chromosome to pair and behave like homologs during meiosis -egg receives one X (meiosis) -1/2 sperm cells male produces receive X and 1/2 receive Y (meiosis) -matter of chance for sex determination if egg gets either sperm

anaphase

-shortest stage of mitosis -begins when cohesin proteins cleaved -allows 2 sister chromatids of each pair to part -each chromatid becomes independent chromosome -daughter chromosomes move toward opp. ends of cell as kinetochore microtubules shorten -cell elongates as non kinetochore microtubules lengthen -2 ends of cell have equivalent and complete collections of chromosomes

sexual reproduction (genetic variation)

-shuffles existing alleles into unique combinations -crossing over, independent assortment, fertilization

Checkpoints

-signal transduction pathways -G1 checkpoint -internal signals -growth factor -density dependent inhibition -anchorage dependence cancer

Crossing over process in prophase I

-sister chromatids held together by cohesins 1) each pair of homologs associate along their length -each gene aligned w/ corresponding allele -DNA of 2 nonsister chromatids from mom and dad broken at precisely corresponding points 2) synaptonemal complex -chromatin continues to condense 3)synapsis -produce crossovers 4)points of cross over become visible as chiasmata after synaptonemal complex disassembles -homologs move apart but remain attached b/c sister chromatid cohesion -DNA may no longer be attached to original chromosome -at least one crossover per chromosome must occur for homologs pair to stay together as moves to metaphase I plate -chromosomes continue to condense

albumin

-soluble proteins

Branch lengths in phylogenetic tree

-some branches proportional to amount of evolutionary change or times at which events occurred -Ex. branch length reflects changes in DNA sequences -all diff lineages that descent from common ancestor have survived for same # of years -Ex. humans and bacteria have common ancestor that lived 3 bya (3 bill yrs of evolution in both lineages)

telomeres

-special nucleotide sequences at ends of eukaryotic chromosomal DNA -do not contain genes -DNA typically consists of repetitions of one short nucleotide sequences -protect the organism's genes from being eroded during successive rounds of replication -repeating TTAGGG sequence between 100 and 1000 times -protective functions

evolutionary trends

-species selection -evolutionary trend does not imply that there is intrinsic drive toward particular phenotype -evolution=result of interactions btwn organism and environ (diversity) -if environmental conditions change, trend may cease or reverse

hierarchical classification (Linnaeus)

-species that appear closely related grouped into same genus -taxon -larger categories often not comparable btwn lineages b/c characters for classifying one group may not be app. for other -not reflect evolutionary history Species-Panthera pardus Genus-Panthera Family-Felidae Order-Carnivore Class-Mammalia Phylum-Chordata Kingdom-Animalia Domains (3) -Bacteria, Eukarya, Archaea

Prophase II

-spindle apparatus forms -chromosomes (still 2 chromatids) moved by microtubules toward metaphase II plate

reception

-step one of cell signaling -when Ligand binds to receptor protein (change shape) -receptor protein on cell surface

transduction

-step two of cell signaling -starts cascade of reactions (signal transduction pathway) -multistep pathways can amplify signal

light reactions

-steps that convert solar energy to chemical energy -water split inside thylakoid, providing e- and H+ for NADP+ -> NADPH and ATP -give off O2 -produce no sugar -photophosphorylation -ATP made outside

gelatin-like protein

-structural protein -sulfur -collagen

kinetochore

-structure made up of proteins that have assembled on specific sections of DNA at each centromere -enzymatic potential -critical to chromosome movement -specialized protein structure -formed at centromere of each chromatid -2 per chromosome -each of 2 sister chromatids of duplicated chromosome has

sexual selection (sympatric speciation)

-subgroups adapted to diff food sources -mate choice based on male breeding coloration can act as reproductive barrier

pigments

-substances that absorb visible light -diff pigments absorb light of diff wavelengths -see green b/c chlorophylls absorbs violet blue and red light while transmitting and reflecting green light -see black b/c absorb all -see white b/c most reflected or transmitted

carbohydrates

-sugars -carbonyl group -glucose -sucrose -fructose -lactose -starch -methyl cellulose

modern evolutionary theory

-synthesis of paleontology, taxonomy, biogeography, and pop. genetics -pop as units of evolution -natural selection most important mechanism of evolution -gradualism

terrestrial ecosystems

-temp and moisture are main factors that control primary production -useful for prediction NPP limited by nitrogen and phosphorus

Benedict's test

-test for all monosaccharides (aldose sugars) -positive test shows orange -glucose, fructose, lactose

Seliwanoff's test

-test for ketose sugars -positive test shows pink/red -sucrose, fructose

Iodine test

-test for polysaccharides -positive test shows blue -starch, cellulose, mucus, chitin -methyl cellulose not tested positive

Biuret test

-test for proteins -positive test shows purple -albumin, gelatin

Origin of new organisms

-tetrapods -side branches on tree of life -features of group that dominates life today gradually arose in previously existing group -Ex. cynodonts -> mammals synapsid therapsid early cynodont later cynodont very late cynodont

Permian extinction

-the boundary between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras -96% of marine extinct -occurred in less than 500,000 years (rapid) -252 mya during most extreme volcanism -warmed global climate by 6 degrees celsius b/c CO2 -ocean acidification -stimulate growth of microorganisms -decrease O2 b/c bacteria decomposed microorganisms -increased anaerobic (emit poison)

central vacuole

-the largest organelle in a plant cell -It is surrounded by the tonoplast and functions to hold materials and wastes. -It also functions to maintain the proper pressure within plant cells -storage, breakdown of waste, hydrolysis of macromolecules -enlargement of vacuole=plant growth (overcome ratio of SA: V bc tonoplast) -develops by coalescence of smaller vacuoles -mature plant cells -cell sap is main repository of inorganic ions

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)

-three carbon sugar produced directly from Calvin cycle -for net one G3P, cycle must take place 3 times (fix 3 CO2)

gross primary production

-total primary production -amount of energy from light (or chemicals) converted to chemical energy of organic molecules

tRNA

-transfer -brings amino acids to ribosome

sodium-potassium pump

-transport protein that, translocating the bound solute across the membrane. -Exchanges sodium ions (Na) for potassium ions (K) across the plasma membrane of animal cells. -Na+ high outside and low inside, K+ is low outside and high inside -ATP hydrolysis transfer phosphate to transport protein to power shape change -inside more negative -3 Na+ and 2K+ for each ATP -major electrogenic pump in animals -restores the electrochemical gradient by setting up a concentration gradient.

Functions of membrane proteins

-transport, -enzymatic activity, -signal transduction, -cell-cell recognition, -intercellular joining, -attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

temperate grasslands

-treeless except along rivers/ streams -found in cold winter temps -precipitation too low to support forest growth -droughts -soil enriched by glacial deposits and decaying plants -fires+grazing=no woody plants

B and T cells similarities

-triggered by antigens -produce antigen receptors -have ability to produce mature cells

9 terrestrial ecosystems

-tropical forests -savannas -deserts -chaparral -temperate grasslands -temperate broadleaf forests -coniferous forests -tundra -polar ice

Hershey and Chase (experiment)

-two batches of phage 1)produced in presence of radioactive isotope of sulfur (protein) 2)produced with radioactive isotope of phosphorus (DNA) -centrifuged -found that a lot of phosphorus isotope was located in pellet (DNA)

Applying phylogenies

-two close relatives may be useful as "reservoirs" pf beneficial alleles that can be transferred to cultivated maize -cross breeding or genetic engineering -can infer species identities by analyzing relatedness of DNA sequences from diff organisms

Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes

-upset genetic balance less than autosomes -Y carries few genes -X become inactivated as Barr bodies -klinefelter syndrome -turner syndrome -trisomy X (XXX) females healthy -XYY super male

biological systems

-use free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, reproduce, and maintain homeostasis -store retrieve, transmit and respond to info essential to life processes

Cyclic Electron Flow

-uses photosystem I but not PS II -photoexcited e- can take this alt. path -e- cycle back from Fd to cytochrome complex then to P700 in PSI through Pc -no production of NADPH -no release of oxygen -generate ATP -prokaryotes (ancient system) -Ex. purple and green sulfur bacteria

veins

-water absorbed by roots delivered by -export sugar to roots and other nonphotosynthetic parts

dicot

-webbed veins -thick leaf -stomata at bottom -3 ATP per C fixed -C3

constant (C) region

-where AA sequences vary little among receptors on diff B cells -constant region of heavy chains contains transmembrane region, which anchors receptor in plasma membrane -form asymmetric binding site for antigen (B has 2 identical binding site)

Sutton (experiment)

-worked with grasshoppers -studied chromosomes and meiosis -showed that chromosomes occur in matched pairs of maternal and paternal chromosomes

When first animals appear

0.7 bya

completed error rate and error rate

1 per 10^5 (initial base pairing) and 1 per 10^10 (complete DNA)

3 developments for genomics and proteomics

1) "high-throughput" tech -analyze rapidly 2) bioinformatics: use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze huge volumes of data from "high-throughput" 3) interdisciplinary research teams (specialists) -learn how activites of proteins and RNAs ancoded by DNA are coordinated in cells/organisms

formation of hybrid zone

1) 3 pop. connected by gene flow 2) barrier to gene flow established 3) pop. begins to diverge from other 2 pop. 4) gene flow re-established in hybrid zone 5) reinforcement, fusion, stability

acquired immune response steps

1) B cell finds an antigen (binds to its receptor) 2) T helper cell activates B cell and the B cell divides to produce plasma and memory cells 3) Plasma cells produce anti-bodies and phagocytic cells eat invading cells

chromatin packing

1) DNA (double helix) ->phosphate group along backbone contributes negative charge along outside ->double helix is 2nm 2)histones -histones leave DNA during DNA replication and transcription 3)nucleosomes or "beads on string" ->10 nm fiber ->each "bead" is nucleosome (basic unit of DNA packing) ->each "string" is linker DNA ->consists of DNA wound twice around 8 histones (2 each of 4 main types) -amino ends (histone tail) extends outward [N-terminus] -regulate gene expression 4)30 nm fiber ->interactions btwn histone tails of one nucleosome and linker DNA and nucleosomes on either side ->5th type of histone involved ->prevalent in interphase nucleus 5)looped domains ->300 nm fiber ->30 nm fiber from loops attached to chromosome scaffold -> scaffold rich in one type of topoisomerase 6)metaphase chromosome ->one chromatid is 700 nm ->particular genes always end up at same place (packing is specific and precise)

C4 pathway

1) PEP carboxylase: enzyme present only in mesophyll cells (high affinity for CO2 in mesophyll) -adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), forming 4 carbon product oxaloacetate -can fix carbon efficiently when rubisco cannot during hot day (high affinity for CO2 than rubisco) 2)4-carbon products exported to bundle sheath cells through plasmodesmata after CO2 fixed in mesophyll (malate) 3)4-carbon compounds release CO2 and regenerates pyruvate -refixed into material by rubisco and Calvin -regenerates pyruvate, which is exported to mesophyll where ATP used to convert pyruvate to PEP (allows rxn cycle to continue)

Mendel's pea method (cross-pollination)

1) Remove immature stamens before produce pollen 2)transfer sperm-breeding pollen from stamen onto egg-bearing carpel of altered flowers 3)zygote developed into plant embryo encased in seed (peas)

4 stages to produce simple cells

1) abiotic (nonliving) synthesis of small organic molecules -amino acids and nitrogenous bases 2) joining of small molecules into macromolecules -proteins and nucleic acids 3) protocells/protobionts: droplets w/ membranes that maintained an internal chemistry diff from surroundings 4) origin of self-replicating molecules that eventually made inheritance possible -RNA as first genetic material

2 ways its not like a train

1) all the proteins are part of one complex 2) the template is likely moved through the complex

Mendel's concepts

1) alt version of genes account for variations in inherited characters -alleles: alt version of a gene and show diff degrees of dominance and recessiveness -can affect function of encoded protein and inherited character 2)For each character, organism inherits 2 copies (2 alleles) of gene, one from each parents -genetic locus represented twice in diploid -alleles of locus may be identical (true-breeding) [P] or alleles may differ [F1] 3) if 2 alleles at locus differ then dominant allele determines appearance 4) Law of segregation

Mendel's Model Based on 4 rules

1) alt. version of genes (diff alleles) "particulate mechanism" account for variations in inherited characters 2) for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent (2n) 3) if 2 alleles differ, then dominant allele fully expressed in organism's appearance 4)two alleles for each character segregate during gamete production -law of segregation and independent assortment

helper t cells in humoral and cell-mediated immune responses

1) antigen-presenting cell engulfs a pathogen, degrades it, and display antigen fragments complexes with class II MHC on cell surface -T cell binds to complex via antigen receptor and CD4 2) binding of helper T cell promotes secretion of cytokines by antigen-presenting cell -cytokines activate helper T cell and stimulate its proliferation 3) cell proliferation produces a clone of activated helper T cells -clone cells secrete other cytokines, which help activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells

calvin cycle process

1) carbon fixation -attach CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) [5 carbon sugar] -rubisco enzyme catalyzes first step -product is 6 carbon intermediate which forms 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA) for each CO2 2)Reduction -each PGA becomes 1,3-biphosphoglycerate by using ATP -then become G3P (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) using NADPH -every 3 CO2, 6 G3P formed (net gain of 1 G3P while other 5 recycled to generate 3 RuBP) -consumes 9 ATP and 6 NADPH (created from light rxn) 3)Regeneration of CO2 acceptor (RuBP) -5 G3P rearranged by last step of Calvin into 3 RuBP by using 3 ATP

binary fission process

1) chromosome rep. begins -one copy of origin moves rapidly toward other end of cell by actin-like protein 2) replication continues -one origin now at each end of cell -cell elongates 3) replication finishes -plasma membrane pinched by tubulin-like protein -new cell wall deposited 4) 2 daughter cells

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution

1) contemporary species arose from ancestors that differed from them -"descent with modification" 2)"natural selection" is primary cause of descent with modification (evolutionary adaptation)

natural selection altering freq. distribution of traits

1) directional selection 2) disruptive selection 3) stabilizing selection

Koch's 4 postulates of "germ theory of disease"

1) find same pathogen in all patients 2) isolate and grow pathogens 3) induce disease in experiment 4) isolate original pathogen

ras gene process

1) growth factor binds to receptor in membrane 2) signal relayed to G protein (Ras) -G protein active when GTP bound to it 3)Ras passes signal to series of protein kinases 4) Last kinase activates transcription factor (activator) -turns on genes for protein that stimulates cell cycle mutations -lead to production of hyperactive Ras protein -triggers kinase cascade w/o growth factor

3 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation from sexual reprod.

1) independent assortment of chromosomes 2) crossing over 3) random fertilization

Darwin's observations for natural selection/evolution

1) individuals in population vary in traits, many seem to be heritable 2) population can produce far more than can survive -more than environment able to support (competition) 3) species generally suited to environments (adapted)

natural selection (inferences)

1) individuals whose inherited traits give higher prob. of surviving and reproducing in given environment tend to leave more offspring 2) unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce lead to accumulation of favorable traits in pop. over generations

repressors (like p27 and p53) activated by

1) intercellular and extracellular chemicals 2) density dependent factors 3) temporal

linear electron flow process

1) light hits pigment in light-harvesting complex of PS II then boosts one e- to higher energy -as e- falls, nearby e- raised to excited state -energy relayed until reaches P680 chlorophyll a, which excites e- in chlorophyll 2)P680->primary electron acceptor (P680+ is strongest oxidizing agent) 3)enzyme splits H2O into 2e-(given to P680+ then to primary electron acceptor), 2H+(released into thylakoid space-interior of thylakoid), and O (combines w/ another from H2O split to form O2) 4)e- passes from PSII to PSI via electron transport chain (Pq, cytochrome complex, Pc) -release free energy that is used to pump H+ into thylakoid space 5)potential energy in proton gradient used to make ATP 6)light energy transferred to PSI rxn-center -exciting e- in P700 chlorophyll a -transferred to PSI's primary electron acceptor to create P700+ 7)e- passed down second electron transport chain through Fd -does not create proton gradient -not produce ATP 8)NADP+ reductase transfer e- from Fd to NADP+ -need 2e- to reduce -NADPH e- higher energy level than water (more available for rxn in Calvin) -remove H+ from stroma

chromosome duplication and distribution during cell division

1) long, thin chromatin fiber containing one DNA and associated proteins 2) once duplicated, chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids connected by sister chromatid cohesion 3) sister chromatids separate into two chromosomes and move into two new nuclei (form cells) -chromosomes identical to parent -now considered individual chromosomes not sister chromatids

natural selection (observations)

1) members of population often vary inherited traits 2) all species can produce more offspring than environment can support and many offspring fail to survive and reproduce -Malthus believed human suffering results from human pop. potential to increase faster than resources -saw connection btwn natural selection and capacity to "over reproduce" (all species) 3) traits inheritable 4) not all offspring survive

3 mechanisms that can cause allele freq. change

1) natural selection: only mechanism that consistently improves organism (adapt) 2) genetic drift: chance events alter allele freq. 3) gene flow: transfer of alleles btwn pop. 4) mutations

3 key observations about life

1) organisms suited for life in their environments 2) shared characteristics (unity) 3) diversity of life

acquired immune response

1) pathogen infects host and are taken in by immune cell 2) enzymes cleave each antigen into antigen fragments 3) each fragment binds to an MHC which transports it to cell surface (antigen presentation) 4) encounter with a T cell leads to interaction with antigen fragment and MHC 5) immune response is triggered

transduction process

1) phage infects bacteria 2)phage DNA replicated and cell makes copies of phage proteins -host DNA may be fragmented b/c phage proteins halt synthesis of host proteins 3)new phage assemble w/ fragment of DNA carrying an allele 4)phage carrying allele infects recipient cell -cross over at 2 sites allows donor DNA to be incorporated into recipient DNA 5)Genotype of resulting cell differs from donor and recipient

No exact # of ATP generated

1) phosphorylation and redox rxn not directly coupled to each (NADH ratio to ATP not whole #s) 2) ATP yield varies depending on type of shuttle used to transport e- from cytosol into mitochondrion 3) use of proton-motive force generated by redox rxns to drive other work reduces yield of ATP (if ALL force used -> 32 ATP) 34% of glucose transferred to ATP while rest lost as heat

Why natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms

1) selection can act only on existing variations -new advantageous alleles don't arise on demand 2) evolution limited by historical constraint -evolution co-opts existing structures and adapts to new situations -operates on traits organism already has -doesn't build new complex ancestral structure 3) adaptations often compromises -each organism must do many diff things 4) chance, natural selection, and environment interact (not all adaptive) fnatu -not all alleles present in founding pop. gene pool better suited to new environ than "left behind" alleles -limit extent of adaptive evolution w/ changing environ that is unpredictable

telomeres protective functions (2)

1) specific proteins associated w/ telomeric DNA prevent staggered ends of daughter molecule from activating cell's systems for monitoring DNA damage -staggered ends can lead to cell death 2)telomeric DNA acts as buffer zone that provides protection against organism's genes shortening -postpone -do not prevent erosion at end

MPF process

1) synthesis of cyclin begins in late S phase and through G2 -cyclin accumulates b/c protected from degradation 2) cyclin combines w/ Cdk=MPF -passes G2 checkpoint and begins mitosis when enough MPF accumulate 3) MPF promotes mitosis by phosphorylating proteins -MPF's activity peaks during metaphase 4)MPF's cyclin degraded during anaphase -terminates M phase -cell enters G1 phase 5) Degradation of cyclin continues and Cdk of MPF recycled during G1

3 types of genetic changes that can turn proto-oncogenes into oncogenes

1) translocation or transposition -if translocated proto-oncogene ends up near active promoter or control element then transcription may increase 2) amplification of proto-oncogene -repeated gene duplication 3)point mutations in control element or in proto-oncogene itself -increase in expression or coding sequence of proto-oncogene -gene's product now more active or resistant to degradation than normal protein

Key Points of Phylogenetic Trees

1) trees intended to show patterns of descent, not phenotypic similarity -evolved at diff rates or faced diff environ conditions 2) cannot necessarily infer ages of taxa or branch points -no assumptions about when particular species evolved or how much change occurred 3)not assume that taxon on tree evolved from taxon next to it -only infer that lineages leading to two species both evolved from recent common ancestor

p53 gene process

1)DNA damage=intracellular signal passed via protein kinases 2) Activation of p53 promotes transcription of gene for protein that inhibits cell cycle 3) ensures damaged DNA not replicated or apoptosis

4 common modes of communication

1)visual 2)chemical 3) tactile 4) auditory forms of communication evolves closely related to lifestyle and environment Ex. nocturnal (use olfactory and aud) diurnal (visual and auditory) [humans] info content of communication varies ex. bees "dancing"

Stages of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis 2. Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation

conditions of hardy-weinberg equilibrium

1. No mutations 2. Random mating 3. No natural selection 4. Extremely large population size 5. No gene flow -can be Hardy Weinberg in nature when selection alters allele freq. at some loci but not others and pop evolve slowly -freq. of alleles will remain constant after generations if conditions met -genotypic frequencies of pop gene pool constant after first generation

effects of genetic drift

1. significant in small populations 2. can cause allele frequencies to change at random 3. can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations 4. can cause harmful alleles to become fixed -harmful/beneficial alleles can be lost or fixed through genetic drift

Lamarck's principles

1. use and disuse -parts of body that are used extensively become larger and stronger -not used parts deteriorate -Ex. giraffes stretching necks 2. inheritance of acquired characteristics -organism could pass modifications to offspring -Ex. giraffes stretched necks more each generation

4 major characteristics of adaptive immunity

1.) There is an immense diversity of lymphocytes and receptors, enabling the immune system to detect pathogens never before encountered. 2.) Adaptive immunity normally has self-tolerance, the lack of reactivity against an animals own molecules and cells. 3.) Cell proliferation triggered by activation greatly increases the number of B and T cells specific for an antigen. 4.) There is stronger and more rapid response to an antigen encountered previously, due to a feature known as immunological memory.

net of krebs cycle

2 ATP

net of electron transport chain

2 NAD (glycolysis) 2 NADH (acetyl CoA) 6 NADH (Kreb's) 2 FADH2 (Kreb's) 36 total ATP/glucose

law of segregation

2 alleles for heritable character segregate during gamete formation and end up in diff gametes -egg or sperm gets only one of 2 alleles present in somatic that make gamete -distribution of copies of 2 members of pair of homologous chromosomes to diff gametes in meiosis -50% gametes receive dominant and 50% recessive -if identical alleles then allele present in all gametes (true-breeding) heritable factor for white did not disappear in F1 plants but was hidden -purple=dominant -3:1 ratio (phenotype) -Mendel

we carry

2 alles b/c 2n

electrochemical gradient

2 combined forces drive the diffusion of ions across the membrane. -ion diffuses down electrochemical gradient -

Adenine w/ thymine

2 hydrogen bonds

diameter of the double helix

2 nm

Law of independent assortment

2 or more genes assort independently that each pair of alleles segregates independently of any pair of alleles during gamete formation -applies only to genes (allele pairs) located on diff chromosomes or genes that are far apart on same chromosome -results of Mendel's dihybrid experiment -2 loci on nonhomologous chromosomes, 2 traits, 2 pairs of alleles

sexual reproduction

2 parents give rise to offspring that have unique combo of genes inherited -vary genetically due to behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycle

regulatory molecules of cell cycle

2 types -protein kinases and cyclins -cyclin dependent kinases (Cdks) -MPF

oxygen began accumulating in atmosphere

2.7 bya

guanine w/ cytosine

3 hydrogen bonds

length between 2 nucleotides and # of nucleotides per turn

3.4 nm and 10 nucleotides

Earth settled ___ ago

3.9 bya

rate of elongation in bacteria and humans respectively

500 nucleotides per second and 50/second

C 14 has a half life of

5730 years

phenotypic ratio of a dihybrid cross

9: 3: 3: 1

replication fork

A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where the parental strands are being unwound and new strands are being synthesized. -at each end of replication bubble -several kinds of proteins participate ->Helicase ->single-strand binding proteins ->topiosomerase

percentage breakdown of human DNA

A and T=30 C and G=20

Hfr cell

A bacterial cell in which the F factor has become integrated into the chromosome -Hfr stands for high frequency of recombination -donor during conjugation with F- cell

R plasmids

A bacterial plasmid that carries genes for enzymes that destroy particular antibiotics, thus making the bacterium resistant to the antibiotics. "resistance genes"

Synaptic terminal

A bulb at the end of an axon in which neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.

tertiary consumer

A carnivore that eats other carnivores.

deletion

A change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is removed. -chromosome missing genes -harmful -meiosis (unequal crossover)

ketone group

A chemical group consisting of a carbon double bonded to oxygen (must be in middle of chain) -acetone (simplest) -carbonyl group

ester group

A chemical group consisting of a carbon double bonded to oxygen and single bonded to another oxygen (must be in middler of chain)

ionized carboxyl group

A chemical group consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a negatively charged oxygen

Chitin

A chemical that provides both toughness and flexibility in arthropods -structure -modified beta glucose (1, 4, 6) linkages with added AA -doesn't taste good -beta

tetraploidy

A chromosomal number that is four times the haploid number -4n -failure of 2n zygote to divide after chromosome replication

symbiosis

A close relationship between two species that benefits at least one of the species.

tundra

A cold and treeless biome with low-growing vegetation.

taste bud

A collection of modified epithelial cells on the tongue or in the mouth that are receptors for taste in mammals.

food web

A community of organisms where there are several interrelated food chains

deep-sea hydrothermal vent

A dark, hot, oxygen-deficient environment with volcanic activity near the sea floor

capsule

A dense and well-defined sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein that surrounds the cell wall of many prokaryotes. -enable cell to adhere to their substrate or to others -protect against dehydration -shield pathogenic prok from attacks by host immune system

trombone model

A description of DNA replication on the lagging strand, with its repeated cycles of loop growth and disassembly, by analogy with the movement of a slide on a trombone. -2 DNA polymerases, one on each template strand, "reel in" parent DNA -extrude daughter DNA -lagging strand looped back through complex

lagging strand

A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' S 3' direction away from the replication fork -DNA pol III works AWAY from replication fork -DNA pol I replaces RNA nucleotides from 5' end of fragment 1 (add to 3' end of fragment 2) -synthesis of leading and lagging strand occur concurrently and at same rate -named "lagging" b/c synthesis slightly delayed relative to leading strand -new fragment cannot start until enough template exposed at replication fork -opens at origin then spreads out

zoonotic pathogen

A disease-causing agent that is transmitted to humans from other animals.

extinction vortex

A downward population spiral in which inbreeding and genetic drift combine to cause a small population to shrink and, unless the spiral is reversed, become extinct. (loss of genetic variation)

desert

A extremely dry biome with little water and few plants

F factor

A fertility factor in bacteria -a DNA segment that confers the ability to form pili for conjugation and associated functions required for the transfer of DNA from donor to recipient -It may exist as a plasmid or be integrated into the bacterial chromosome. -conjugation

thick filament

A filament composed of staggered arrays of myosin molecules; a component of myofibrils in muscle fibers.

thin filament

A filament consisting of two strands of actin and two strands of regulatory protein coiled around one another; a component of myofibrils in muscle fibers.

innate immunity

A form of defense common to all animals that is active immediately upon exposure to pathogens and that is the same whether or not the pathogen has been encountered previously. -molecular recognition relies on small set of receptor proteins that bind to molecules or structures that are absent from animal bodies but common to pathogens -ANIMALS and PLANTS -recognition and response rely on traits common to pathogens -binding of innate immune receptor activates defense -responses to very broad range of pathogens -anything other than recognized "self cells" -active but non specific

sexual selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates. -diff in reproductive success are consequence of diff in mating success -sexual dimorphism results from intersexual selection intrasexual selection

ecosystem service

A function performed by an ecosystem that directly or indirectly benefits humans.

sex-linked gene

A gene located on either sex chromosome. -Most sex-linked genes are on the X chromosome and show distinctive patterns of inheritance -there are very few genes on the Y chromosome X-linked gene Y-linked gene

hemizygous

A gene present on the X chromosome that is expressed in males in both the recessive and dominant condition -used for MALES to describe their X-linked genes b/c not homo or hetero -males always express allele from mom

cline

A graded variation in a trait along geographic axis -mutations result in genetically diff neighbors that interbreed -exert selective pressure

cohort

A group of individuals of the same age in a population.

population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

exoskeleton

A hard encasement on the surface of an animal, such as the shell of a mollusk or the cuticle of an arthropod, that provides protection and points of attachment for muscles.

endoskeleton

A hard skeleton buried within the soft tissues of an animal.

Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP)

A human disease characterized by extreme sensitivity to ultraviolet light. -caused by an autosomal recessive allele that inactivates the nucleotide excision DNA repair system.

wetland

A land area that is covered with a shallow layer of water during some or all of the year -flooded at least some of time -filter dissolved nutrients and pollutants -periodically low in oxygen -most productive biomes -diverse community

Myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

DNA ligase

A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication -catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of one DNA fragment (such as an Okazaki fragment) to the 5' end of another DNA fragment (such as a growing DNA chain) -join sugar-phosphate backbones of all Okazaki fragments into continuous DNA strand

myofibril

A longitudinal bundle in a muscle cell (fiber) that contains thin filaments of actin and regulatory proteins and thick filaments of myosin.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

entropy

A measure of disorder or randomness.

lateral line system

A mechanoreceptor system consisting of a series of pores and receptor units along the sides of the body in fishes and aquatic amphibians; detects water movements made by the animal itself and by other moving objects.

hair cell

A mechanosensory cell that alters output to the nervous system when hairlike projections on the cell surface are displaced.

opsin

A membrane protein bound to a light-absorbing pigment molecule.

bottom-up model

A model of community organization in which mineral nutrients influence community organization by controlling plant or phytoplankton numbers, which in turn control herbivore numbers, which in turn control predator numbers.

top-down model

A model of community organization in which predation controls community organization because predators control herbivores, which in turn control plants, which in turn control nutrient levels

nonequilibrium model

A model that maintains that communities change constantly after being affected by disturbances.

ligands

A molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.

ligand

A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule -usually causing a receptor protein to undergo a change in shape

ligand

A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one. -causes receptor protein to undergo change in shape

odorants

A molecule that can be detected by sensory receptors of the olfactory system.

slow-twitch fiber

A muscle fiber that can sustain long contractions.

fast-twitch fiber

A muscle fiber used for rapid, powerful contractions.

nucleoid

A non-membrane-bounded region in a prokaryotic cell where the DNA is concentrated -dense region of DNA

endoparasite

A parasite that lives inside of a host.

ectoparasite

A parasite that lives on the outside of a host. (Ex: fleas on dogs)

zero population growth

A period of stability in population size, when births + immigration = deaths + emigration

C3 plants

A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate. -first organic product of carbon fixation is a 3-phosphoglycerate -initial fixation of carbon occurs via rubisco -production of sugar decreases because CO2 decreases in leaves and starves Calvin on hot day (close stomata) -rice, wheat, soybeans -"regular" Calvin cycle -thicker leaves -dicot

survivorship curve

A plot of the number of members of a cohort that are still alive at each age -red: low death rates during early/middle life while death rates increase older age-groups (large mammals that have few offspring with good care) -black: rel. constant death rates -blue: high death rates for young while death rates decline for those that survive (produce large # of offspring with little care)

climograph

A plot of the temperature and precipitation in a particular region.

peptidoglycan

A polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides. This molecular fabric encloses the entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that extend from its surface. -Archaea and Euk lack

single-strand binding protein

A protein that binds to the unpaired DNA strands during DNA replication, stabilizing them and holding them apart while they serve as templates for the synthesis of complementary strands of DNA -after parental strands separate

cone

A receptor cell in the retina of the vertebrate eye, sensitive to color.

rod

A receptor cell in the retina of the vertebrate eye, sensitive to low light intensity.

electromagnetic receptor

A receptor of electromagnetic energy, such as visible light, electricity, or magnetism.

thermoreceptor

A receptor stimulated by either heat or cold.

nucleoid

A region of cytoplasm containing the prokaryote's genetic material -not enclosed by a membrane -

interspecific interaction

A relationship between individuals of two or more species in a community.

commensalism

A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected

mutualism

A relationship between two species in which both species benefit

Mutualism

A relationship between two species in which both species benefit -Ex: flowering plants and pollinators

biodiversity hot spot

A relatively small area with numerous endemic species and a large number of endangered and threatened species.

nucleotide excision repair

A repair system that removes and then correctly replaces a damaged segment (usually DNA pol I) of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide -involved polymerase and DNA ligase -nuclease cuts out damaged segment

mark-recapture method

A sampling technique used to estimate wildlife populations. -capture random sample and "tag" -after waiting, capture second sample -N=sn/x

mechanoreceptor

A sensory receptor that detects physical deformation in the body's environment associated with pressure, touch, stretch, motion, or sound.

chemoreceptor

A sensory receptor that responds to a chemical stimulus, such as a solute or an odorant.

nociceptor/pain receptor

A sensory receptor that responds to noxious or painful stimuli.

movement corridor

A series of small clumps or a narrow strip of quality habitat (usable by organisms) that connects otherwise isolated patches of quality habitat.

food chain

A series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten

okazaki fragment

A short segment of DNA synthesized away from the replication fork on a template strand during DNA replication. -Many such segments are joined together to make up the lagging strand of newly synthesized DNA. -1000-2000 nucleotides in bacteria -100-200 in eukaryotes

primer

A short stretch of RNA with a free 3' end, bound by complementary base pairing to the template strand and elongated with DNA nucleotides during DNA replication -initial nucleotide chain produced during DNA synthesis -new DNA will start from 3' end of RNA primer

motor unit

A single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls.

hydrostatic skeleton

A skeletal system composed of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment; the main skeleton of most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, and annelids.

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR; mine will never be above 2000)

A specialized endoplasmic reticulum that regulates the calcium concentration in the cytosol of muscle cells.

sensory receptor

A specialized structure or cell that responds to a stimulus from an animal's internal or external environment.

endangered species

A species in danger of becoming extinct in the near future

threatened species

A species that could become endangered in the near future

keystone species

A species that influences the survival of many other species in an ecosystem

keystone species

A species that influences the survival of many other species in an ecosystem -not usually abundant in community

invasive species

A species, often introduced by humans, that takes hold outside its native range.

functional groups

A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions. -effect shape and give unique prop. -hydroxyl [hydrophilic; increase solubility] (reactive) -carbonyl [hydrophilic; increase solubility] (reactive) -carboxyl [hydrophilic; increase solubility](reactive) -amino [hydrophilic; increase solubility](reactive) -sulfhydrl(reactive) -phosphate(reactive) -methyl

alpha helix

A spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure. -btwn every 4th amino acid

estradiol

A steroid hormone that stimulates the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics; the major estrogen in mammals.

Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose -alpha -able to eat -polymer of glucose (polysacch) -aldose -amylose is alpha 1,4 bonds (linear) -amylopectin is alpha 1,4,6 bons (branched)

chitin

A structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.

cellulose

A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms -structure -beta 1,4 bonds (linear) -cannot digest -fiber

culture

A system of information transfer through influential social learning or teaching that influences behavior of individuals in population -alter behavioral phenotypes and influence fitness of individuals -social learning

Gram stain

A technique that allows scientists to categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.

northern coniferous forest

A terrestrial biome characterized by long, cold winters and dominated by cone-bearing trees.

tropical rain forest

A terrestrial biome characterized by relatively high precipitation and temperatures year-round.

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

endospores

A thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions. -when cell lack water or essential nutrients -can remain dormant but viable for centuries in less hostile environments -able to rehydrate and resume metabolism

Axon

A threadlike extension of a neuron that TRANSMITS nerve impulses away from the cell body.

semicircular canals

A three-part chamber of the inner ear that functions in maintaining equilibrium.

ion channels

A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient.

savanna

A tropical grassland biome sustained by occasional fires and droughts. Consists of scattered individual trees and large animals (zebras, lions, hyenas).

agonistic behavior

A type of behavior involving a contest of some kind that determines which competitor gains access to some resource, such as food or mates. -often ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains access to resource -behavioral and morphological variation extremely high -sexual selection led to alt. male mating behavior and morphology

prokaryotic cell

A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles -no nucleus -ribosomes -found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea.

eukaryotic cell

A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. -nucleus -ribosomes -mitochondria -chloroplast (photosynthesis) -domain Eukarya -Examples of organisms with these cells are protists, plants, fungi, and animals.

Inductive reasoning

A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations.

statocyst

A type of mechanoreceptor that functions in equilibrium in invertebrates by use of statoliths, which stimulate hair cells in relation to gravity.

Batesian mimicry

A type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators.

compound eye

A type of multifaceted eye in insects and crustaceans consisting of up to several thousand light-detecting, focusing ommatidia.

smooth muscle

A type of muscle lacking the striations of skeletal and cardiac muscle because of the uniform distribution of myosin filaments in the cells; responsible for involuntary body activities.

cardiac muscle

A type of striated muscle that forms the contractile wall of the heart. Its cells are joined by intercalated disks that relay the electrical signals underlying each heartbeat.

skeletal muscle

A type of striated muscle that is generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.

bacteriophage

A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage

rhodopsin

A visual pigment consisting of retinal and opsin. Upon absorbing light, the retinal changes shape and dissociates from the opsin.

variable (V) region

AA sequence varies extensively from one B cell to another -form asymmetric binding site for antigen (B has 2 identical binding site)

dominantly inherited disorders

Achondroplasia -dwarfism -not lethal -heterozygous -recessive much more prevalent Huntington's disease -disease degenerating nervous system caused by lethal dominant allele -passed b/c symptoms appear after reproductive age -track chromosome 4 allele -phenotype not obvious until older -high CAG repeats -more active p53 -apoptosis, lower cancer rates -muscle spasms, cognitive difficulty

locomotion

Active motion from place to place.

purines

Adenine and Guanine (2 rings)

protobionts

Aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane. -can form by self assembly -maintain an internal chemical environment -display properties associated with life, metabolism, and excitability -not highly developed (big molecules can pass) -natural selection could refine

Community

All the different populations that live together in an area

How many cells are identical at end of meiosis

All unique -impossible for gametes to be identical b/c Law of Independent Assortment and crossover -called gametes -differences emerged after anaphase

primary production

Amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs. -chemoautotrophs -chemical is initial energy input while organic compounds are products

life table

An age-specific summary of the survival pattern of a population.

homeotherm

An animal that maintains a controlled internal body temperature using its own heating and cooling mechanisms

biomanipulation

An approach that applies the top-down model of community organization to alter ecosystem characteristics.

classical conditioning

An arbitrary stimulus is associated with an award or punishment. -ex. dogs associate food w/ bell ringing

landscape

An area containing several different ecosystems linked by exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms.

primary producer

An autotroph, usually a photosynthetic organism. -supports all others -chemosynthetic prokaryotes

photoreceptor

An electromagnetic receptor that detects the radiation known as visible light.

FMN (flavin mononucleotide)

An electron carrier derived from riboflavin (vitamin B2) that transfers hydrogen ions and electrons from NADH to electron transport -prosthetic group in complex I

DNA polymerase

An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA (for example, at a replication fork) by the addition of nucleotides to the 3' end of an existing chain. -DNA polymerases can add nucleotides only to free 3' end of primer b/c of their structure -require primer and DNA template strand, along which complementary DNA nucleotides lined up -hydrolysis (breaking bonds) of pyrophosphate to 2 P is coupled exergonic rxn that helps drive polymerization rxn (building) -each added nucleotides=sugar attached to base and 3 P ->ATP=chemically reactive; ribose; energy metabolism ->dATP=chemically reactive; deoxyribose; adenine nucleotides used to make DNA E. coli ->DNA polymerase III adds DNA nucleotide to RNA primer and then continues adding DNA nucleotides (complementary to parent)

telomerase

An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells -restore original length -compensate for shortening that occurs during DNA replication -contains own RNA that it uses as template to artificially "extend" leading strand -not active in human somatic cells, but varies from tissue -results in telomeres of max length -high activity=cancer

nuclease

An enzyme that cuts DNA or RNA, either removing one or a few bases or hydrolyzing the DNA or RNA completely into its component nucleotides

primase

An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make a primer during DNA replication -using the parental DNA strand as a template (base pairing) -synthesize primer -starts complementary RNA chain w/ single RNA nucleotide and adds RNA nucleotides one at a time -5 to 10 nucleotides long -new DNA will start from 3' end of RNA primer

protein kinase

An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein. -help regulate control proteins -activated by cyclin

helicase

An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at replication forks, separating the two strands and making them available as template strands.

disturbance

An event, such as storm, fire, flood, drought, etc, that changes a community -biomes are often patchy, containing diff communities in area -some depend on periodic

adaptive radiation

An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species from introduction to new environm -result of allopatric and sympatric speciation

controlled experiments

An experiment in which only one variable is manipulated at a time. -designed to demonstrate effect of one variable by testing control groups and experimental

zoned reserve

An extensive region that includes areas relatively undisturbed by humans surrounded by areas that have been changed by human activity and are used for economic gain.

virus

An infectious particle incapable of replicating outside of a cell, consisting of an RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protein coat (capsid) and, for some viruses, a membranous envelope

transverse (T) tubules

An infolding of the plasma membrane of skeletal muscle cells.

receptor potential

An initial response of a receptor cell to a stimulus, consisting of a change in voltage across the receptor membrane proportional to the stimulus strength.

Herbivory

An interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga -plants defenses against herbivores -secondary compounds (toxins) -mobbing (seed dispersal at once)

predation

An interaction in which one organism kills another for food.

Cytochromes

An iron-containing protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells -their prosthetic group (heme) has iron atom that accepts and donates electrons -Cyt a3 is last cytochrome of chain -passes e- to O

hydrocarbon

An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen. -petroleum (fossil fuel) -cell's organic molecules (fats) -not prevalent in organisms -can undergo rxns that release large amount of energy -framework for more complex

decomposer

An organism that breaks down wastes and dead organisms

producer

An organism that can make its own food.

parasite

An organism that feeds on a living host

endotherm

An organism that is internally warmed by a heat-generating metabolic process

myoglobin

An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells.

tastant

Any chemical that stimulates the sensory receptors in a taste bud.

density independent

Any factor limiting the size of a population whose effect is not dependent on the number of individuals in the population. (Ex: an earthquake will kill all members of the population regardless of whether the population is small or large). -birth rate or death rate that does not change w/ population density -cannot consistently change (change dramatically)

biome

Any of the world's major ecosystem types (e.g., forest or tundra). They're classified by vegetation (terrestrial biomes) or physical environment (aquatic biomes).

pili

Appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other -tend to be longer and less numerous than fimbriae -increased pili

methanogens

Archaea that release methane, a greenhouse gas, as by product of their unique ways of obtaining energy -use CO2 to oxidize H2 (produces energy and methane waste) -poisoned by O2 -decomposers

centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

testosterone

Asteroid hormone required for development of the male reproductive system, spermatogenesis, and male secondary sex characteristics; the major androgen in mammals.

taxis

Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from some stimuli.

3-Domain system

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya -taxonomic level higher than kingdom level -highlights that much of history been about single celled organisms initially was 5 kingdoms -Monera (prok) -protista -plantae -fungi -animalia polytomy: unresolved pattern of divergence -branch point leading to multiple lineages

metabolic pathway

Begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product. -each step cataylzed -can have more than one starting molecule and/or product -catabolic and anabolic pathways

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord; Integration and command center

cladogenesis

Branching evolution occurs when a new species branches out from a parent species

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to RECEIVE information.

aposematic coloration

Bright warning colors in animals with a chemical defense.

Avery, McLeod, McCarthy (purpose and findings)

Built off of Griffith's experiment. -Said that DNA was the transformation factor (add to the claim that genetic material from DNA)

Nerves

Bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system.

Glucose

C6H12O6 -hexose sugar -hexagon (1 carbon outside) -monosacch -energy source -aldose (carbonyl outside) -look at Carbon #3 and start at most electronegative end (longest chain possible) [O is most electronegative] -OH of #3 opposite from #2 and #4 OH

aldehyde group

CHO -propanal -carbonyl group

carboxyl group

COOH -acid (donate H+) -compounds known as carboxylic acid and organic acid

Chemicals

CYCLE WITHIN an ecosystem -recycled

cryptic coloration

Camouflage; makes an organism difficult to spot.

stomata

Carbon dioxide enters and exits the plant through small openings on the undersides of the leaves

eukaryotic cell

Cell with a nucleus and membrane bound organelles -protists, fungi, animals, plants -most DNA is in nucleus, bounded by double membrane

prokaryotic cell

Cell with no nucleus nor membrane bound organelles -bacteria and archaea domains -DNA concentrated in region that is not membrane-enclosed (nucleoid) -fimbriae: attachment structures on surface (not visible on TEM) -cell wall -glycocalyx: outer coating consisting of capsule or slime -flagella: locomotion organelles

Interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs; majority of neurons in brain

Finding D sugar/L sugar

Chain -go up one C from bottom (not near defining functional group) -Find OH -if on right, then D-sugar (can digest) -if on left, then L-sugar (non-digestible; sugar-free) Ring -if carbon #6 is up then D -if carbon #6 is down then L

ion channels (gated channels)

Channels that open or close depending on the presence or absence of an electrical, chemical, or physical stimulus. -transport ions -nervous system -channel proteins

Voltage-gated ion channels

Channels that open or close in response to a change in the membrane potential.

Chargaff (findings)

Chargaff's Rules N-base ratios: A=T C=G Species Specific -DNA carries genetic info -basis of Watson and Crick double helix

microclimate

Climate within a small area that differs significantly from the climate of the surrounding area (localized) -affected by casting shade, alt. evaporation from soil, or changing wind patterns -forest trees moderate microclimate below

isomer

Compounds that have the same # of atoms of same elements but diff structures and properties

structural isomer

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms. (DIFFERENT SHAPE) -# of possible isomers increase as carbon skeletons increase in size -may also differ in location of double bonds

integumentary system

Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail -physical barrier preventing microbial access

metabolic cooperation

Cooperation between prokaryotes allows them to use environmental resources they could not use as individual cells -heterocysts -biofilms

catastrophism

Cuvier -A principle that states that geologic change occurs suddenly -local disaster accounted for organismal change -extinction of one species and repopulation through immigration of new species -NOT gradual change over time -evolution

Pyrimidines

Cytosine and Thymine (1 ring)

comparison of mitosis and meiosis

DIFFERENCES -occurs with 2n (or higher) cells -results in genetically diverse cells -"reduction division" -1 cell becomes 4 -meiosis reduces # of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid -meiosis sister chromatid cohesion released in 2 steps 1) anaphase I-release along sister chromatid arms allow HOMOLOGS to separate 2) anaphase II-release at centromeres allows SISTER CHROMATIDS to separate -mitosis occurs with 1n or 2n cells -results in 2 genetically identical cells -1 cell becomes 2 -mitosis conserves # of chromosome sets (identical to parent) -mitosis sister chromatid cohesion lasts until end of metaphase -synapsis doesn't occur in mitosis SIMILARITIES -mechanisms for separating sister chromatids identical in meiosis II and mitosis

synapsis

DNA breaks closed up when each broken end is joined to corresponding segment of nonsister chromatid -produce crossovers -prophase I -transferred loci has chaismata that do not have important genes

conjugation

DNA is transferred between two prokaryotic cells that are temporarily joined -always one way for bacteria (one cell donates DNA and other receives it)

crossing over

DNA of nonsister chromatids broken by proteins and rejoined to each other -chiasmata -recombinant chromosomes -produces chromosomes w/ new combinations of maternal and paternal alleles -diff possible arrangements of non identical sister chromatids during meiosis II further increases genetic types of daughter cells

chromosomes

DNA packed into structure -replication and distribution of DNA are manageable because of chromosomes euk -each chromosome consists of one long linear DNA w/ proteins -proteins help control genes -chromosome carries many genes -each has characteristic # of chromosomes

sliding clamp

DNA pol III is closely associated with this. it encircles the newly synthesized double helix like a doughnut. it moves DNA pol III along the DNA template strand

photolyase

DNA repair enzymes that repair damage caused by exposure to ultraviolet light

Hershey and Chase (findings)

DNA was injected into host cells and made up genetic material of phage (VIRUS)

detritus

Dead organic matter

territoriality

Defense of a space against encroachment by other individuals.

Sugars in nucleotides

Deoxyribose (DNA) and ribose (RNA)

discrete characters

Determined by SINGLE locus with different alleles that produce distinct phenotypes -genetic variation

sustainable development

Development that meets the needs of people today without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

membrane potential (mV)

Difference in voltage across the plasma membrane; always given in terms of voltage inside the cell relative to voltage outside the cell

genetic variation

Differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA segments -"either-or" basis heritable phenotype determined by single gene locus w/ diff alleles producing distinct phenotype -other phenotypic diff vary in gradations which determined by two or more genes -GENE VARIABILITY can be quantified as avg. % of loci that are heterozygous at whole-gene level -NUCLEOTIDE VARIABILITY measured at molecular level of DNA of genetic variation -w/o genetic variation, evolution cannot occur -only genetically determined part of phenotypic variation can have evolutionary consequences -some phenotypic variation does not result from genetic diff

kinetic energy

Energy associated with relative motion of objects. -moving objects and perform work by imparting motion to other matter

first law of thermodynamics

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. -conservation of energy

2nd law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be changed from one form to another without a loss of usable energy (heat)

conservation of energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed -first law of thermodynamics

heterochromatin

Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed -inaccessible to transcribing genetic info in DNA (gene expression)

game theory

Evaluates alternate strategies when outcome depends not only on each individual's strategy but also that of others. -relative performance Ex. orange, blue, or yellow throat lizards -frequency-dependent selection -"rock paper scissors" (can beat one but can be overcome by another) -measure of Darwinian fitness

Evapotranspiration

Evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration from plants. -Correlates with species richness. -determined by amount of radiation and temp

Omnis cellula e cellula

Every cell from a cell

second law of thermodynamics

Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. -unstoppable trend toward randomization -loss of useable energy as heat=more entropy

heterochrony

Evolutionary change in the timing or rate of an organism's development. -paedomorphosis

shared derived character

Evolutionary novelty unique to that clade -Ex. hair shared by all mammals but not found in ancestors -can refer to loss of feature -unique to particular clades

Miller-Urey Experiment

Experiment that found that organic molecules can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere. -tested Oparin and Haldane hypothesis -abiotic synthesis of organic molecules -discharged sparks in an atmosphere of H2O, H2, CH4, and NH3 -produced variety of amino acids and other organic molecules -evidence suggests that early atmosphere made up primarily of nitrogen and carbon dioxide -neither reducing nor oxidizing ("neutral") -small pockets may have been reducing (volcanoes=abiotic synthesis of organic molecules)

sign stimulus

External sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern. -stickleback fish

Klinefelter syndrome

Extra X chromosome in males (XXY) -male sex organs sterile and small even if X inactivated

monohybrid

F1 progeny were heterozygous for one particular character being followed in cross -follow single character -monohybrid cross (btwn heterozygotes) -law of segregation

Energy

FLOWS THROUGH an ecosystem in one direction -come in by light -leave by heat -all organisms must perform work, requiring energy

Cuvier

Father of paleontology -documented succession of fossil species in Paris Basin -recognized extinction -advocated catastrophism

trophic structure

Feeding relationships between organisms in a community.

trophic structure

Feeding relationships between organisms in a community. -Quaternary consumers -Tertiary consumers -secondary consumers -primary consumers -primary producers

nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined; depolarized region between Schwann cells in the axon of a neuron

X-linked genes

Genes found on the X chromosome. -human X chromosome contains 1,100 gene

gene families

Groups of related genes in an organism's genome

exponential population growth

Growth of a population in an ideal, unlimited environment, represented by a J-shaped curve when population size is plotted over time. -increase by constant proportion -dn/dt=rN -growth depends on population size and per capita change at each instant

Proton-motive force

H+ gradient, emphasizing its capacity to work generated by an electron transport chain which acts as a proton pump, using the energy of electrons from an electron carrier - seperating charge across membrane

ATP synthase

H+ moves back across the membrane through the protein complex, uses exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of ATP

four common types of histone

H2A, H2B, H3, H4

monogamous

Having sexual relations with one partner only, excluding all others. These relationships are usually long-term relationships. -sexual dimorphism correlates with

high level of disturbance

High Intensity and High Frequency

Gradualism

Hutton -profound change results from slow, continuous processes -mechanisms currently operating

spontaneous generation

Hypothesis stating that life could arise from nonliving matter. -Pasteur broth experiments reject idea

bundle-sheath cells

In C4 plants, a type of photosynthetic cell arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of a leaf. -cyclic e- flow only mode of making ATP while malate to CO2 and pyruvate create NADPH

littoral zone

In a lake, the shallow, well-lit waters close to shore. -rooted and floating aquatic plants live

limnetic zone

In a lake, the shallow, well-lit waters far from shore. -water too deep to support rooted aquatic plants -phytoplankton and cyanobacteria

X inactivation in female mammals

In mammalian females, one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is randomly inactivated during embryonic development -The inactive X condenses into a Barr body (gene not expressed) -If a female is heterozygous for a particular gene located on the X chromosome, she will be a mosaic for that character -reactivated Barr body in cells that give rise to eggs -every egg have active X after meiosis -which X will form Barr body occurs randomly and independently -mosaic of 2 types of cells (2/ active X from father or mom) -inactivation=modification of DNA, histones, attach methyl groups, RNA initiate and regulate -XIST tortoiseshell cat no sweat glands

round window

In the mammalian ear, the point of contact where vibrations of the stapes create a traveling series of pressure waves in the fluid of the cochlea.

oval window

In the vertebrate ear, a membrane-covered gap in the skull bone, through which sound waves pass from the middle ear to the inner ear.

Neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.

mate-choice copying

Individuals in a population copy mate choice of others. -can mask genetically controlled female preference below certain threshold of diff -selective pressure is that female that mates w/ males that are attractive increase probability that male offspring will also be attractive

Krebs Cycle inputs and outputs

Inputs: 2 pyruvate, e-, NAD+, H+, coenzyme A Outputs: H+, CO2, NADH, 2 acetyl-coA

Glycolysis inputs and outputs

Inputs: glucose, e-, ADP, Pi, H+, NAD+, ATP 2 Outputs: 2 pyruvate, ATP 4, NADH, H+, H2O

eutrophic lake

Lake with a high supply of nutrients but depleted of oxygen (high decomposable organic matter)

oligotrophic lake

Lake with a low supply of nutrients but oxygen-rich (low decomposable organic matter)

carrying capacity

Largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support -K -varies -crowding and resource limitation can effect

Cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm

tropics

Latitudes between 23.5° north and south. -sunlight strikes most directly

Mendel (findings)

Law of Segregation -each gamete carries only one allele for each gene Law of independent assortment -allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene

Threshold

Level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse

taxonomy

Linnaeus -system for naming species and grouping species -showcasing God's creations -simple to complex

Uniformitarianism

Lyell -geological process had not changed throughout Earth's history

Origin of self-tolerance

Lymphocyte antigen receptors are tested for self-reactivity Those that are self reactive undergo apoptosis or rendered nonfunctional -body normally lacks mature lymphocytes that can react against own components -self reactive lymphocytes rendered nonfunctional, leaving those that react to foreign molecules

Ganglia

Masses of nerve cell bodies

law of conservation of mass

Matter is neither created nor destroyed -show introduction, loss, or cycle of chemical elements

chromosome theory of inheritance

Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) along chromosomes -chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

Moderate levels of disturbance can create conditions that foster greater species diversity.

species transplant

Movement of a species to areas where it was previously absent. -organisms must survive and reproduce in new area -potential range > actual range -can disrupt -Ex. predator introduced

immigration

Movement of individuals *into* an area

NADP+/NADPH

NADP+ becomes reduced to convert to NADPH in photosynthesis

Kin selection

Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives. -weakens by hereditary distance -siblings -> r=0.5 -not favors rescuing cousin as rB decreases

Alfred Sturtevant's Rule

Need heterozygotes to detect recombination

biogenic amines

Neurotransmitters derived from amino acids, includes norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin

abiotic

Nonliving; referring to the physical and chemical properties of an environment.

Humoral immune response

Occurs in blood/lymph (body humors/ fluids) -primary and secondary immune response included Antibodies help neutralize or eliminate toxins and pathogens in blood/lymph

eukaryotic chromosome

One linear DNA molecule associated with a large amount of protein -contains single linear DNA double helix -chromatin

geometric isomer

One of several compounds that have the same molecular formula and covalent bonds between atoms but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms owing to the inflexibility of double bonds (DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENT)

ommatidium (plural, ommatidia)

One of the facets of the compound eye of arthropods and some polychaete worms.

outer ear

One of the three main regions of the ear in reptiles (including birds) and mammals; made up of the auditory canal and, in many birds and mammals, the pinna.

inner ear

One of the three main regions of the vertebrate ear; includes the cochlea (which in turn contains the organ of Corti) and the semicircular canals.

middle ear

One of three main regions of the vertebrate ear; in mammals, a chamber containing three small bones (the malleus, incus, and stapes) that convey vibrations from the eardrum to the oval window.

Griffith (findings)

Pathogenic activity inherited by all descendants of transformed bacteria -Transformation: change in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of external DNA by cell -Evidence that DNA can transform bacteria

uner tan syndrome

Persons affected by this syndrome walk with a quadrupedal locomotion and are afflicted with primitive speech and severe mental retardation

C4 plants

Preface the Calvin cycle with an alternate mode of carbon fixation that forms a four-carbon compound as its first product -minimize photoresp. and optimize Calvin even in hot climate -no PSII but have PSI -bundle sheath cells -mesophyll cells -sugarcane and corn -PEP carboxylase and regeneration of PEP= ATP powered pump that concentrates CO2 -minimize photorespiration and enhance sugar -advantageous in hot regions, high light, low CO2 (stomata close during day) -thinner leaves -runs both C3 and C4 -monocot

Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

Presynaptic: The neuron that carries the impulse towards the synapse Postsynaptic: The neuron that carries the impulse away from the synapse.

nitrogen fixation

Process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia -nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria are some of most self sufficient organisms

non-kinetochore microtubules

Produces elongation of the cell as they slide past each other away from the middle of the cell (anaphase) -interact w/ each other from opp. poles b/c continue elongating and overlap -use ATP to move regions of overlap (push apart) but continue to lengthen (add subunits)

Meselson and Stahl

Proved that DNA replicates in a semiconservative fashion, confirming Watson and Crick's hypothesis. -designed experiment that distinguid btwn models -they demonstrated that the replicated DNA consisted of one heavy strand and one light strand

Griffith (purpose)

Purpose: Trying to develop vaccine against pneumonia

ribozymes

RNA that are enzyme-like catalyst -can make complementary copies of short pieces of RNA w/ nucleotide building blocks -vesicles carrying replicating, catalytic RNA can grow, split, pass RNA to "daughters" (protocells) -RNA -> DNA (more accurate replication and stable) natural selection=self-replicating ribozymes -single stranded RNA assume variety of 3D shapes -may have shapes that enable them to replicate faster

generation of B and T cell diversity

Randomly links any one of 40 V to any one of 5 J -combining variable elements (assemble diff receptors) -antigen receptors synthesized after light and heavy chain gene rearranged -each pair of randomly rearranged heavy and light chains results in diff antigen-binding site -mutations increase antigen-binding specificities recombinase -> enzyme complex -> links one light chain V gene to one J gene -> form single exon ->acts randomly

antiparallel

Referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix -they run in opposite 5' S 3' directions -2 new strands formed during DNA replication must also be antiparallel to their template strands -DNA polymerases can add nucleotides only to free 3' end of primer b/c of their structure

Rh factor

Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells. Rh - -make antibodies against Rh antigen -can cause jaudice -rogam given to moms to prevent production of anti Rh antibodies

Kranz anatomy

Refers to the structure of C-4 leaves and differs from C-3 leaves. In C-4 leaves, the bundle sheath cells lie under the mesophyll cells, tightly wrapping the vein deep within the leaf, where CO2 is sequestered

iteroparity

Reproduction in which adults produce offspring over many years -repeated reproduction -freq of reproduction -turtle, large mammals

semelparity

Reproduction in which an organism produces all of its offspring in a single event -"one-shot" pattern of big-bang reproduction before die -freq. of reproduction -salmon and agave

K-selection

Selection for life history traits that are advantageous at high densities -also called density-dependent selection. -density near carrying capacity -competition stronger

r-selection

Selection for life history traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments -also called density-independent selection -maximize intrinsic rate of increase (r) -little competition -found in disturbed habitats that are recolonized

Three stages of information processing in a nervous system

Sensory input, integration, and motor output

origin of replication

Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins -short stretches of DNA that have specific sequence of nucleotides -consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides E. coli and bacterial chromosome -> circular and has single origin ->proteins separate 2 strands and open up replication "bubble" ->replication proceeds both directions Euk. ->have multiple origins ->multiple replication bubbles form and eventually fuse (speed up process) ->replication in both directions from each origins

epitope

Small, accessible portion of an antigen that can be recognized. -binds to antigen receptor -Ex. AA in protein -single antigen has several epitopes (specific binding) -each B or T cell displays specificity for particular epitope -respond to any pathogen that produces molecules containing that epitope

plasmids

Smaller rings of independently replicating DNA molecules that only carry a few genes, found in prokaryotic cells, in addition to its single chromosome.

biological species concept

Species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to produce viable, fertile offspring -do not produce viable, fertile offspring w/ members of other groups -united by being reproductively compatible -gene flow holds pop. together genetically -separateness of species -species designated by absence of gene flow -reproductive isolation

dominant species

Species that are the most abundant or have the most biomass

dominant species

Species that are the most abundant or have the most biomass. -competitively superior in getting resources -avoid herbivory or disease -ex: oak tree

law of superposition

Sterno -oldest sedimentary rocks laid down first -youngest rocks occur in successive layers

glycogen

Storage form of glucose in animals -alpha 1, 4, 6 (branched) -stored in muscle and liver -polymer of glucose

competitive exclusion

Strong competition can lead to local elimination of one of the species. -slight reproductive advantage

secondary succession

Succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil

linking classification and phylogeny

Systematists depict evolutionary relationships in branching phylogenetic trees -can make mistake of placing species b/c might be that over course of evolution species lost key feature shared by relatives -Linnaean system tells nothing about evolutionary relationships to one another -proposed classification be based on evolutionary relationships -names assigned to groups that include common ancestor and all of its descendants -consequence could be that some commonly recognized groups become part of other groups

exploitation

Taking advantage of a weaker group (+/-) -predation -herbivory -parasitism

biomanipulation

Technique for restoring eutrophic lakes that reduces populations of algae by manipulating higher-level consumers.

organ of Corti

The actual hearing organ of the vertebrate ear, located in the floor of the cochlear duct in the inner ear; contains the receptor cells (hair cells) of the ear.

critical load

The amount of added nutrient that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem.

estuary

The area where a freshwater stream or river merges with the ocean. -salinity varies -most productive -breeding grounds, migrate through, feeding areas

phylogenetic trees as hypotheses

The best hypotheses for phylogenetic trees fit the most data: morphological, molecular, and fossil -may be modified when new evidence compel -can make and test predictions based on assumption that particular phylogeny is corect -phylogenetic bracketing

single-lens eye

The camera-like eye found in some jellies, polychaete worms, spiders, and many molluscs.

mismatch repair

The cellular process that uses specific enzymes to remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides that resulted from replication errors -used when evade proofreading by polymerase

iris

The colored part of the vertebrate eye, formed by the anterior portion of the choroid.

chromatin

The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes. -When the cell is not dividing, chromatin exists in its dispersed form, as a mass of very long, thin fibers that are not visible with a light microscope -fits into nucleus through an elaborate, multilevel system of packing

cochlea

The complex, coiled organ of hearing that contains the organ of Corti.

energetic hypothesis

The concept that the length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain.

competitive exclusion

The concept that when populations of two similar species compete for the same limited resources, one population will use the resources more efficiently and have a reproductive advantage that will eventually lead to the elimination of the other population.

Axon hillock

The conical region of a neuron's axon where it joins the cell body; typically the region where nerve signals is generated.

sensory transduction

The conversion of stimulus energy to a change in the membrane potential of a sensory receptor cell.

sensory reception

The detection of a stimulus by sensory cells.

ecological succession

The disturbed area may be colonized by a variety of species, which are gradually replaced by a succession of other species

biosphere

The entire portion of Earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the planet's ecosystems.

protein kinase

The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein

reproductive isolation

The existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede members of two species from producing viable, fertile offspring. -block gene flow btwn species -limit formation of hybrids (offspring that result from interspecific mating) -prezygotic barriers -postzygotic barriers

double helix

The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.

production efficiency

The fraction of energy stored in food that was not used for cell respiration.

sarcomere

The fundamental, repeating unit of striated muscle, delimited by the Z lines.

DNA replication complex

The group of proteins involved in DNA replication, which does not move, but rather has DNA fed through it. -complexes anchored to nuclear matrix (euk) -trombone model -protein-protein interactions facilitate efficiency -primase acts as brake (slow process of rep. fork and coordinate placement of primers)

orthologous genes

The homology results from a speciation event -occurs between genes found in different species -can only diverge after speciation and genes found in separate pools -Ex. cytochrome c in humans and dogs

sliding-filament model

The idea that muscle contraction is based on the movement of thin (actin) filaments along thick (myosin) filaments, shortening the sarcomere, the basic unit of muscle organization

pluralistic species concept

The idea that there is no universal explanation for the cohesion of individuals that make up species. -reproductive isolation and ecological niche

retina

The innermost layer of the vertebrate eye, containing photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) and neurons; transmits images formed by the lens to the brain via the optic nerve.

perception

The interpretation of sensory system input by the brain.

euchromatin

The less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription

retinal

The light-absorbing pigment in rods and cones of the vertebrate eye.

Brain

The mass of nerve tissue that is the main control center of the nervous system

tetanus

The maximal, sustained contraction of a skeletal muscle, caused by a very high frequency of action potentials elicited by continual stimulation.

fluid mosaic model

The membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules bobbing in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids -group of proteins in long-lasting, specialized patches w/ common function -lipid rafts -continually refined -how regulates cell traffic

turnover

The mixing of waters as a result of changing water temperature profiles in a lake. -sends oxygenated water from surface to bottom -brings nutrient rich water from bottom to surface in spring and autumn

Rubisco

The most abundant protein on earth. Performs Carbon Fixation in the Calvin Cycle. -calvin cycle enzyme that adds CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate -capable of binding O2 in place of CO2 (photoresp.)

Hyperpolarization

The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.

photic zone

The narrow top layer of an ocean or lake, where light penetrates sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur.

leading strand

The new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand toward the replication fork in the mandatory 5' S 3' direction -only one primer req for DNA pol III to synthesize entire strand -synthesis of leading and lagging strand occur concurrently and at same rate

realized niche

The niche species actually occupies

fundamental niche

The niche species could potentially occupy. -w/o competition

species diversity

The number and relative abundance of species in a biological community.

density

The number of individuals per unit area or volume. -mark-recapture method -not static but changes (immigration and birth; emigration and death)

marine benthic zone

The ocean floor. -below surface water of coastal (neritic) zone -offshore pelagic zone -no sunlight except near shallow -sufficient oxygen -hydrothermal vents -photosynthetic organisms

pupil

The opening in the iris, which admits light into the interior of the vertebrate eye. Muscles in the iris regulate its size.

aphotic zone

The part of an ocean or lake beneath the photic zone, where light does not penetrate sufficiently for photosynthesis to occur (deep in aphotic zones; 2,000-6000m below surface)

abyssal zone

The part of the ocean's benthic zone between 2,000 and 6,000 m deep.

dispersion

The pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of a population. -clumped (most common; defense and predation increaase; favorable resources) -uniform (direct interactions; antagonistic and terrirtoriality; decrease competition) -random (independent; absence of strong attractions; physical/chemical factors rel. constant)

trophic efficiency

The percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next higher trophic level.

fovea

The place on the retina at the eye's center of focus, where cones are highly concentrated.

F plasmid

The plasmid form of the F factor. -F+ -cells containing function as DNA donors during conjugation -transferrable -tell bacteria to produce conjugation tube or pilus tube when another bacteria present

DNA replication

The process by which a DNA molecule is copied; also called DNA synthesis

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when typically sodium is rushing into the cell (through gated sodium channels) causing the interior to become more positive.

neritic zone

The region of shallow ocean water over the continental shelf.

tropomyosin

The regulatory protein that blocks the myosin-binding sites on actin molecules.

troponin complex

The regulatory proteins that control the position of tropomyosin on the thin filament.

age structure

The relative number of individuals of each age in a population.

demography

The scientific study of vital stats and how change over time -birth, death, migration rates -life table

plasma membrane

The selective barrier that surrounds a cell; it controls what enters and leaves the cell -upper limit on size of cell -SA grows less than volume (smaller has greater ratio of SA to V) -smaller allows exchange lots of material -microvilli increase SA w/o increase V -larger organisms have MORE cells, not larger cells

olfaction

The sense of smell.

gustation

The sense of taste.

minimum viable population

The smallest population size at which a species is able to sustain its numbers and survive. -best estimated by calculating effective population size

metatasis

The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site

amplification

The strengthening of stimulus energy during transduction.

lens

The structure in an eye that focuses light rays onto the photoreceptors.

organic chemistry

The study of carbon & hydrogen compounds (organic compounds). -compounds containing carbon are said to be organic (no matter of origin) -physical and chemical laws govern processes of life

thermodynamics

The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter. -system -surroundings -isolated system -open system

population dynamics

The study of how complex interactions between biotic and abiotic factors influence variations in population size.

community ecology

The study of how interactions between species affect community structure and organization -predation and competition

urban ecology

The study of organisms and their environment in urban and suburban settings.

ecological niche

The sum of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment. -two species cannot coexist permanently if niches arise through time (competitive exclusion) -ecologically similar species can coexist if one or more significant diff in niches (time and space)

character displacement

The tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric (overlapping) populations of two species than in allopatric (separate) populations of the same two species. -competition -Ex. beak depths similar in allopatric

sensory adaptation

The tendency of sensory neurons to become less sensitive when they are stimulated repeatedly.

plate tectonics

The theory that the continents are part of great plates of Earth's crust that float on the hot, underlying portion of the mantle. -Movements in the mantle cause the continents to move slowly over time. -move cm/yr -can infer past locations using magnetic signal recorded in rocks at time of their formation -direction of magnetic north also changes as continent shifts -drift away, slide past (earthquakes), or collide (mountains/ islands) -continental drift -organisms adapt, move to new location, or become extinct when climate changes -promotes allopatric speciation on grand scale -help explain geographic distribution of extinct and current

inclusive fitness

The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring. -help siblings -provided way to measure effect of altruism -account for most altruism

evapotranspiration

The total evaporation of water from an ecosystem, including water transpired by plants and evaporated from a landscape, usually measured in millimeters and estimated for a year.

Eustachian tube

The tube that connects the middle ear to the pharynx.

Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS)

The two types of glia that form myelin sheaths around axons.

bioremediation

The use of living organisms to detoxify and restore polluted and degraded ecosystems -remove pollutants from air, water, and soil

greenhouse effect

The warming of Earth due to the atmospheric accumulation of carbon dioxide and certain other gases, which absorb reflected infrared radiation and reradiate some of it back toward Earth.

Gram-negative

These bacteria tend to have less peptidoglycan, are more structurally complex, with an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded to lipids). -lipid portion of lipopolysaccharides in walls are toxic (endotoxins) -stain pink -outer membrane helps protect it from the body's defenses -tend to be more resistant than gram positive to anitbiotics b/c outer membrane impedes entry of drugs

Gram-positive

These bacteria tend to have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan. -stain purple

plasmolysis

This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact. The plasma membrane pulls away from the wall. -causes plant to wilt and can lead to plant death in hypertonic enviro

multiplication rule

To determine the probability that two or more independent events will occur together, we multiply the probability of one event by the probability of another. -Ex. coins 1/2 (head prob) x 1/2 (head prob) =1/4 (prob both coins land heads up) RR=1/4 rr=1/4=1/2 (r) x 1/2 (r)

cellular innate defenses

Toll-like receptor (TLR) Neutrophils Macrophages Dendritic cells Eosinophils Natural killer cells Lymphatic systems Antimicrobial peptides Interferons Complement system

life history

Traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival. -evolutionary outcomes -vary in age and freq. of reproduction and how many offspring

anagenesis

Transformation of a single species over time, straight line evolution -one species into another

Müllerian mimicry

Two or more unpalatable species resemble each other.

semiconservative model

Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the parental molecule, and one newly made strand (first replication) -Watson and Crick -2 double helixes only made of daughter cells and 2 with mix of daughter and parent (second replication)

Ligand-gated ion channel

Type of membrane receptor that has a region that can act as a "gate" when the receptor changes shape; receptor protein that binds and responds to neurotransmitters

coral reef

Typically a warm-water, tropical ecosystem dominated by the hard calcium carbonate skeletal structures secreted primarily by corals. -sensitive to temp -shallow vs deep -high oxygen -fringing to barrier to coral atoll -diverse cnidarians

bottom-up model

Unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. (V --> H) -alter biomass at lower levels to change strucutre

bioremediation

Use of living organisms such as prokaryotes, fungi, or plants to detoxify polluted ecosystems.

biological augmentation

Uses organisms to add essential materials to degraded ecosystems.

Englemann

Using a green algae, determined that red and blue light support higher rates of photosynthesis than other wavelengths -red bent the least bc longer wavelength

genomic imprinting

Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele is inherited from the male or female parent. -autosomes -occurs during gamete formation -results in silencing of particular allele of certain genes -offspring expresses only one allele of imprinted gene -chromosomes of developing gametes newly imprinted according to sex of individual forming gametes -imprinted genes always imprinted same way -methyl groups added to cytosine (silence/activate) -critical for embryonic development

sex chromosomes

X and Y chromosomes -genes on X don't have counterparts on tuny Y -Y chromosomes has genes lacking on X -only small parts of X and Y are homologous -we inherit one chromosome of a pair from each parent -X in sperm or egg -Y in sperm

Inheritance of X-linked genes

X chromosomes have genes for many characters unrelated to sex -whereas the Y chromosome mainly encodes genes related to sex determination -fathers pass X linked to all daughters but none to sons -moms pass X-linked to both daughters and sons

XIST

X inactivation specific transcript -genes become active only on chromosome that will become Barr body

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD)

X-linked disorder very serious -weak muscles and loss of coordination -absence of muscle protein (dystrophin)

Hemophilia

X-linked recessive disorder -absence of one or more proteins req. for blood clotting

Antigen recognition of B cells

Y shaped protein consisting of 4 polypeptide chains -2 identical heavy chains -2 identical light chains (V, joining (J), C segment) -disulfide bridges link chains constant (C) region variable (V) region -lead to diff make ups in chains -allow diff antigen binding sites and cell functions antibody (immunoglobulin IG) -binding of antigen highly specific b/c diff in AA sequences -bind to INTACT antigens in blood and lymph (protruding epitopes)

cross-fostering study

Young of a species is placed in the care of a different species in similar environment -revealing social + physical impacts on behavior -experience during development can influence behaviors -can modify physiology in way that alters parental behavior and influence to generations -measure influence of social environment and experience on behavior

temperate grassland

[aka prairies] A terrestrial biome that exists at midlatitude regions and is dominated by grasses and rich soil. Hot summers, cold winters.

glycocalyx

a bacterial capsule that is made of a fuzzy coat of sticky sugars -Ex. tartar

Pathogen

a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease. -internal environment of animal offers ready source of nutrients, protected setting, and means of transport to new environments

ecosystem

a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

protein

a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure. -unbranched -peptide bonds

temperate broadleaf forest

a biome located throughout midlatitude regions where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large, broadleaf deciduous trees

rooted

a branch point within the tree represents the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree -farthest left

food web

a branching food chain with complex trophic interactions

fatty acid

a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. Vary in length and __________ linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also called triglyceride. -carbon skeleton with carboxyl at one end

secondary consumer

a carnivore that feeds only upon herbivores

Sodium-potassium pump

a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell

endocytosis

a cell brings in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane. -phagocytosis, -pinocytosis -receptor-mediated endocytosis.

G protein-coupled receptor

a cell-surface transmembrane receptor that works with the help of a G protein -single polypeptide has 7 transmembrane alpha helices, which have loops that form binding sites for signaling molecules and G proteins -widespread and diverse in their function (evolved early)

shared ancestral character

a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon -Ex. backbone in mammals

catalyst

a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

dehydration synthesis

a chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule. -one monomer provides hydroxyl (-OH) while other provides hydrogen (-H) -can form molecules that are not polymers, like lipids -polymerization: monomers added one by one to make polymer

hydrolysis

a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; functions in dis-assembly of polymers to monomers. -can break molecules that not polymers, like lipids

inversion

a chromosomal fragment may also reattach to the original chromosome but in the reverse orientation -can alter phenotype -all genes present in normal doses

stability

a community's tendency to reach and maintain a relatively constant composition of species

glycosidic linkage

a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

density dependent

a death rate that increases with population density or a birth rate that falls with rising density -can consistently change (regulate) -negative feedback

pedigree

a diagram of a family tree with conventional symbols, showing the occurrence of heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations -created/analyzed b/c unable to manipulate mating patterns of people -helps calculate probability that future child will have particular genotype and phenotype Ex. widow peak recessive taste PTC dominant

evolutionary tree

a diagram that reflects evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms -represent pattern of descent from common ancestors -each branch point represents common ancestor of 2 lineages diverging from point -hatch mark represents homologous characteristic shared by all groups to right of mark -if share more recent common ancestor, then closely related -hypotheses

sexual dimorphism

a difference in secondary sexual characteristics between males and females of the same species -diff in size, color, ornamentation, behavior -result of sexual selection

taxis

a directed movement toward or away from a stimulus -Ex. chemotaxis (in response to chemicals/nutrients) -phototaxis oriented movement (+/-) -use flagella to move (prok flagella less wide and not covered by extension of plasma membrane) [arose independently and are analogous]

disaccharide

a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction. -sucrose (table sugar) [1-2 glycosidic linkage] -maltose (glucose+glucose) [1-4] -lactose (glucose+galactose)

saturated

a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that are attached to the carbon skeleton. -no double bonds -animal fats -solid

unsaturated

a faty acid that has one or more double bonds betwen carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton. -double bonds -plants -liquid

H1

a fifth histone involved in nucleosome packing

nuclear matrix

a framework of protein fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior -organize genetic material

sex-determining region Y (SRY)

a gene on the Y chromosome that specifies male development -req. for development of tests -if absent, develop into ovaries even in XY embryo

actin

a globular protein that makes up microfilaments

Absorption spectrum

a graph plotting a pigments light absorption v s wavelength

metapopulation

a group of spatially separated populations of the same species which interact at some level -local pop. linked -discrete patches of suitable habitat in are of unsuitable -vary in size, quailty, and isolation -underscore immigration and emigration -ex: butterfly

Batesian mimicry

a harmless species mimics a harmful one -bluffing -organism being mimicked does not benefit as result of mimic

cytosol

a jellylike substance where organelles and other components are found

basal taxon

a lineage that diverges from all other members of its group early in the history of the group

fat/oil

a lipid consisting of three fatty acids lined to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride. -Function as energy storage. -glycerol: alcohol w/ each three carbons have hydroxyl

triglyceride

a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule

phospholipid

a lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as polar, hydrophilic head. They form bilayers that function as biological membrane. -phosphate group is hydrophilic

polymer

a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.

flagella

a long tail-like structure that aids in cell movement -cluster of microtubules -limited to one or few per cell -longer than cilia -undulating motion like fish -sperm, algae, plants -move fluid over surface -held in place as part of tissue

enzyme

a macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. most of them are proteins.

net ecosystem production

a measure of the total biomass accumulation during that time -gross primary production minus total respiration of organisms of all kinds -determines whether ecosystem is gaining or losing carbon -measure net flow of carbon dioxide or oxygen entering or leaving -store carbon when CO2 enters more and O2 released more -NEP=GPP-Rt -Rt=total respiration

nuclear lamina

a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope, lines the nuclear side of the nuclear envelope -organize genetic material

cytoskeleton

a network of fibers bracing the cytoplasm -reinforces cell shape and movement (important in animal cells) -proteins -microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules -anchorage for organelles and enzymes -can be quickly dismantled in one part and reassemble in new place -bend membrane to form vacuoles or vesicles

Action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; have a constant magnitude; used for transmitting a signal long distance; occurs when depolarization increases voltage to threshold

nucleoid region

a non-membrane-enclosed region of the cell where prokaryotic DNA is found

DNA

a nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) -capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins. -directs RNA synthesis and controls protein synthesis -each chromosome contains one long DNA -not directly involved in operations (just info)

nucleoside triphosphate

a nucleoside (a sugar and base) with three phosphate groups. where each added nucleotide comes from

biogeochemical cycle

a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through biotic and abiotic compartments of Earth

Refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired; second action potential cannot be initiated

nucleic acid

a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers -serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. -DNA and RNA. -storage, transmission & use of genetic material

polynucleotide

a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain. -The nucleotides can be those of DNA or RNA.

polypeptide

a polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. -one end has free amino (N-terminus) -one end has free carboxyl (C-terminus)

polysaccharide

a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions. -joined by glycosidic linkages -storage material -building material for structure

horizontal gene transfer

a process in which genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms -exchange of transposable elements and plasmids viral infection -fusions of organisms -3 domains show substantial gene movements btwn domains -tangled branches

sexual selection

a process in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals of the same sex to obtain mates (Darwin) -sexual dimorphism -intrasexual selection -intersexual selection

hybrid zone

a region in which members of different species meet and mate -producing at least some offspring of mixed ancestry -incomplete reproductive barriers (come in contact) -located wherever habitats of interbreeding species meet -obstacle to gene flow -hybrids can be less fertile (don't pass on alleles) -existing hybrid zone can move or novel hybrid zone may form when change in environ alter where interbreeding species meet -can be source of novel genetic variation that improves ability of parent species to cope w/ change in environ -reinforcement -fusion -stability

centrosome

a region located near the nucleus where micro-tubules grow from -important in cell division -pair of centrioles -centrioles is pair of centrosome -compression resisting girders of cytoskeleton -organize microtubule assembly

ecotone

a region of transition between two biological communities

primary cell wall

a relatively thin and flexible layer in plant cells, first secreted by a young cell -middle lamella

cilia

a short hair-like structures that enable movement of cells or movement of materials outside a cell, -utilizes a back-and-forth motion -large # on surface -held in place as part of tissue layer -can move fluid over surface of tissue

heterocysts

a specialized cell that engages in nitrogen fixation in some filamentous cyanobacteria -each surrounded by thickened cell wall that restricts entry of O2 produced by photosynthetic cells -intercellular connections all to transport fixed nitrogen to neighboring cells and to receive carbs

polyploidy

a species may originate from an accident during cell division that results in extra sets of chromosomes -agricultural crops -weeds -autopolyploid -allopolyploid

geologic record

a standard time scale that divides Earth's history into four eons and further subdivisions -first 3 eons lasted 4 billion years together (Hadean, Archaean, Proterozoic) Phanerozoic eon encompasses most of time animals existed on Earth (last .5 bill yrs) -Paleozoic, Mesozoic ("age of reptiles"), Cenozoic eras -boundaries btwn eras correspond to major extinction events -tetrapods appear (419 mya) [Paleozoic] -flowering plants (145 mya) [Mesozoic] -bipedal human ancestors (5.3 mya) [Cenozoic]

signal

a stimulus transmitted from one animal to another constitute animal communication

starch

a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by x glycosidic linkages. -Used for energy storage and withdrawn by hydrolysis -simplest form of unbranched amylose -1-4 alpha linkage

secondary cell wall

a strong and durable matrix in plant cells, often deposited in several laminated layers for cell protection and support -btwn plasma membrane and primary wall

disulfide bridges

a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer. -(-SH) as side chain [sulfhydryl group] -tertiary structyre

cellulose

a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by B glycosidic linkages. -A type of plant starch. -most abundant -straight molecule -1-4 glycosidic linkages (Beta)

chitin

a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods. -beta linkages -1,4,6 linkages

carbohydrate

a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides). Primarily C, H and O.

biofilms

a surface coating colony of prokaryotic that engage in metabolic cooperation -secrete signaling molecules that recruit nearby cells, causing colonies to grow -produce polysaccharides and proteins that stick cells to substrate (form capsule or slime layer) -channels allow nutrients to reach cells in interior and wastes to be expelled -contaminate industrial products -common in nature

panspermia

a theory that life did not originate on Earth but arrived in the form of bacterial spores or viruses from an extraterrestrial source

thermocline

a thin but distinct layer in a large body of water in which temperature changes more rapidly with depth than it does in the layers above or below -separates more uniformly warm upper layer from cold deeper waters -thermal energy from sunlight warms surface

middle lamella

a thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells that glues them together with pectin -btwn primary cell walls of adjacent

steroid

a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached. -Function as part of membranes or hormones.

polygamous

a type of relationship in which an individual of one sex mates with several of the other -sexual dimorphism

hydrophobic

a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water.

Cell fractionation

a useful technique for studying cell structure and function -takes cells apart and separates major organelles and subcellular structures -centrifuge: spins test tubes holding mixtures of disrupted cells of increasing speeds

scientific theory

a well-tested concept that explains a wide range of observations -broad in scope -generates new hypotheses -supported by evidence

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

a widely distributed amino acid transmitter, and the main inhibitory transmitter in the mammalian nervous system

aneuploidy

a zygote with an abnormal number of a particular chromosome if either of nondisjunction gametes (2 or none chromosome) unite w/ normal at fertilization -results from nondisjunction -one extra/missing chromosome disrupts more than extra set (polyploidy) -no gametes normal monosomic trisomic

benign tumor

abnormal cells may remain at original site if have too few genetic and cellular changes to survive at another site -do not cause serious problems -can be removed by surgery

endergonic rxn

absorbs free energy from its surroundings -stores free energy/use energy -positive delta G -nonspontaneous -magnitude of delta G is energy req. to drive rxn

Chlorophyll A

absorption spectrum of A suggests violet-blue and red light work best for photosynthesis -main photosynthetic pigment

chlorophyll b

accessory pigment -broaden spectrum of colors that can be used for photosynthesis -appears olive green

Interphase

accounts for about 90% of cell cycle -cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles G1 phase ("first gap") -all organelles and cytoplasmic components replicate, including centrioles -cell grows -most variable in length in time -if not divide, spend time in G1 or G0 doing their job S phase ("synthesis) -DNA replicates -continues to grow as copies its chromosomes -longest time G2 phase ("second gap") -all enzymes needed for cell division are produced -grows more as it completes preparation for cell division

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

accounts for more than half of total membrane in many eukaryotic cells -continuous with the nuclear envelope -network of membranous sacs and tubes -active in membrane synthesis -separates ER lumen or cisternal space from cytosol

Oxidative phosphorylation

accounts for most of ATP synthesis, creates most ATP bc its powered by redox reactions (90%)

Theodor W. Engelmann

action spectrum of photosynthesis was first demonstrated by him -exposed different segments of a filmentous alga to different wavelengths -areas favorable to photosynthesis produced excess O2 -growth of aerobic bacteria clustered along the alga as a measure of O2 production

helper T cells

activates humoral and cell-mediated immune responses 2 conditions must be met before can happen: 1) foreign molecule must be present that can bind specifically to antigen receptor of helper T cell 2) this antigen must be displayed on surface of antigen-presenting cell -dendritic cell, macrophage, or B cell

cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)

activity of rises and falls w/ changes in concent. of cyclin partner -creates active kinase attached to cyclin -causes cell to move from G1 to S or G2 to M along with cyclins

stabilizing selection

acts against both extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants -reduces variation and tends to maintain status quo -Ex. birth weights of babies

reduction

addition of electrons to atoms of a substance

polygenic inheritance

additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character -converse of pleiotropy where single gene affects several phenotypes -intermediate characteristics Ex. height and skin pigment

DNA polymerase III

adds nucleotides to the primer in the 3' direction -synthesize complementary strand in 5' to 3' direction -remains in replication fork and adds nucleotides to new complementary strand as fork progresses

2 hydrogen bonds

adenine forms

gene pool

all copies of every type of allele at every locus in all members of population -population's genetic makeup fixed allele: only one allele exists for particular locus in pop. -all individuals HOMOZYGOUS for allele

dispersive model

all four strands of DNA following replication have a mixture of old and new DNA

populations

all individuals of species living within bounds of specific area

cell theory

all living things composed of cells cells come from existing cells by cell division

biosphere

all organisms and the part of Earth where they exist -land,water,atmosphere of several km, sediments below

species-area curve

all other factors being equal, the larger the geographic area of a community, the more species it has

disorders and disease that arise when adaptive immunity blocked/misregulated

allergies autoimmune disease exertion and stress influence immune system immunodeficiency diseases

selectively permeable

allows some substances to cross more easily than others. -lipid bilayer and specific transport proteins

plants and algae (meiosis and fertilization timing)

alternation of generations -diploid and haploid -sporophyte -gametophyte

continental drift

alters habitats (Pangea 250 mya) -ocean basins became deeper and drained coastal seas -changed physical environment and climate -drove some to extinction and provided new opportunities

fetal testing

amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling (CVS), newborn screening

reproductive table

an age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population

chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

an alternative to amniocentesis in which fetal cells are extracted from the chorion for prenatal tests. -CVS can be performed earlier in pregnancy than is possible with amniocentesis -10th week of pregnancy -rapid analysis -for over age 35 -can cause down syndrom

detritivore

an animal that feeds on dead organic material (detritus) -prokaryotes and fungi -eaten by secondary and tertiary -convert organic to inorganic for primary producers

primary consumer

an animal that feeds on plants; a herbivore

ectotherm

an animal whose body temperature varies with the temperature of its surroundings -poikilotherm

glycogen

an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals -the animal equivalent of starch -polymer of glucose -branched alpha 1,4,6 linkage -cannot sustain animal for long

natural selection drives evolution

an individual does not evolve, but a population does -diff reproductive success in natural selection

autopolyploid

an individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species -plants -failure of cell division (tetraploid isolated from original 2n) -3n have low fertility -can generate reproductive isolation w/o any geographic separation

tit for tat

an individual treats another in the same way it was treated the last time they met -altruistic/cooperative on first encounter and will remain as long as altruism is reciprocated -when not reciprocated, individuals will retaliate but return to cooperate as soon as other cooperates

facilitation

an interaction in which one species has positive effects on another species without direct and intimate contact

amino acid

an organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group. -The monomers of polypeptides. - There are 20 different forms. -Distinguished by side chains. -amine and carboxyl -alpha carbon in center -nonpolar side chain=hydrophobic -polar side chain or charged= hydrophilic

fermentation

anaerobic process that produces little ATP, includes glycolysis, and restores NAD+ -partial degradation of sugars of other organic fuel that occurs w/o use of oxygen -catabolic -create some ATP - energy NADH -> NAD+

population ecology

analyzes factors that affect population size and how and why it changes through time

monosomic

aneuploid zygote that is missing a chromosome (2n-1 chromosomes) -due to fertilization of gamete WITHOUT COPY of chromosome -can cause pregnancy loss or down syndrome

pheromones

animals that communicate through odors or tastes emit chemical substances species-species info foraging to courtship -common among mammals and insects (reproductive) -not limited in distance -maintain social order -serve as alarm signals

paedomorphosis

another form of heterochrony -concerned w/ relative timing of reproductive and somatic development -when sexually mature stage can retain juvenile structures

reduction division

another name for meiosis I, the division where homologous pairs separate.

opsonization

antibodies bound to antigens on bacteria do not block infection but instead present readily recognized structure for macrophages or neutrophils -promote phagocytosis -can facilitate phagocytosis by linking bacterial cells -help fine tune humoral immune response -positive feedback btwn innate and adaptive immunity

evolutionary adaptations of pathogen

antigenic variation latency human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

diploid cell

any cell w/ 2 chromosome sets -2n chromosome -2n=46 for humans in somatic cell -chromosomes duplicated -diff in each species b/c reflects how many linear pieces of DNA make up genome (evolution) -can divide by mitosis and undergo meiosis

lipids

any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water (hydrophobic). -No true monomers and not true polymer -not macromolecule -mostly hydrocarbon

Antigen

any substance that elicits a B or T cell response -large foreign molecules (proteins or polysaccharides) -many protrude from surface of foreign cells -others released into extracellular fluid

Bioinformatics

application of mathematics and computer science to store, retrieve, and analyze biological data

molecular clock

approach for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates -graph genetic diff vs dates of evolutionary branch points -AVERAGE rates of change used to estimate dates of events -no complete precision -genomes evolved in irregular bursts, deviation from avg. rate, may evolve at diff rates, diff rates of clock from each gene assumptions -# of nucleotide substitutions in orthologous genes is proportional to time that has elapsed since genes branched from common ancestor -# of substitutions proportional to time since ancestral gene duplicated (paralogous genes)

hydrothermal vents

areas on sea floor where heated water and minerals gush from Earth's interior into ocean -rich in sulfur and iron (important in ATP synthesis) -"black smokers" release water so hot that organic compounds formed may have been unstable -organic compounds first produced?

Producer

autotrophic organism capable of producing complex organic compounds from simple inorganic molecules

Three domains of life

bacteria archae eukarya

mycoplasmas

bacteria that naturally lack a cell wall -lower limit on metabolism -smallest w/ enough DNA to program

effective population size

based on the breeding potential of the population

Atom

basic unit of chemical element

mechanical work

beating of cilia, contraction of muscle, movement of chromosomes during cell reproduction

deamination

before amino acids can feed into glycolysis or citric cycle, their amino groups must be removed -nitrogenous waste excreted in form of ammonia (NH3) or urea

reciprocal altruism

behave altruistically toward non-relatives -adoptive if aided individual returns favor -rare in other animals -happen when likely to meet again and negative consequences of not returning favors ("cheating")

innate behavior

behavior developmentally fixed in individuals in population behave alike

maturation

behavior may impose b/c ongoing developmental changes in neuromuscular systems -ex. flight in birds

circannual rhythm

behavioral rhythms linked to the yearly cycle of seasons -not direct response to changes in food intake

act of altruism

benefit to recipient (B) -avg number of extra offspring that recipient of altruistic act produces cost to altruist (C) -how many fewer offspring altruist produces coefficient of relatedness (r) -fraction of genes that are shared on avg

Photosystem 1

best absorbing a wavelength of 700 nm -reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS 1 is called P700 -produces ATP but not NADH

G proteins

bind the energy-rich GTP -acts as molecular switch -can trigger cellular response

G protein

bind the energy-rich GTP and act as molecular switch that's either on or off -can activate an enzyme to trigger cellular response

Fibronectin

bind to cell surface receptor proteins called integrins -glycoproteins integrins: span membrane and bind to cytoplasmic side to associated proteins attached to microfil of cytoskeleton -transmit signals btwn ECM and cytoskeleton and integrate change

antigen receptor

binds to just one part of one molecule from particular pathogen -recognition when B cell or T cell binds to antigen -ANTIGEN -immune system produce many diff -EPITOPE given lymphocyte produces just one variety -all antigen receptors made by B or T cell identical -specific for parts of pathogen

Binomial nomenclature

binomial: two-part format of scientific name instituted by Linnaeus -genus: first part of binomial to which species belongs (capitalized) -specific epithet: second part that is unique for each species within genus

Photosystem

biochemical mechanism in plants by which chlorophyll absorbs light energy for photosynthesis

Hierarchy of life

biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, molecule, atom

organis

body part that is made up of multiple tissues and has functions in the body

mutualism

both benefit -vitamin K -bacteria in human gut

phylogenetic trees info

branch points sister taxa rooted basal taxon -doesn't represent sequence of evolution (can change/rotate branches)

Glycogenolysis

breaking down glycogen into glucose -not enough sugar -speedy energy

Glycolysis

breaks down glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate -No oxygen necessary -No CO2 produced - Location in cytoplasm 2 major phases: energy investment and energy payoff

test cross

breeding an organism of unknown genotype w/ recessive homozygote -can reveal genotype of that organism -Mendel

macroevolution

broad pattern of evolution above species level -fossils

macroevolution

broad pattern of evolution above species level -origin of new taxonomic groups -Ex. origin of new organisms through speciation events

Chlorophyll B

broadens the spectrum used for photosynthesis

cryptic coloration

camouflage

genotype

can refer to organism's entire genetic makeup not just its alleles for single genetic locus

oncogenes

cancer-causing genes -arises from genetic change that increases amount of proto-oncogene proteins or activity of protein

cis-trans isomers

carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds -trans fats -cis isomer has 2 X on same side -trans isomer has 2 Xs on opp side

Obligate Anaerobic

carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration and can not survive in the presence of O2

anaerobic respiration

catabolic pathway which does not require oxygen -prokaryotes use substances other than oxygen as reactants in process that harvests chemical energy w/o oxygen -occurs only in cytoplasm

aerobic respiration

catabolic pathway which requires oxygen that is consumed as a reactant along w/ organic fuel -occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria -most efficient catabolic -eukaryotic and prokaryotic

Beta oxidation

catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down in the cytosol in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria in eukaryotes to generate acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle

protein phosphatases

catalyze removal of phosphate groups from proteins -CRUCIAL in phosphorylation cascade

PEP carboxylase

catalyzes the 4-carbon compound in C4 plant mesophyll cells

autoimmune disease

caused when immune system is active against particular molecules of body -loss of self-tolerance -Ex. lupus, arthritis -hereditary, gender (more females), environment influence -regulatory T cells help modulate immune system activity and prevent response to self-antigens

origin of replication

cell division initiated when DNA of bacterial chromosome begins to replicate at specific phase on chromosome -produce 2 origins -end up at opp. ends of cell

meiosis

cell divisionthat reduces the # of sets of chromosomes from two to one in gametes -counter balance doubling that occurs at fertilization -sperm and egg haploid -fertilization restores diploid condition by combining 2 sets of chromosomes -creates gametes

binary fission

cell grows to roughly double its size and divides to form two cells -asexual reproduction of single-celled euk (includes mitosis) -prok

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)

cell surface transmembrane receptors that work with the help of a G protein -single polypeptide has 7 transmembrane alpha helices -have binding site for signaling molecules and G proteins

genome

cell's DNA (its genetic info) -prok genomes=single DNA -euk genome=large DNA, must be copied to be separated

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; found in vertebrates and most invertebrates

Local signaling

cells may communicate via direct contact between cell surface molecules -MHC markers -CD4 and CD8 receptors

malignant tumor

cells whose genetic and cellular changes enable them to spread to new tissues and impair functions of one or more organs -transformed cells -said to have cancer -metastasis

pseudopodia

cellular extensions that enable a cell to crawl along a surface

sociobiology

certain behavioral characteristics exist because they are expressions of genes that have been perpetuated by natural selection -social and cultural institutions make us distinct and provide qualities/values -seemingly useless skills can prepare us

genetic drift

chance events can also cause allele freq to fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to next, especially in small pop -survival and reproduction -can increase freq. of harmful alleles -founder effect -bottleneck effect

demographic transition

change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates -industrialization and improved conditions

kinesis

change in activity rate in response to stimulus (roly poly) -random

alleles

changes in DNA create diff versions of genes -reshuffling during sexual reproduction produces variation of traits

aquaporins

channel proteins that facilitate the passage of water

G1 Checkpoint

checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factors and DNA damage -CDK, dependent -blocked by p27 (binds to cyclin and Cdk) -most important -usually complete G1, S, G2, and M phase if receive go ahead signal at G1 checkpoint

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

hormone

chemical released by cell in one part of body -messages affect target cells in other parts of body -plant hormones transported cell to cell or air -animal hormones transported in blood -long distance signaling

molecules

chemical structure of two or more units of atoms

mitochondria

chemically convert chemical (food) energy into usable ATP energy through cellular respiration -double membrane -plants and animals -all euk -# correlates w/ metabolic activity -out membrane is smooth -inner membrane convoluted w/ cristae (divides into intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix) -1-10 um -shape changes and mobile

Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts vs. Mitochondria

chloroplasts -high energy e- come from water -do not need food molecules to make ATP -photosystems capture light energy and use it to drive e- from water to top of chain -use chemiosmosis to transform light into chem energy in ATP -ATP forms in stroma -H+ concentration higher in thylakoid space (lower pH) -H+ flows into stroma mitochondria -high energy e- extrracted from organic molecules -use chemiosmosis to transfer chem energy from food to ATP -ATP forms in matrix -H+ concentration higher in intermembrane (lower pH) -H+ flows into mitochondrial matrix

Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)

chromosomal translocation -when a reciprocal translocation happens during mitosis of cells that will become white blood cells -Philadelphia chromosome (shortened chromosome 22) -new "fused" gene=uncontrolled cell cycle

Sutton and Boveri (findings)

chromosome theory of inheritance -Individual genes are found at specific locations on particular chromosomes -behavior of chromosomes during meiosis can explain why genes are inherited according to Mendel's laws

nucleus

chromosome-containing part of a eukaryotic cell -nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin -contains most of genes -most conspicuous -make mRNA to make proteins

How sperms form (at tend of telophase I)

chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of cell and new nuclear membranes form

neutrophils

circulate in blood -attracted by signals from infected tissues and then engulf and destroy infecting pathogens -phagocytic cells in mammals -circle blood cells -engulf pathogens on tissues

natural killer cells

circulate through the body and detect the abnormal array of surface proteins characteristic of some virus-infected and cancerous cells -do not engulf stricken cells -release chemicals that lead to cell death, inhibiting spread of virus or cancer -infected cells may STOP expressing their self identifying antigen (MHC I)

Photorespiration

closing of stomata reduces access to CO2 and causes O2 to build up

ras gene

code for Ras protein that is a G protein that relays signal from growth factor receptor to cascade of protein kinases -cellular response is synthesis of protein that STIMULATES cell cycle -normally will not operate unless triggered by growth factors

genes

coded info in form of hereditary units -account for family resemblances -program specific traits that emerge as we develop from fertilized eggs -written in DNA -most program cells to synthesize enzymes and proteins whose actions produce inherited traits -transmission based on DNA replication (hereditary traits)

Walther Flemming

coined terms mitosis and chromatin

genetic recombination

combining of DNA from two sources -transformation, transduction, conjugation bring together prok DNA from diff cells -horizontal gene transfer: when individuals are members of diff species, the movement of genes from organism to another -btwn domain Bacteria and Archae

cladistics

common ancestry is the primary criterion used to classify organisms clades: includes an ancestral species and all its descendants -like taxonomic categories of Linnaean system -nested within larger clades

twin study

compare behavior of identical twins raised apart with the behavior of those raised in the same household -study influence of genetics and environment on behavior

mitochondrial matrix

compartment of the mitochondrion, enclosed by the inner membrane, -contains diff enzymes, mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes -catalyze cellular resp

intrasexual selection

competition between members of one sex for mates

mechanisms of density-dependent regulation

competition for resources, disease, predation, territoriality, intrinsic factors, toxic wastes

Citric Acid Cycle

completes breakdown of pyruvate to CO2 - oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate - Location in Mitochondrial matrix

lipoproteins

complexes of proteins and lipids. Cholesterol travels in low density _______

mitotic spindle

composed of centrosomes and microtubules and associated proteins -begins to form in cytoplasm during prophase -microtubules of cytoskeleton disassemble which provides material used to construct spindle -elongate (polymerize) by incorporating subunits of tubulin -shorten (depolymerize) by losing subunits -bacteria don't have visible mitotic spindles or microtubules -asters

polyploidy

condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes -more than 2 complete chromosome sets in all somatic cells -common in plants -more normal in appearance than aneuploids triploidy tetraploidy

multifactorial disorders

conditions caused by interactions among one or more genes and the environment -genetic component and significant environmental influence -hereditary component=polygenic -more people susceptible

disruptive selection

conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes -Ex. small-billed birds and large-billed birds (intermediate-sized birds inefficient)

directional selection

conditions favor individuals exhibiting one extreme of phenotypic range -shift pop. freq curve for phenotype in one direction -common when environ. changes or members of pop. migrate to diff habitat

Thylakoid

connected sacs in the chloroplast which composes a 3rd membrane system -may be stacked in columns called grana

complement system

consists of 30 proteins in blood plasma -proteins circulate in inactive state -activated by substances on surface of pathogens -cascade of biochemical rxns that can lead to lysis of invading cells -inflammatory response and adaptive defenses

paraphyletic

consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its descendants -includes most recent common ancestor

anabolic pathways

consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones -biosynthetic pathways -amino acids -> protein -"uphill"

Anaerobic respiration

consumes compounds other than O2 -uses electron transport chain w/ a final electron acceptor

Aerobic respiration

consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP

chloroplasts

contain chlorophyll which help absorb solar energy in order to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars during photosynthesis -2 membrane -3-6 um -intermembrane -stroma -thylakoid -shape changes and mobile

stability

continued formation of hybrid individuals -hybrids survive or reproduce better than members of either parent species -also been observed cases where hybrids selected AGAINST -continue to form -b/c hybrid zone narrow (more migration of parents) -if wider zone than center receive little gene flow

permafrost

continuously frozen subsoil

checkpoint

control point where step and go-ahead signals can regulate cycle -G1, G2, M phases

lactic acid fermentation

conversion of pyruvate to 3-carbon compound in absence of oxygen to regenerate NAD+ needed for glycolysis (in our muscles) pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as an end product -regenerating NAD+ with no release of CO2 -muscles make ATP -sugar catabolism for ATP outpaces supply of oxygen from blood -blood carries excess lactate from muscle to liver where converted back to pyruvate

alcohol fermentation

conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and 2-carbon compound in absence of oxygen to regenerate NAD+ needed for glycolysis (in yeast)

Carbon fixation

conversion process of inorganic carbons to organic compounds by living organisms

Bioluminescence

convert energy to light -dinoflagellates and fireflies -metabolic -efficient (coordinate and control)

Photosynthesis

converts light energy to chemical energy of food -photosynthetic enzymes and molecules are grouped together in biological membrane (efficient rxn) -originated in bacteria that had infolded regions in plasma membrane containing clusters -net consumption of 6 H2O -need 6 CO2 to make full glucose (3 three-carbon sugar) [run calvin cycle twice] CO2+2H2O->[CH2O]+H2O+O2

intertidal zone

costal areas of the ocean; the space between high and low tides -periodically submerged and exposed by tides (twice daily) -limited distribution -high oxygen and nutrients -attach or bury

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1673)

crafted lenses to see living cells

CAM

crassulacean acid metabolism to fix carbon, -open stomata at night incorporating Co2 into organic acids

branching

cross 1 set of alleles at a time (1 trait), then make all combinations

Recombination of LINKED genes

crossing over -exchange of corresponding segments of one maternal and one paternal chromatid -accounts for recombination of linked genes

cell cycle control system

cyclically operating set of molecules in cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in cell cycle -checkpoints -timing and rate of cell division differ b/c control system -specialized cells do not divide

Metaphase checkpoint

cyclin degraded

MPF

cyclin-Cdk complex discovered first -acts as kinase and activates others -major in controlling all stages of cell cycle -peak activity=peak [cyclin] -cyclin level rises during S and G2 phases -cyclin level falls during M phase -control G2 phase -triggers cell's passage into M phase, past G2 checkpt -active when cyclins accumulate during G2 w/ Cdk -phosphorylates proteins and initiates mitosis (uses GTP, G protein) -phosphorylates proteins of nuclear lamina->breakdown of nuclear envelope (prophase -> prometaphase) -promotes condensation of chromosome and spindle formation -promotes destruction of own cyclin (negative feedback loop) -attach to histones b/c methyl groups (loose chromatin to chromosomes)

centrioles

cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division

cleavage

cytokinesis occurs by -cleavage furrow -cell plate

antimicrobial peptides

damage broad pathogens by disrupting membrane integrity

ecological species concept

defines a species in terms of its ecological niche -niche: the sum of how members of the species interact with the nonliving and living parts of their environment -can accommodate asexual and sexual species -emphasizes role of disruptive natural selection as organisms adapt to diff environ -Ex. oak trees differ in size yet occasionally interbreed (still separate species even w/ gene flow)

altering gene # or position (genetic variation)

delete, disrupt, rearrange loci -duplication, slippage, activities of transposable elements -increase gene # can persist over generations and mutations accumulate -expanded genome w/ new genes may take new functions

stroma

dense fluid that is surrounded by 2 membranes in chloroplast

altruism

describe behavior that reduces animal's individual fitness but increases other individuals in population -can be maintained by evolution even if not enhance survival and reproductive success of sacrificed -maximize genetic rep when sacrifice health to reproduce -inclusive fitness

nonequilibrium model

describes most communities as constantly changing after being affected by disturbances -normal

Hox genes

determine which organ will be made at a given location

Global Climate Patterns

determined largely by solar energy and the planet's movement in space

riverine wetlands

develop along shallow and periodically flooded banks of rivers and streams

biogenesis

development of life from preexisting life -conditions on early Earth were very different -reducing atmosphere (water vapor, nitrogen and nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide) -little atmospheric oxygen -energy sources (lightning, volcanic activity, intense UV rays, deep sea vents geothermal energy)

Punnett Square

diagrammatic device for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup

neutral variation

diff in DNA sequence that do not allow selective advantage/disadvantage -point mutations in noncoding regions result in -redundancy in genetic code

resource partitioning

differentiation of ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community

evidence of evolution

direct observation, homology, fossil record, biogeography

systematics

discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships

Photon

discrete particles that light also behaves as Blues/Purples= shorter wavelength/higher energy Reds/oranges= lower wavelength/lower energy

immunodeficiency diseases

disorder which immune system response to antigens is defective or absent -caused by drugs used to fight autoimmune disease or prevent transplant rejection (suppress immune system) inborn immunodeficiency -result from genetic or developmental defect in immune system cells or proteins severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) -functional lymphocytes are rare or absent acquired immunodeficiency -exposure to chemicals or biological agents (later in life) -AIDS

Wavelength

distance b/n crests of waves -determines type of electromagnetic energy

map units

distance btwn genes -defining one map unit=1% recombination freq -do not correspond to physical distances

morphological species concept (paleontological)

distinguishes a species by body shape and other structural features -can be applied to asexual and sexual organisms -can be useful even w/o info on gene flow -relies on subjective criteria (disadvantage) -unity within species

lymphatic system

distributes fluid (lymph) throughout -macrophages in lymph nodes (engulf pathogens) -dendritic cells outside lymphatic system to move into nodes after interact w/ pathogens

intermediate filaments

diverse class of cytoskeletal elements that bear tension like microfilaments -larger than microfil but smaller than microtub -keratins -more permanent than microfil or microtub -work persists even after cell dies -sturdy and reinforce shape and fix position of organelles -nuclear lamina (interior of nuclear enevelop) -intestine microfil

Archae

diverse prok -include single celled

mitosis

division of genetic material in NUCLEUS (not bacteria) -cytokinesis usually follows mitosis -produce somatic cells -generate new cells to replace dead and damaged ones -conserves # of chromosomes in every somatic cell of new human

Protocells

droplets with membranes that maintained an internal chemistry different from that of their surroundings -self-replicating molecules and metabolic source of building blocks appeared together in early protocells -need supply of nucleotide building blocks for DNA replication -all must reproduce and metabolize -necessary conditions met in VESICLES

pea plant

each character determined by one gene, for which there are only 2 alleles -one COMPLETELY DOMINANT and the other is COMPLETELY RECESSIVE

somatic cells

each contain 46 chromosomes, made up of 2 sets of 23 -one set inherited from each parent -all body cells except reproductive cells and their precursors -varies among species

trait

each variant for character Ex. purple or white flower color

allele

each version of genes at corresponding loci (even if homologs appear alike) -have diff versions of genes

primary succession

ecological succession in a bare area that has never been occupied by a community of organisms -facilitate -inhibit -tolerate

Resting potential

electrical charge across the cell membrane of a resting neuron

oxidizing agent

electron acceptor in a redox reaction

NAD+

electron carrier used in cellular respiration to transfer electrons from Kreb's cycle to ETC

Reducing agent

electron donor

reducing agent

electron donor in a redox reaction

Oxidizing agent

electron receptor

redox

electron transfer reactions that occur together and in which one chemical is oxidized and the other reduced

Cytochrome

electrons are passed through, each with an iron atom, to O2 -any of a number of compounds consisting of heme bonded to a protein. -function as electron transfer agents in many metabolic pathways,

Cyclic electron flow

electrons cycle back from Fd to the PS 1 reaction center

ecosystem ecology

emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling between organisms and the environment

fermentation (anaerobic respiration)

enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen -transfer e- from NADH to pyruvate -glycolysis oxidizes glucose to 2 pyruvate -generates 2 ATP regardless by substrate-level phosphorylation -exergonic -uses NAD+ from NADH -allows continuous generation of ATP from extension of glycolysis

immune system

enables an animal to avoid or limit many infections -lymphocytes=white blood cells -foreign molecule doesn't need to be pathogenic to elicit immune response -immune cells produce receptor molecules that bind specifically to foreign cells and activate defenses (molecular recognition=central in identifying nonself) first lines of defense prevent pathogens from entering body -secretions trap/kill pathogens -linings of exchange surfaces (digestive tract and airways)

nuclear envelope

encloses the nucleus to separate its contents from the cytoplasm -double membrane -perforated by pores -continuous with ER

accessory pigments

energy absorbing plant pigments other than chlorophyll -located in outer membrane of chloroplast -protect chlorophyll from partially reduced O2 (free radicals) -chlorophyll b, carotenoids, etc. -see in fall colors

open system

energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surroundings -organisms absorb energy and release heat and metabolic waste products to surroundings -only do work from heat when temp diff results in thermal energy flow

potential energy

energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure (arrangement of electrons) -chemical energy

peramorphosis

enhance or build on existing structures

Electromagnetic spectrum

entire range of electromagnetic energy, or radiation

Stroma

envelope of 2 membranes surrounding a dense fluid (chloroplast)

migration

environmental stimuli provide cues to carry out behaviors -based on orientation relative to sun, stars, earth's magnetic field -track position relative to sun/star/magnetic field -circadian clock

ATP synthase

enzyme in mitochondrial cristae and chloroplast thylakoids that uses energy of proton gradient to add a phosphate group to ADP and so form ATP -multisubunit complex w/ polypeptides -protons move one by one into binding sites -only route through membrane for H+ -uses exergonic flow of H+ and electron chain

Rubisco

enzyme present in plant chloroplasts, involved in fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and in oxygenation of the resulting compound during photorespiration.

Dehydrogenase

enzyme remove pair of hydrogen atoms (2 e- and 2 protons) -oxidize substrate -delivers 2 e- and 1 proton to NAD+ to become NADH

separase

enzyme that cleaves cohesins holding together sister chromatids of each chromosomes

substrate-level phosphorylation

enzyme transfers phosphate group from substrate molecule to ADP -smaller amount of ATP formed directly in glycolysis and citric -organic molecule generated as intermediate

enolases

enzymes that add double bonds to molecules

adolases

enzymes that cut molecules

isomerases/mutases

enzymes that move atoms within a molecule

dehydrogenases

enzymes that transfer hydrogen atoms

kinases/phosphatases

enzymes that transfer phosphate groups

2 or more genes involved

epistasis quantitative characters (polygenic inheritance) multifactorial

island equilibrium model

equilibrium will eventually be reached where the rate of species immigration equals the rate of species extinction -correlated w/ island size and distance from mainland -more species on larger and closer to mainland islands dynamic equilibrium

Eukarya

eukaryotes kingdom Plantae kingdom Fungi kingdom Animalia protists (distinguished by mode of nutrition; photosynthesis, decompose, digesting) protists are most diverse euk

surroundings

everything outside the system

microevolution

evolution on smallest scale -change in allele freq in pop. over generations -ALREADY INHERITED GENES selected for or against -evolution NEVER "invents" gene or trait

heterochrony

evolutionary change in rate of timing of developmental events -changes to rates can alter adult form -rate and timing -Ex. increase growth rates of finger bones of wings -Ex. chimpanzee vs human skulls -paedomorphosis

Phylogenetic tree

evolutionary history of group of organisms represented in branching diagram -matches how taxonomists have classified groups rested w/ more inclusive groups -sometimes taxonomists placed species not most closely related -series of dichotomies (two-way branch points_ -hypothesis about evolutionary relationships

phylogeny

evolutionary history of species or group of species -legless body form evolved independently from legged ancestors (glass lizard and snakes) -inferred from morphological and molecular data *humans closer to archae than bacteria

natural selection

evolutionary process that occurs when population is exposed to environmental factors that consistently cause individuals with certain heritable traits to have greater reproductive success than individuals with other traits

allergies

exaggerated (hypersensitive) responses to antigens called allergens (antigens) -most common involve antibodies of IgE class -Cross links adjacent IgE -> induce mast cell to release chemicals (symptoms) -antihistamines block receptors for histamine and reduce symptoms anaphylatic shock: constrict bronchioles, dilation of peripheral blood vessels, low blood pressure

eutrophication

excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen due to primary producers' deaths.

cellular respiration

exergonic process that includes 3 steps -releases energy (ATP) by breaking down glucose and other molecules in presence of oxygen -aerobic and anaerobic -major source of carbs is starch (glucose) -exergonic (spontaneous as delta G<0) -catabolism linked to work by chemical drive shaft of ATP

secondary succession

existing community has been cleared by disturbance that leaves soil intact -may return to original state

cell wall

extracellular structure specific to plant cells -protects the cell -maintains its shape -prevents excessive water uptake -made of cellulose, polysacch, protein -thicker than membrane -microfibils made by cellulose synthase (strong fibers in matrix)

What are the three types of lipids?

fats/oils, phospholipids & steroids

Regulation of Cell. Resp.

feedback inhibition -end product of anabolic pathway inhibits enzyme that catalyzes early steps controls catabolism -resp increases when cell working hard phosphofructokinase

self-replicating RNA

first genetic material -ribozymes

Robert Hooke

first to observe "small chambers" in cork and call them cells.

thylakoids

flattened and interconnected sacs found in chloroplasts. -The light dependent stage of photosynthesis occurs on the membranes of these sacs -granum

stroma

fluid outside the thylakoids, contains chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. -The light independent stage of photosynthesis occurs in this area

electron microscope (EM)

focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto its surface -see organelles -resolution is inversely related to wavelength of light/electron -electron beams have shorter wavelengths than visible light -cannot resolve smaller than 2nm -kills cells in specimen -artificially colorized

landscape ecology

focuses on the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems

foraging

food-obtaining behavior, includes recognizing, searching for, capturing, and eating food items evolution -long distance foraging enable to move beyond areas depleted of food -short distance for low population density yields sufficient food

pentose monophosphate shunt

form 5 carbon sugars -generates NADPH and pentoses (nucleotides)

chiasma

form from crossing over and sister chromatid cohesion along arm -hold homologs together

sources of genetic variation

formation of new alleles altering gene # or position rapid reproduction sexual reproduction

food vacuoles

formed by phagocytosis, pinches off from plasma membrane and encloses a food particle

Glycogenis

forming glycogen in liver and muscles from glucose

Calvin cycle/reactions

forms sugar from CO2, using ATP and NADPH - inputs: NADPH, ATP, CO2 -outputs: G3P, NADP+ + H+, ADP + Pi

endemic

found nowhere else in the world -islands -island species closely related to species from mainland or neighbor no matter how similar environment is to another island elsewhere

tetrapods

four limbs (amphibians, reptiles, mammals) -unique features of mammalian jaws and teeth evoled

translocation

fragment joins a nonhomologous chromosome -harmful reciprocal translocation -nonhomologous exchange -most common nonreciprocal translocation -chromosome transfers fragment but receives none in return -less often

What are the functions of carbohydrates

function as energy source & structure

phospholipid bilayer

function as membranes

Photosystem 2

functions as 1st and is best at absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm -reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS 2 is called P680

haploid cell

gametes contain single set of chromosomes -unlike somatic cells -each has haploid # of chromosomes (n) -23 for humans (22 autosomes and single sex chromosome_ -diff in each species b/c reflects how many linear pieces of DNA make up genome (evolution) -CANNOT undergo meiosis b/c have single set of chromosomes that can't be reduced -CAN divide by mitosis

Morgan (findings)

gave first evidence associating specific gene w/ specific chromosome findings -correlation btwn trait and sex (white eyes only in males) -specific gene carried on specific chromosome -indicated that genes located on sex chromosome exhibit unique inheritance patterns

allopatric speciation

gene flow interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations -can also occur w/o geologic remodeling -Ex. individuals colonize remote area and offspring geographically isolated from parent pop. -result of gene flow and genetic drift -depends on ability of organisms ability to move about -sister species -regions isolated or highly subdivided have more species -reproductive isolation increases as geographic distance btwn increases -founder effect

"particulate" hypothesis

gene idea -parents pass on discrete heritable units (genes) that retain separate identities in offspring -genes can be shuffled and passed along in undiluted form ("cards")

translocation or transposition

gene moved to new locus under new controls -if translocated proto-oncogene ends up near active promoter or control element then transcription may increase

WNT4

gene required for development of female gonads -encodes protein that promotes ovary development -can develop ovaries even in XY embryo

locus

gene's specific location along length of chromosome

Light reactions

generate ATP and increase potential energy by moving them from H2O to NADPH -Split water -Release O2 -Reduce the electron acceptor NADP+

Photophosphorylation

generate ATP using chemiosmosis to power addition of phosphate group to ADP

life cycle

generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism -from conception to production of its own offspring

Y-linked genes

genes found on the Y chromosome -Y chromosome passed along intact -few Y-linked -very few disorders transferred from father to son on Y

linked genes

genes located near each other on same chromosome inherited together -deviate from expected of law of independent assortment -higher proportion of combos of traits seen in P generation -genes located on same chromosome and parental alleles always inherited together -2 or more genes on same chromosome tend to be inherited together -diff from sex-linked genes -2 loci on same homologous chromosomes, 2 traits, 2 pairs of alleles, but as acts one trait

"Evo-devo"

genes that control development play major role in evolution -how slight genetic divergences can become magnified into major morphological diff

homeotic genes

genes that control pattern formation in the late embryo, larva, and adult -placement and spatial organization of body parts

linkage map

genetic map based on recombination freq -map units -only an approximate picture of a chromosome -portray order of genes but not precise locations

2 adaptations of leatherback turtles

gigantotherm insulative tissues counter current heat exchanges carapic (fleixble)

Maltose

glucose + glucose - 1-4 glycosidic links

Colonization of Land

gradual evolutionary venture out of aquatic environments that was associated with adaptations that made it possible to reproduce on land and not die from dehydration too -Ex. vascular system (internal transport) and waterproof wax on leaves -420 mya (early signs of adaptations) -most widespread and diverse land animals are arthorpods (450 mya) [insects] and tetrapods (365 mya) -human species (195,000 mya) -ozone had blocked radiation -symbiosis with root fungus to obtain nutrients -plants and then animals followed mutually beneficial associations of plants and fungi (colonized land together) -roots of plants associated w/ fungi aid absorption -mycorrhizae (fungi root) obtain nutrients from plants

enteric bacteria genera

gram negative facultatively anaerobic rods, fermented lactose and produce acid and gas

innate immunity of invertebrates (insects)

great success of insects in terrestrial and freshwater habitats result of -exoskeleton=barrier defense against pathogens -chitin lines intestine and blocks infection -LYSOZYME enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls recognition proteins made of fungal or bacterial cell walls -"identity tag" b/c not normally found -hemocytes -innate immune response of insects specific presence of double stranded RNA trigger specific defense against virus -Dicer 2 recognizes and cuts RNA -Argo protein complex cuts and blocks RNA

tissues

group of cells that work together -epidermis allows entry of CO2 for photosynthesis

population

group of individuals of same species that live in same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring -more closely related to each other than to other populations

population

group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area

sister taxa

groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor that is not shared by other group -Ex. chimps and humans -each other's closest relatives

3 hydrogen bonds

guanine forms

4 major threats to biodiversity

habitat loss, introduced species, overharvesting, global change

fimbriae

hair-like appendages that allow prokaryotes to stick to their substrate or to one another.

amphipatic molecules

have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions -membrane lipids -membrane proteins (hydrophilic out, hydrophobic in nonaqueous

How eggs form (at end of telophase I)

have most of cell's cytoplasm concentrated in one of two cells -large cell will divide again -small cell will degenerate

character

heritable feather that varies among individuals Ex. flower color

decomposers

heterotrophs consume remains of other organisms by decomposing and feeding on organic litter -can feed on dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves -fungi and prokaryotes

heterozygote advantage

heterozygous individuals at particular locus have greater fitness than both kinds of homozygotes -natural selection tends to maintain two or more alleles -stabilizing or directional selection -Ex. sickle-cell disease

ATP

high-energy molecule -released in light reactions

microtubules

hollow rods of protein, support the cell and moves organelles within the cell -thickest -one tubulin is dimer (2 subunits) -alpha tubulin and beta tubulin -grow by adding dimers -one end can accumulate/release tubulin dimers at higher rate -guide vesicles -involved in chromosome separation in cell division -all euk -compression resisting -9x3 ring -cilia and flagella

paralogous genes

homology results from gene duplication -multiple copies of genes have diverged from one another within species -can diverge within species b/c present in more than one copy -Ex. olfactory receptor genes

taxonomy

how organisms are named and classified (Linnaeus)

global ecology (biosphere)

how regional exchange of energy and materials influences functioning and distribution across biosphere

artificial selection

humans modified other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits -often bear little resemblance to wild ancestors

serial endosymbiosis

hypothesis that supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events -not all euk have plastids (chloroplasts) Ex. mitochondria and plastids thought to have descended from bacteria -original host may have been archaean -inner membranes have enzymes and transport systems homologous to those in plasma membrane in bacteria -replicate by splitting process similar to bacteria w/ circular DNA not associated w/ histones or proteins -have cellular machinery needed to transcribe and translate DNA into proteins -ribosomes more similar to bacterial

"blending" hypothesis

idea that genetic material contributed by two parents -predicts that over generations, freely mating population will give rise to uniform population -fail to explain reappearing traits after skipping generation

maximum likelihood

identifies the tree most likely to have produced a given set of DNA data -based on certain probability rules about how DNA sequences change over time -yield similar trees with maximum parsimony when large, accurate data available

paedomorphosis

if development of reproductive organs accelerates compared to other organs, sexually mature stages of species may retain body features that were juveniles structures in ancestors -change in single locus or other genes -retain juvenile body but sexually mature

secondary immune response

if same antigen encountered again -response is faster (2-7 days), greater magnitude, more prolonged -relies on reservoir of T and B memory cells created upon initial exposure

karyotype

images of chromosomes arranged in pairs, starting w/ longest chromosomes -reveal that there are two chromosomes of each 23 types -show homologous chromosomes

mast cells

immune cells found in connective tissue -release signaling molecule histamine at sites of damage HISTAMINE: triggers nearby blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable -increase blood supply=redness and increase skin temp

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

impairment in immune responses that leaves body susceptible to infections that healthy system would usually defeat HIV -> AIDS

Eosinophils

important in defending against multicellular invaders -parasitic worms -discharge destructive enzymes -lie under epithelium

Bundle-sheath cell

in C4 plants - arranged in tightly packed sheaths around veins of leaf

metaphase chromosome

in a mitotic chromosome, the looped domains themselves coil and fold in a manner further compacting into a 700 nm chromatid

DNA polymerase I

in the lagging strand, replaces RNA primer nucleotides with DNA nucleotides -leaves free 3' end exposed for ligase to fill in

Zymogens

inactive enzyme precursors -activated by cleaving specific bonds

Cellular Respiration

includes aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to referred to aerobic C6H12O6 + 6O2---> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP & heat)

Mitotic (M) phase

includes both mitosis and cytokinesis, -usually the shortest part of the cell cycle

Alteration of generations

includes diploid and haploid stages that are multicellular -plants and algae

polyphyletic

includes distantly related species but does not include their most recent common ancestor -scientists avoid using

Recombination of UNLINKED

independent assortment -parental types: phenotype that matches either of P generation originally crossed -recombinant types (recombinants): offspring w/ new combos that are not parental phenotypes

recombinant chromosomes

individual chromosomes that carry genes (DNA) from 2 diff parents -crossing over

organisms

individual living things

dihybrids

individuals heterozygous for two characters being followed in cross -Ex. follow seed color and shape at same time (mendel) -Y=dominant, y=green -R=round, r= wrinkled -dihybrid cross (btwn F1 dihybrids)

intersexual selection

individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from the other sex -mate choice -showiness of male's appearance or behavior -if benefits outweigh risks from predation, then characteristics and female preference reinforced

intrasexual selection

individuals of one sex compete directly for mates of the opposite sex

cristae

infoldings in the inner membrane of the mitochondria -give large SA=enhance cellular resp

Lamarack

inheritance of acquired characteristics -remembered for INCORRECT mechanism of evolution proposed -recognized that evolutionary change explains patterns in fossils and match of organisms -concept of use and disuse of parts -found several lines of descent in fossil -believed evolution happens b/c organisms have innate drive to become more complex (refuted b/c genetics)

Adaptations

inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments -related to origin of new species -natural selection

Tay-Sachs disease

inherited disorder caused by recessive allele for dysfunctional enzyme -leads to accumulation of lipids in brain -death within few years ORGANISMAL level -allele recessive b/c need homozygotes BIOCHEMICAL level -intermediate phenotype is incomplete dominance -heterozygote don't show symptoms MOLECULAR level -normal allele and Tay-Sachs allele codominant

C3 Cell

initial fixation of CO2 via rubisco forms a 3-carbon compound (3-phosphoglycerate)

2 types of immune defenses

innate and adaptive

herbivory

interaction in which one animal (the herbivore) feeds on producers (such as plants)

interspecific interactions

interactions between species -competition (-/-) -predation (+/-) -herbivory (+/-) -parasitism (+/-) -mutualism (+/+) -commensalism (+/0)

desmosomes

intercellular junction in animal tissues -function like rivets -fastening cells together into strong sheets -anchoring junction -intermediate filaments made of keratin -muscle attachment

tight junctions

intercellular junction in animal tissues -plasma membranes of neighboring cells are very tightly pressed against each other, -bound by specific proteins -seal

gap junctions

intercellular junction in animal tissues that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell, -similar to plasmodesmata in plants -communicating junctions -tissues and heart muscle

Mesophyll

interior tissue of cell, where chloroplasts are found

growth factors- stimulants

internal -cAMP -kinases -cyclin external -receptor stimulated like steroid and hormones -some cancers cause form over stimulation of having too many receptors

circadian clock

internal mechanism that maintains a 24-hour activity rhythm or cycle

habituation

involves loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli or stimuli that doesn't provide appropriate feedback

Gated ion channels

ion channels in neurons that open or close in response to stimuli

cytochromes

iron-containing proteins that play key role in electron transport chains in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and cell membranes of prokaryotes

Boveri (purpose)

is a full complement of chromosomes necessary for reproduction and development

Paramecium

is a protist that is hypertonic to the pond water in which it lives. -less permeable to water (slow uptake) -contractile vacuole force water out (doesn't burst)

enantiomer

isomers that mirror images of each other and differ in shape due to assymetric carbon (MIRROR IMAGE) -assymetric carbon is attached to 4 diff atoms of groups -won't fit into same space as mirrored version -usually only one isomer active -pharmaceutical drugs

sister chromatids

joined copies of the original chromosome -each duplicated chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids -each contain identical DNA -attached all along their lengths by protein complexes (cohesins) -sister chromatid cohesion

chlorophyll a

key light-capturing pigment that participates directly in light rxns -violet blue and red light works best for photosynthesis b/c absorbed -green is least effective color -absorption spectrum underestimates effectiveness of certain wavelengths in driving photosynthesis -less broad than action spectrum of photosynthesis -appears blue green

thermal energy

kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules -transfer from one object to another=heat -light can be used to perform work

How do antibodies (or immunoglobins) differ from antigen-receptors found on B and T cells

lack membrane anchor

mass extinctions

large #s of species become extinct worldwide -majority extinct -habitat may have been destroyed or environment may have changed unfavorably -biological and environ. factors can change -occurs regularly but disruptive changes caused increase dramatic rates of extinction 5 mass extinctions -greater than or equal to 50% of marine species extinct -Permian extinction

dyneins

large motor proteins that bend flagella and motile cilia -attached on outer microtub doublet -2 feet that walk along -one side of circle at time -cross-linking proteins hold outer doublets and 2 central microtub

macrophages

larger phagocytic cells than neutrophilis -some migrate or reside permanently in organs and tissues

stromatolites

layered rocks that form when certain prokaryotes bind thin films of sediment together -earliest direct evidence of life 3.5 bya (fossils)

social learning

learn to solve problems by observing behavior of other individuals -Ex. monkey w/ alarm calls to predators (youth learn) -culture

cell cycle

life of a cell from time it is first formed during division of parent cell until its own division

cells

life's fundamental unit of structure and function

scala naturae

life-forms could be arranged on a ladder, or scale, of increasing complexity -Aristotle recognized certain "affinities" -each form of life, perfect and permanent, had allotted rung on ladder -consisten w/ Old Testament

flaccid

limp, not firm or strong -If a plant is not watered enough, its leaves become droopy and flaccid. -isotonic solution

genome evolution

lineages that diverged long ago often share many orthologous genes -why disparate organisms share many biochemical and developmental pathways -can study other distantly related organisms to see functioning of genes b/c shared pathways # of genes species has doesn't seem to increase through duplication at same rate as perceived phenotypic complexity -single gene more versatile

Acetyl-CoA

links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle

endotoxins

lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria -released only when bacteria die and cell walls break down -cause pyrogenic response -Ex. salmonella

biotic

living things

tumor treatment

localized cancer -treated w/ high energy radiation -damages DNA in cancer cells more than normal cells b/c cancer lost ability to repair damage metastatic tumors -chemotherapy -drugs that are toxic to actively dividing cells administered through circulatory system -interfere w/ specific steps in cell cycle -can effect normal cells

cytogenetic maps

locate genes w/ respect to chromosomal features, such as stained bands -seen in light microscope

nucleolus

located in the nucleus -makes, synthesizes, and partially assembles ribosomes -nonmembranous structure -one or more nucleoli -part of chromatin -rRNA synthesized

memory cells

long living cells that can give rise to effector cells if same antigen is encountered later in animal's life

Mesophyll cell

loosely packed b/n the bundle sheath and leaf surface

chromatin

loosly coiled genetic material that makes up chromosomes -a complex of proteins and DNA -visible in dividing cell as condensed chromosomes

carbon source

loses more carbon NEP<0

denaturation

loss of a proteins normal 3D structure; can possibly be caused by pH, salt concen., and temperature -affect the ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds & hydrophilic interactions -aqueous to nonpolar -chemicals disrupt bonds -excess heat

oxidation

loss of electrons from atoms of a substance

low level of disturbance

low intensity and frequency disturbances

autophagy

lysosomes break down damaged organelles -continually renew itself

ribosomes

made of ribosomal RNA and protein -synthesize proteins -free in cytosol or bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope -not organelle -more ribosome and nucleoli=higher rates of protein synthesis

Parameters of Microscopy

magnification, resolution, contrast

lipids and proteins

main macromolecules in membranes

dendritic cells

mainly populate tissues that contact environment (skin) -stimulate adaptive immunity against pathogens

balanced polymorphism

maintains genetic diversity via natural selection -heterozygotes have greater survivorship and reproductive success (heterozygote advantage) -Ex. hybrid vigor -Ex. sickle cell disease

hemocytes

major immune cells of insects -phagocytosis (vacuole forms and lysosome destroys it) -produces defense molecules that helps entrap large pathogens (plasmodium) -release antimicrobial peptides that circulate body of insect and inactivate/kill by disrupting plasma membranes

Gluconeogenesis

making carbs from non-carbs (needs a lot of energy for brain) forming glucose from proteins (starvation) burns fat to run reaction forming ketone bodies (toxic) Atkins Diet (high in protein and fat, low in carbs)

plastids

manufacture and store important chemical compounds used by the cell such as pigments, oils, and starches -amyloplast (store starch [amylose] in roots) -chromoplast (fruits and flowers orange and yellow hues)

multifactorial

many factors, both genetic and environmental, collectively influence phenotype -environment contributes to quantitative nature of polygenic characters Ex. skin color

supramolecular structure

many molecules ordered into a higher level of organization -emergent properties

Cambrian explosion

many present-day animal phyla appear suddenly in fossils (535-525 mya) -.5 bya -pre-Cambrian animals were soft bodied and no predators (grazers, filter feeders, scavengers) -predators and new defense adaptations emerged afterwards -but appears that many phyla originated long before ("long fuse") -plants created terrestrial food base -tetrapods evolved from bony fish (365 bya) -primate and modern mammals (50-60 mya) -humans emerged 195,000 years ago

homeotic genes

master regulatory genes determine basic features as where wings and legs will develop or how arranged -spatial pattern Hox genes: provide positional info in animal embryo -prompts cells to develop into structures appropriate for particular location

hybridization

mating or crossing of two true-breeding varieties P generation: true breeding parents F1 generation: p generation's hybrid offspring F2 generation: produced by self-pollination or cross-pollination with other F1 hybrids

system

matter under study

Resolution

measure of the clarity of the image -minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished as separate points -LM cannot resolve finer than 0.2 um

Spectrophotometer

measures a pigment's ability to absorb various wavelengths -sends light through pigments and measures the fraction of light transmitted of each wavelength

Exocytosis and endocytosis

mechanisms for rejuvenating or remodeling membrane -constant in non growing cell

intersexual selection

members of one sex choose mates on basis of characteristics of other sex like courtship songs

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs)

membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosines -binding of signaling molecules forms dimers -activates tyrosine kinase region of each monomer of tyrosine kinase -each kinase adds phosphate from ATP to tyrosine -then recognized by relay proteins and activates protein

vesicles

membrane related through direct continuity or transfer of membrane segments as vesicles -sacs made of membrane

organelles

membrane-enclosed structures within a eukaryotic cell

endomembrane system

membranes that divide the cell into organelles such as -the nuclear membrane -the endoplasmic reticulum -the Golgi apparatus -lysosomes -vesicles -cell membrane. -protein synthesis, protein transport, movement of metabolism of lipids, and detoxification of poisons -thickness, composition, and rxns can be modified

lysosome

membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes, which the cell uses to digest unwanted materials -macromolecules hydrolyzed -enzymes work best in acidic, not neutral pH of cell -EXCESSIVE leakage can destroy cell -made by rough ER and transferred to Golgi -proteins protect itself -phagocytosis (food vacuole w/ lysosome) -digestion -autophagy -Tay-Sachs disease (accumulation of lipids in brain) -Thes Pompe's disease (accumulation of glycogen in liver) -use broken down AA to build proteins by diffusing or exporting them out

spatial learning

memory reflects environment's spatial structure -nest sites, hazards, food, mates cognitive map: representation in animal's nervous system of spatial relationships between surrounding (landmarks)

formation of acetyl CoA

metabolic link between glycolysis and aerobic respiration

feeback inhibition

metabolic pathway halted by inhibitory binding of end product to enzyme that acts early -prevents unnecessary resources

beta oxidation

metabolic pathway that breaks down fatty acids into two-carbon fragments which enter Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA -on 2nd carbon -most efficient

catabolic

metabolic pathways that release stored energy by breaking down complex molecule -transfer of electrons from molecules -yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels

C4 cell

minimize the cost of photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into 4-carbon compounds

learning

modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences -powerful way than environment can influence -capacity depends on nervous system organization in encoded genomes during development -nature and nurture -formation of memories in neuronal connectivity

pinocytosis

molecules are taken up when extracellular fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles. -vesicles formed by infoldings of membrane -obtains molecules dissolved in droplets -nonspecific for substances -vesicle lined w/ fuzzy layer of coat protein on outside ("pits" are "coated")

turner syndrome

monosomy X (X0) females -only known viable monosomy -sterile

high-diversity communities

more productive, withstand stress better, produce more biomass, protected against invasive species

phospholipids

most abundant lipids

collagen

most common glycoprotein in the ECM, forms strong fibers outside the cells -40% of human protein -proteoglycans: small core protein w. many carb chains covalently attached -college fibers embedded in proteoglycan network -large complexes=noncovalently

cystic fibrosis

most common lethal genetic disease in US -4% carriers -normal allele=membrane protein that functions in transport of chloride ions -chloride transport channels defective for homozygous recessive (builds up mucus) -pleiotropic effects -impaired ability to fight infection -prone to lung infections

radiometric dating

most common technique of determining age of fossil -based on decay of radioactive isotopes -radioactive "parent" isotope decays to "daughter" isotope at characteristic rate -half-life -only accurate up to 60,000 years -fossils contain isotopes of elements that accumulated when alive -measure ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 in fossil to determine age -work for fossils up to 75,000 yrs old b/c older fossils contain too little carbon 14 to be detected -indirect method to date older fossils is to infer age of fossils sandwiched btwn layers of volcanic rock (radioisotopes in volcanic rock)

Bacteria

most known prok -include single celled

effector cells

mostly short-lived cells that take effect immediately against the antigen and any pathogens producing that antigen -plasma cells secrete antibodies (B) -helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells (T)

emigration

movement of individuals *out* of an area

diffusion

movement of molecules of any substance to spread out in available space -may be directional but each molecules moves randomly -move from more to less concentrated (down concentration gradient) -spontaneous process w/o work -diffuses down own concentration gradient, unaffected by others -Ex. cellular resp. uptake of O

dialysis

movement of particles in a solution through permeable membranes. The diffusion of small solutes through a selectively permeable membrane.

sporophyte

multicellular diploid stage -meiosis in sporophyte produces haploid called spores -haploid spores don't fuse w/ another but divides mitotically

gametophyte

multicellular haploid stage generated from mitotic division of haploid spore -give rise to gametes by mitosis -fusion of 2 haploid gametes at fertilization results in diploid zygote that develops into sporophytes

obligate aerobes

must use O2 for cellular respiration and cannot grow without it

rapid reproduction (genetic variation)

mutations can quickly generate genetic variation when have more generations (prok and virus)

symbiotic

mutually beneficial; supporting one another's life -share and ecological relationship

Taxon

named taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy -Ex. Panthera is taxon at genus level

optimal foraging model

natural selection should favor a foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging and maximizes the benefits -costs of foraging=energy expenditure and risk of being eaten -influence foraging behavior reflects large variation in predation risk (compromise)

charge of the backbone

negative

incomplete dominance

neither allele is completely dominant -F1 hybrids have phenotype somewhere btwn those of 2 parental varieties -third phenotype made -make half the normal amount of protein made -"mixing" -Ex. pink snapdragon phenotype ratio 1: 2: 1 (F2) -some red, white, and pink -alleles for flower=heritable factors

exergonic rxn

net release of free energy -delta G is negative -spontaneous (energetically favorable) greater decrease in free energy, greater amount of work

Sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information about external stimuli from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Endorphins

neurotransmitters linked to pain control, decrease pain perception, reduce urine output, decrease respiration, and produce happiness; synthesized in brain during times of emotional or physical stress (example: child birth)

neutral variations

neutral in one environment but still subject to drift

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

neutrophils macrophages dendrite eosinophils natural killer cells

NAD+/NADH

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide -NADH passes electrons to the electron transport chain

proto-oncogenes

normal versions of cellular genes that code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division

phenotype

not only refer to specific characters but also to an organism in its entirety -all aspects of its physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, behavior

Structural features prok lack

nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles -generally have circular chromosomes while euk have linear -fewer proteins -nucleoid -plasmids replication, translation, transcription fundamentally similar to euk *antibiotics bind to ribosomes and block protein synthesis in only prok, but not in Archaea

heterotrophs

obtain organic material by second major mode of nutrition -unable to make own food -"consumers" -live on compounds produced by others

Heterotroph

obtain their organic material from other organisms -consumers of the biosphere -depend on photoautotrophs for food and O2

fringe wetlands

occur along the coasts of large lakes and seas, -where water flows back and forth because of rising lake levels or tidal action -freshwater and marine biomes

interspecific competition

occurs when species compete for a resource in short supply

pyrimidine

one 6-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms -cytosine (Both) -thymine (DNA) -uracil (RNA)

commensalism

one benefits and the other is unaffected

pleiotropy

one gene has multiple phenotypic effects -cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia -huntington's antagonistic pleiotropy: beneficial and harmful effects exist

CAM plant

open stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic acids -stomata close during the day, CO2 is released from organic acids and used in Calvin Cycle

pelagic zone

open water above the ocean floor (photic and aphotic zones)

properties of life

order evolutionary adaptation regulation energy processing growth and development response to environment reproduction

genetic map

order list of genetic loci along particular chromosome -Alfred Sturtevant

homozygote

organism that has pair of identical alleles for gene encoding a character -homozygous for gene -"breed true" b/c all gametes contain same allele -prob of homozygote offspring is 1/2

obligate anaerobes

organisms that can only survive WITHOUT oxygen -carry out only fermentation or anaerobic respiration

facultative anaerobes

organisms that can survive with OR without oxygen -can make enough ATP to survive using either fermentation or respiration -Ex. yeast and bacteria and muscle cells -pyruvate is fork in metabolic road that leads to catabolic routes -aerobic (pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA; oxidation continues in citric cycle) -anaerobic (lactic acid fermentation; pyruvate is electron acceptor to recycle NAD+) -must consume sugar at high rate when fermenting than respiring to make same amount of ATP

obligate anaerobes

organisms that cannot live where molecular oxygen is present -live exclusively by fermentation -anaerobic respiration

heterozygote

organisms that has 2 diff alleles for gene -produce gametes w/ diff alleles -prob of homozygote offspine is 1/2

Eukarya

organisms that have cells containing true nuclei -multicellular and single celled -plants, fungi, animals

benthos

organisms that live attached to or near the ocean floor

photoautotrophs

organisms that use light as source of energy to synthesize organic substances -plants only need water and minerals from soil and CO2

reaction-center complex

organized association of proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and primary electron acceptor -chlorophyll a use energy from light to boost e- and transfer it to primary electron acceptor

autosomes

other chromosomes than X and Y

cortex

outer cytoplasmic layer of cell -microfil give semisolid consistency of gel

true breeding

over many generations of self pollination, these plants produce only same variety as parent plant -Mendel started his experiments w/ varieties that were true breeding

sister species

pairs whose member species are each other's closest relative -allopatric speciation

parasitism

parasite benefits, host is harmed -Ex. Ricketsia

Fermentation

partial degradation of sugars that occur without O2 -uses substrate- level phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

pathogen that causes AIDS, both escapes and attacks adaptive immune response -bind to CD4 (accessory protein) -infects helper T cells -increase mutation rate -> replicate and mutate more (evolves) -transmitted via body fluids -latent DNA -can transmit in first weeks of infection (before detected) -impair humoral and cell mediated immune response

punctuated equilibria

periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change -new species change most as branch from parent species and change little for rest of existence -often not distinguished in fossil strata -completed rapidly

adaptive radiations

periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological roles, or niches, in their communities -large scale adaptive radiations after each big 5 mass extinctions -occurred in organisms that possessed major evolutionary innovations or colonized regions w/ little competition worldwide -organisms that arise can serve as new source of food Ex. -rise of photosynthetic prok -evolution of large predators in Cambrian explosion -colonization of land regional -radiation initiated when few make way to new, distant locations w/ little competition -Ex. Hawaiian archipelago species invasion

transduction

phages carry prok genes from one host to another -results from accidents during phage replication -virus that carries prok DNA can attach to another prok cell and inject prok DNA from first cell (recombinant)

density dependent inhibition

phenomenon in which crowded cells stop dividing -cells divide until form single layer of cells -external physical factor

homologies

phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry -organisms that share very similar morphologies or similar DNA sequences are likely to be closely related -morphological divergence btwn related species can be great and genetic divergences small -more elements that are similar in complex structures or nucleotide sequence=common ancestor

newborn screening

phenylketonuira (PKU) screened for -cannot metabolize phenylalanine -cause intellectual disability

ATP

phosphate are negatively charged, so release a lot of energy as like changes crowded together -free energy req to phosphorylate ADP from exergonic brkdn -ATP energy leads to change in protein shape and ability to bind (transport and mechanical work)

Photophosphorylation

phosphorylation of ADP to ATP using energy from the sunlight

Light-harvesting complex

pigment molecules bound to proteins transfer the energy of photons to the reaction center

Chlorophyll

pigment which gives leaves their green color -resides in thylakoid membranes

CAM plants

plants close their stomata during the day, collect CO2 at night, and store the CO2 in the form of acids until it is needed during the day for photosynthesis -succulent, cacti, pineapples -conserve water and prevents CO2 entering when close during day -reverse of other plants -mesophyll cells store organic acids in vacuoles -CO2 released from stored acids to make sugars in chloroplast -runs C3 and C4

Photoautotroph

plants that use energy of sunlight to make organic molecules -can occur in plants, algae, certain other unicellular eukaryotes, and some prokaryotes

metaphase plate

plate that's equidistant btwn spindle's poles -chromosomes' centromeres lie at plate -imaginary plate rather than actual cellular structure

peptidogylycan

polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides -encloses entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that extend from its surface

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

population that is not evolving -allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant from generation to generation -approximation -Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles at work p^2+2pq+q^2=1 -sum of frequencies of genotypes must equal 1 in ANY pop. -allele and genotype freq will remain constant

Stomata

pores where CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf

smooth ER

portion of the endoplasmic reticulum -free of ribosomes, -synthesize lipids -detoxifies the cell -outer surface lacks ribosomes -metabolism of carbs -storage of calcium ions -steroid/sex hormones

rough ER

portion of the endoplasmic reticulum -studded with ribosomes, -produce and transport membrane and secretory proteins -grow in place -add phospholipids -ribosome attached to cytoplasmic side of nuclear envelope -glycoproteins -pancreas

chemical energy

potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction -complex mol high in chem energy -release from food and use energy

proton motive force

potential energy stored in form of an electrochemical gradient generated by pumping hydrogen ions across membranes during ETC -H+ gradient created from electron carriers pushing out into intermembrane space -drives H+ back across through channels by ATP synthase

eco-evolutionary dynamics

potential interactions between ecology and evolution

top-down model

predation influences community organization -also called the trophic cascade model. -alt. +/- effects

phylogenetic bracketing

predict that features shared by two groups of closely related organisms are present in their common ancestor and all of its descendants unless independent data indicate otherwise -by parsimony -used to make predictions about dinosaurs -Ex. birds, dinosaurs, and crocodiles care for eggs by brooding (behavior which parent warms eggs w/ body)

Class I MHC

present peptide fragments derived from intracellular proteins

Linear electron flow (8 steps)

primary pathway, involves both photosysetms and produces ATP and NADPH using light energy

adaptive radiation (divergent evolution)

process by which a single species or small group of species evolves into several different forms that live in different ways; rapid growth in the diversity of a group of organisms

neutralization

process in which antibodies bind to proteins on surface of virus -prevent infection of host -anitbodies can bind to toxins to prevent it from entering

evolution

process of change, result in array of organisms -adaptations (match of organisms to their environment) -accounts for unity and diversity of life

transformation

process that causes cells to behave like cancer cells

monoclonal antibodies

produced by culture grown from single clone of B cells -identical and specific for same epitope on antigen -medical diagnosis and treatment -Ex. home pregnancy test kits -use blood to identify every virus person encountered

primary immune response (humoral immunity)

produced by effector cells that formed by clones of lymphocytes after initial exposure to antigen -peaks 10-17 days after initial exposure

cell plate

produced by vesicles derived from Golgi that move along microtubules to middle of cell (plants) -vesicles coalesce -cell wall materials carried in vesicles collect inside -enlarges until surrounding membrane fuses w/ plasma membrane along perimeter of cell

action spectrum

profiles rel. effectiveness of diff wavelengths of radiation in driving the process -Theodor W. Engelmann

Action spectrum

profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a process

endosymbiosis

prok cell engulfs small cell that would evolve into organelle found in euk (mitochondria) -endosymbiont=engulfed cell that lives within another cell -prey/parasites -> mutually beneficial relationship w/ host evidence -replication similar to prok -single circular DNA -DNA not associate with histone -ribosomes show similar sensitivity to antibiotics -ribosomes similar in size

archae

prokaryotic live in extreme environments

bacteria

prokaryotic most diverse/widespread

4 classes of regulatory genes (carcinogens)

promoters: proto-oncogenes -ras genes inhibitors: cancer-suppressor genes -p53, p27, p21 bind cyclin -slow cell cycle genes regulating apoptosis -p53 DNA repair genes -p53

mitosis stages

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase -cytokinesis completes mitotic phase

Watson and Crick

proposed double helix DNA structure based on a model they built

growth factor

protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide -most cells only divide if culture has specific growth factors Ex. platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), InsulinGF, EpidermalGF< Estrogen

B pleated sheet

protein structure with two or more segments of the polypeptide chain link side by side (called B strands) connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of the polypeptide backbone.

p27

protein that binds to cyclin and Cdk -block entry into S phase -reduced levels predict poor outcome for cancer patients

exotoxins

proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms -Ex. cholera -cause illness by producing poisons

peripheral proteins

proteins that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer -loosely bound to surface, often to expose integral proteins

integral proteins

proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer -coiled alpha helices -one or more hydrophilic channels -transmembrane proteins

interferons

proteins that provide innate defense by interfering with viral infections -virus infected body cells secrete interferon that induce nearby uninfected cells to produce substances that inhibit viral replication -limit cell to cell spread -control viral infections

transport proteins

proteins that span the membrane. -hydrophilic substances can avoid contact w/ lipid bilayer -channel proteins -carrier proteins -specific for substance it moves

glycoproteins

proteins with covalently-bonded carbohydrates that play a role in cell to cell interaction -attached to proteins in ER lumen by enzymes built into ER membrane

Class II MHC

provide molecular signature by which antigen-presenting cell is recognized

contractile vacuoles

pump excess water out of the cell to maintain a suitable concentration of ions and molecules in the cell

Alcohol fermentation

pyruvate is converted to ethanol 1) releases CO2 from pyruvate -> two-carbon compound acetaldehyde 2) acetaldehyde reduced by NADH to ethanol -regenerates supply of NAD+ -Ex. yeast

Alcohol fermentation

pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps 1: release CO2 2: produce ethanol -by yeast used in brewing, wine making, and baking

Lactic acid fermentation

pyruvate is reduced by NADH, forming lactate as an end product, w/ no release of CO2

Hamilton's rule

rB > C; natural selection favors altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist

asters

radial arrays of shorter microtubules that extend from centrosomes -by metaphase, microtubules grown and in contact w/ plasma membrane

Primary electron acceptor

reaction center accepts excited electrons and is reduced as a result

deductive reasoning

reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.) -makes predictions that can be used to test hypotheses

antiparallel

referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' -3' directions). -backbones on outside of helix

centromere

region made up of repetitive sequences in chromosomal DNA where chromatid is attached most closely to its sister chromatid -mediated by proteins that recognize and bind to centromeric DNA -other bound proteins condense DNA, giving duplicated chromosome a narrow "waist" -portion of chromatid to either side of centromere (arm of chromatid)

secondary structure

regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains). -alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.

control genes

regulate cycle -produce transcription factors that activate or inhibit other genes to bring about next stage -cascade like series -can be mutated to cause cancer -pro-oncogens->oncogens

reinforcement

reinforcing reproductive barriers -reducing formation of unfit hybrids -barriers to reproduction btwn species should be stronger for sympatric pop than allopatric

ecology

relations of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings

catabolic pathways

release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds -cell. resp -stored energy becomes available -release energy and lower-energy breakdown products -"downhill"

Catabolic pathway

release stored energy by breaking down complex molecules

Alkaline vents

release water that has high pH and is warm rather than hot -environment may have been more suitable for origin of life -deep-sea vents -abiotic synthesis of organic molecules -rich in sulfur and iron (important in ATP synthesis)

adaptive immunity

relies on T cells and B cells -lymphocytes -antigen receptor -antigen -epitope

fossils

remains or traces of organisms from past -found in sedimentary rocks formed from sand and mud that settle to bottom of seas, lakes, and swamps -strata: new layers of sediment cover older ones and compress them into super-imposed rock layers

vestigial structures

remnants of features that served important functions in the organism's ancestors -"leftover" structures of marginal importance -Ex. pelvis and leg bones in snake skeleton

homologous structures

represent variations on a structural theme that was present in their common ancestor -some vestigial organs -Ex. comparitive embryology (have pharyngeal pouches)

branch points

represents common ancestor of two evolutionary lineages diverging from it

gametes

reproductive cells: sperm and eggs -vehicles that transmit genes from one generation to next -pass genes of both parents to offsprings -have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells -one set of 23 chromosomes

analogous

resemblance when species share features b/c of convergent evolution -not homologous (share common ancestor but not necessarily similar function) -share similar function but not common ancestry

stimulus-response chain

response to each stimulus is itself the stimulus for next behavior ex. flies mating

histones

responsible for the first level of DNA packing in chromatin -chem modifications affect state of chromatin condensation and have effects on gene activity

down syndrome

result of an extra chromosome 21 -each body cell has 47 chromosomes -trisomy 21 -aneuploid condition -higher chance when higher age of mothers -nondisjunction during meiosis I

passive immunity

results when IgG antibodies in blood of pregnant female cross placenta to her fetus -antibodies in recipient produced by another individual -doesn't involve recipient's B and T cells -persists only as long as transferred antibodies last artificial passive immunization -antibodies from immune animal injected into nonimmune animal -Ex. antivenin to treat venom

scaffold

rich in topoisomerase and H1 molecules

thylakoids

sacs suspended within stroma -segregates stroma from thylakoid space inside sacs -third membrane system

How are two cells same and diff at metaphase and metaphase II

same process but meiosis II has half the # of chromosome -2n in mitosis -1n in meiosis

genetics

scientific study of heredity and inherited variation

scientific inquiry

scientists make and record observations (collect data) and use inductive reasoning to draw general conclusion -can be developed into testable hypothesis

Antibody/Immunoglobulin (Ig)

secreted protein from cells that formed from B cell antigen receptor binding to antigen -same Y shaped structure as B cell -lack membrane anchor -direct defense against pathogens -can bind to antigens on surface of pathogens or free

dominant

seen in phenotype, not b/c somehow subdues recessive allele -when coexist w/ recessive in heterozygote, not actually interact

Mendel's "factors"

segments of DNA located along the chromosomes

balancing selection

selection itself may preserve variations at some loci, maintaining phenotypic forms -frequency-dependent selection -heterozygote advantage

density-dependent selection

selects for life history traits that are sensitive to population density

Meiosis I

separates homologous chromosomes

plasma membrane

separates the living cell from its surroundings. -Controls traffic in and out of the cell. -Is selectively permeable.

fixed action pattern

sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to simple stimulus -essentially unchangeable and usually carried to completion -triggered by cue (sign stimulus) -Tinbergen's stickleback fishes

inflammatory response

set of events triggered by signaling molecules released upon injury or infection -activated macrophages discharge cytokines -CYTOKINES: signal molecules that recruit neutrophils to injury -MAST CELLS cycles of signaling and response transform injury -activated complement protein promote release of histamine that attract phagocytic cells -enhanced blood flow=deliver antimicrobial peptides -pus: fluid rich in white blood cells, dead pathogens, and debris from damaged tissue systematic inflammatory response

bottleneck effect

severe drop in pop. size due to sudden change in environment -recovers in size over time w/ low levels of genetic variation -genetic drift have substantial effects on gene pool

cleavage furrow

shallow groove in cell surface near old metaphase plate (animals) -contractile ring of actin microfilaments w/ myosin protein on cytoplasmic side

Most common way a signal is transduced along pathway

shape change in next protein which is brought by phosphorylation

maximum parsimony

should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts -"Occam's razor" b/c "shave away" unneccessary complications -req. fewest evolutionary events or base changes -computer programs use -yield similar trees with maximum likelihood when large, accurate data available

monophyletic

signifying that it consists of the ancestor species and all its descendants -taxon=clade

Mice and frogs

similar -same size diff -mice maintain constant temp -frogs body temp depend on temp of environment -frog has slower metabolism (x10-x100 slower) -for frogs, warm=higher rate; cold= lower rate -for mice, warm=lower rate; cold= higher rate

Mice and people

similar -we are mammals -maintain constant body temp by spending metabolic energy diff (mass) -mice have higher resp rate bc ratio of SA:V and lose heat fast -mice need to spend more metabolic energy to keep warm -x100 than humans

analogy

similarity between organisms that is due to convergent evolution -when similar environ. pressures and natural selection produce similar adaptations from diff evolutionary lineages -distinguish from homologies by complexity of characters

homology

similarity resulting from common ancestry -underlying similarity yet function differently -homologous structures -vestigial structures -same genetic code but can lose function ("pseudogenes" inactive) or acquire new functions or retain -all life shares deepest layers and each successive smaller groups adds own homologies to those it shares w/ larger groups

Oparin-Haldane hypothesis

simple organic compounds were changed by heat and solar radiation into more complex organic compounds -early atmosphere was reducing (electron adding) environment -organic compounds could have formed from simpler molecules -energy for synthesis come from lightning and UV radiation -oceans=solution of organic molecules ("primitive soup") -ORGANIC compounds from INORGANIC -CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

cotransport

single ATP-powered pump that transports a specific solute can indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes in a mechanism. -cotransporter can couple the "downhill" diffusion of solute to "uphill" transport of second substance against concentration gradient -active transport driven by concentration gradient

asexual reproduction

single individual is sole parent and passes copies of all its genes to its offspring w/o fusion of gametes -offspring that are exact genetic copies -can be mitotic cell division -clone -mutations can change

Reptiles

slow in colder areas -use environment to regulate body temp

Substrate-level phosphorylation

smaller amounts of ATP are formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

Differences in clock speed

some mutations selectively neutral (rate of evolution should be regular like clock) -diff in clock rate related to how important gene is -increase important=harmful mutations and few neutral (change slow)

chemical evolution

some simple RNA are more stable and reproduce faster than others -short self replicating polymers of ribonucleotides can be synthesized abiotically

variation

sons and daughters not identical copies of parents or siblings

electrogenic pumps

special transport proteins that generate the voltage gradient across a membrane. -help store energy that can be used for work Ex. sodium potassium pump and proton pumps.

cell-mediated immune response

specialized T cells destroy infected host cells

chloroplasts

specialized molecular complexes inside capture light energy and convert it to chemical energy stored in sugar and organic molecules (photosynthesis) -all green part of plant, but leaves are major site of photosynthesis -found mainly in mesophyll cells

sympatric speciation

speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area -can occur if gene flow reduced by polyploidy, sexual selection, and habitat differentiation -less common than allopatric -can occur even when reproductively isolated b/c natural selection -occur when subset of pop reproductively isolated by switch in resources or mating (animals) -auto or allopolyploidy (plants)

gradual model

species diverge steadily over time -many small events that slowly lead to complex species -speciation -cannot tell exactly when new species formed

introduced species

species moved by humans to new geographic areas, either intentionally or accidentally

outgroup

species or group of species from evolutionary lineage that is closely related to but not part of species we are studying (ingroup) -based on morphology, paleontology, embry onic development, and gene sequences -character found both in outgroup and ingroup assumed to be ancestral

ecosystem engineers

species that dramatically alter their environment -"foundation species" -Ex: beaver -+ or - towards others

evolutionary theory

species were individually designed and did not evolve or simply change

Cri du chat syndrome

specific deletion in chromosome 5 -usually die young

Common shapes of bacteria

spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), spirals (spirillum)

kinetochore microtubules

spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores (prometaphase) -chromosomes stop moving toward pole as soon as microtubules from opp. pole attach to kinetochore on other chromatid -"tug of war" until line up in center -metaphase plate -chromosomes "reeled in" -kinetochores "walk" chromosomes along microtubules (microtubules depolymerize after pass)

metastasis

spread of cancer cells to locations distant from original site 1) tumor grows from single cancer cell 2) cancer cells invade neighboring tissue 3)cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels 4) small % of cancer cells metastasize to another part of body

Golgi apparatus

stack of membranes that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins -proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum -synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion -cisternae -vesicles concentrated near engage in transfer -manufactures macromolecules -targets products for part of cell (external molecules recognize "docking sites")

granum

stacks of thylakoids

homeostasis

steady-state regulation keep internal factor within narrow limits retain steady pH in body self-regulating cells

response

step three of cell signaling -regulation of cytoplasmic activities or transcription -signaling pathways regulate variety of cellular activities

carbon sink

store carbon NEP>0

Functions of proteins

structural support, catalyst, transport, defense, movement, regulation

exaptations

structures that evolve in one context but become co-opted for another function -distinguish from adaptive origin of original structure -does not imply that structure somehow evolves in anticipation of future use

organismal ecology

studies how an organism's structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet environmental challenges -evolutionary and behavioral

genomics

study and comparison of genomes within a single species or among different species

cytology

study of cell structure -microscopes most important tools

Biochemistry

study of chemical processes (metabolism) in cells

behavioral ecology

study of ecological and evolutionary basis for behavior

Proteomics

study of the structure and function of proteins in the human body

Natural Theology

studying adaptations -organisms created by God for specific purpose

centrosome

subcellular region containing material that functions throughout cell cycle to organize cell's microtubules -regions in animal cells that organize microtubules of spindle -each centrosome contains 2 centrioles at center -not essential for cell division -even w/o centrioles, spindle forms -not present in plant cells but have mitotic spindles interphase in animal cells -duplicates to form 2 centrosomes -move apart during prophase and prometaphase

Reduction

substance gains electrons (amount of positive charge is reduced)

Oxidation

substance loses electrons

anaerobic respiration

substances other than O2 accept electrons at "downhill" end of electron transport chain -fermentation

primary succession

succession that occurs in an area in which no trace of a previous community is present

G3P

sugar released in the Calvin Cycle - CH20

ATP

supplies energy for most active transport

Autotroph

sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms -producers of the biosphere, producing molecules from CO2 and other inorganic molecules

substrate level phosphorylation

synthesis of ATP by transferring a phosphate group directly to ADP using an enzyme

Anabolic pathway

synthesize molecules are require energy, series of chemical reactions in a cell that build up and breakdown molecules for cellular process

Abiotic factors examples

temp-can shift other species water and oxygen-desiccation (dry out); can limit c.r. salinity-water balance sunlight rocks and soil -pH and structure of substrates

amniocentesis

test that can determine whether developing fetus has Tay-Sachs -15th week of pregnancy -for over age 35 -can cause down syndrome

nucleosome

the "bead" on the string. the basic unit of DNA packing. 10 nm in length

duplication

the "deleted" fragment may become attached as an extra segment to a sister chromatid or nonsister chromatid -produce duplication of a portion on chromosome -harmful -meiosis (unequal crossover)

looped domains

the 30 nm fibers loop into these that attach to a scaffold of proteins, thus making a 300 nm fiber

linker DNA

the DNA between nucleosomes

cell-cell recognition

the ability of a cell to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another. -important sorting cells into tissues organs -rejection of foreign cells by immune system -carbs and proteins -membrane carbs usually short, branched -glycolipids: covalently bonded to lipids -glycoproteins: most covalently bonded to proteins

tonicity

the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water. -depends on concentration of SOLUTES that cannot cross membrane rel. to inside cell

gigantothermy

the ability of an extremely large animal to maintain a constant and relatively high body temperature due to its low surface/volume ratio

associative learning

the ability to associate one environmental feature with another -ex. blue jay associate monarch butterflies w/ foul taste classical conditioning operant conditioning -can have restrictions in development of nervous system -advantage or useless -reflect relationship in nature (evolve)

adaptive immunity (acquired immune response)

the ability to recognize and remember specific antigens and mount an attack on them -molecular recognition relies on vast arsenal of receptors, each of which recognizes a feature typically found only on particular part of molecule in particular pathogen -remarkable specificity -activated after innate immune response -develops slowly -enhanced by previous exposure to infecting pathogen -VERTEBRATES

"oxygen revolution"

the accumulation of oxygen released by cyanobacteria -O2 increased rapidly (1% to 10%) -most atmospheric oxygen gas (O2) produced during photosynthesis [photosynthetic prok] -free O2 produced dissolved in surrounding water until reached high enough concentration to react w/ dissolved elements -Ex. iron-precipitated as iron oxide -> sediments compressed -additional O2 dissolved until waters saturated w/ O2 -O2 "gas out" and enter atmosphere -bacteria similar to cyanobacteria (photosynthetic) originated 2.7 bya resulted in oxygen attacking chemical bonds -> inhibit enzymes and damage cells -increase atmospheric O2 doomed prok -some prok. that survived remained anearobic or evolved w/ diverse adaptations (cellular resp.)

assisted migration

the act of deliberately moving plants or animals to a different habitat

histone tail

the amino end that extends outwards from each histone

secondary production

the amount of chemical energy in food converted to new biomass during a given period of time

emergent properties

the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases -isolated components of living systems lack significant properties of higher levels (reductionism) -not unique to life -result from interactions among components at lower levels of hierarchy of life

communities

the array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem -various species -microorganisms -set of populations

major groove

the bigger of the distances between base pairs

phosphodiester bond

the bond between two nucleotides

nucleotide

the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a 5-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and 1 or 3 phosphate groups. -nucleoside: w/o phosphate group

energy

the capacity to cause change -ability to rearrange collection of matter -can be used to do work (move against forces) -life depends on cell to transform energy

cytoplasmic streaming

the circular flow of cytoplasm within cells -speeds movement of organelles and distribution of materials in plant cells

cisternal maturation model

the cisternae of the golgi actually progress forward from the cis to the trans face, -carrying and modifying their cargo as they move

cell division

the continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells -reproduction, renewal, repair -pass identical genetic material to offspring -accurate DNA passed

darwinian fitness

the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals

relative fitness

the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals -directly effects phenotype and indirectly effects genotype -contribtuion of one GENOTYPE -Ex. barnacle, more efficient at collecting food, able to produce more eggs

osmoregulation

the control of solute concentrations and water balance -adaptations that lack rigid cell walls -w/o cell walls cannot tolerate excessive uptake or loss of water -Paramecium

peptide bond

the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.

thymine dimers

the covalent linking of thymine bases that are adjacent on a DNA strand causes the DNA to buckle and interfere with DNA replication -damage -nucleotide excision repair

active immunity

the defenses that arise when a pathogen infects the body and prompts a primary or secondary immune response

Contrast

the difference in brightness between the light and dark areas of an image -staining.labeling cell components

resource partitioning

the differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist in a community -from evolution

osmosis

the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane -solution w. higher SOLUTE concentration has lower free water concentration -water molecules cluster around solute, make some water unavailable to cross

antigen presentation

the display of the antigen fragment in an exposed groove of the MHC protein -cell surface -advertise that host cell contains foreign substance -antigen receptor of T specific for single fragment (bind to both fragment and MHC) -adaptive immune response

limiting nutrient

the element that must be added for production to increase in an area

chromatin

the entire complex of DNA and proteins that is the building material of chromosomes -condensed DNA wrapped around cores of histone proteins forming nucleosomes

imprinting

the establishment of a long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object -ability for offspring to recognize -essential for survival (parental care) -during sensitive period (development) -no innate recognition (identify w/ first object) -save endangered species (raise orphans) -teach migration patterns (minimize human contact)

systems biology

the exploration of a biological system by analyzing the interactions among its parts -examine dynamic behavior of integrated network -study life at all levels

frequency-dependent selection

the fitness of a phenotype depends on how common it is in the population -reproductive success declines of becomes too common -selection can favor least common features -keeps freq. of each phenotype close to 50%

double helix

the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape. -5' to 3' direction -hydrogen bonds btwn base pairs -complementary strands

macroclimate

the general climate of a large area, such as a continent or country

linkage groups

the genes clustered into four groups of linked genes

transformation

the genotype and possibly phenotype of a prokaryotic cell are altered by the uptake of foreign DNA from its surroundings -once plasmid has been modified, bacteria can be transformed by uptake of plasmid -HEAT SHOCK -nonpathogenic takes up piece of DNA carrying allele for pathogenicity and replaces its own allele w/ foreign -exchange of homologous DNA segments -cell now recombinant -cell surface proteins recognize DNA from closely related species and transport it into cell

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

the host protein that displays the antigen fragment on the cell surface -essential for antigen recognition by T

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

the hypothesis that ecosystems experiencing intermediate levels of disturbance are more diverse than those with high or low disturbance levels

ecological footprint

the impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of land required to sustain their use of natural resources.

biological magnification

the increasing concentration of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues of tolerant organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain

convergent evolution

the independent evolution of similar features in different lineages -distantly related organisms can resemble one another -mammals adapted to similar environment in similar ways even if evolved independently -analogous -Ex. sugar glider and flying squirrel

transmembrane proteins

the integral protein completely spans the membrane as...

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

operant conditioning

the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses -associate one of its behaviors w/ reward or punishment -can repeat or avoid -"trial and error"

energetic hypothesis

the length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain -10% stored -rel. longer w/ higher photosynthetic production -larger carnivores cannot live on small food

Primary structure

the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids.

climate

the long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area: temperature, precipitation, sunlight, wind -most significant influence on distribution

proton pumps

the major electrogenic pump. -Transports protons out of the cell and transfers positive charge from the cytoplasm to the extracellular solution. -actively transport protons (H+) out of cell -ATP synthesis -cotransport -plants, fungi, bacteria

conservation biology

the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions

nondisjunction

the members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not move apart properly during meiosis I or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II -one gamete receives 2 of same type of chromosome and another gamete receives no copy -can happen in mitosis (accumulate)

tympanic membrane

the membrane between the outer and middle ear; also called the eardrum

sickle-cell disease

the most common inherited disease of people of african decent. -caused by a substitution of an amino acid in the hemoglobin protein of red blood cells. -when an individuals blood oxygen is low, the cells turn into rod shaped ones. -clump and clog blood vessels. -didn't disappear b/c beneficial in heterozygotes even if harmful as homozygous (reduces malaria) ORGANISMAL level -normal allele incompletely dominant to sickle cell alleles MOLECULAR level -2 alleles codominant -both made in heterozygotes (carriers)

dispersal

the movement of organisms or gametes from one place to another -from centers of high population density

feedback regulation

the output or product of a process regulates that very process negative feedback: most common form -loop reduces initial stimulus positive feedback: product speeds up own production -blood clotting from injury

tertiary structure

the overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, -2 or more polypep. -hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.

quaternary structure

the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide. -collagen and hemoglobin

facilitated diffusion

the passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins. -polar molecules and ions diffuse passively w/ help of transport proteins

character displacement

the phenomenon where differences among similar species whose distributions overlap geographically are accentuated in regions where the species co-occur, but are minimized or lost where the species' distributions do not overlap

complete dominance

the phenotypes of the heterozygote and the dominant homozygote are indistinguishable

epistasis

the phenotypic expression of a gene at one locus alters that of a gene at a second locus -Ex. Labrador retrievers -second gene determines whether or not pigment will be deposited in hair

hypertonic (plant cells)

the plant cell loses water, its volume shrinks. -The plasma membrane pulls away from the wall, this is plasmolysis. -It is lethal to the cell.

free-energy

the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system -Gibbs free energy (w/o considering surroundings) delta G= delta H- T delta S delta H=change in system's total energy delta S= change in system's entropy T=absolute temp in Kelvin -delta G depend on pH, temp, concentration of reactants and products -negative delta G=spontaneous and lower free energy (loss) [more stable] -higher G=unstable systems and will move toward stability

certainty of paternity

the probability that a male is the genetic sire of the offspring his mate produces -male's probability of raising young that is theirs -rel. low in most species with internal fertilization because acts of mating/birth are separated over time -even in monogamy, another male may care for offspring -males w/ internal fertilization engage in behaviors that increase certainty of paternity -reinforced by natural selection -guarding, removing any sperm before copulation, and introducing a lot of sperm to displace others -variations in mating system and mode of fertilization affect certainty of paternity (significant influence on mating and parental care)

addition rule

the probability that any one of two or more mutually exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding their individual probabilities -multiplication rule give individual prob that are added -dominant allele can come from egg or sperm (not both) as mutually exclusive Ex: 1/4 (dominant from egg and recessive from sperm) + 1/4 (recessive from egg and dominant from sperm) = 1/2 (F2 heterozygote)

phagocytosis

the process by which a cell engulfs a solid particle

speciation

the process by which one species splits into two or more species -produced diversity -when one species splits, species that result share many characteristics b/c common ancestor (unity of life) -can occur rapidly or slowly -can result from changes in few or many genes

exaptation

the process in which existing structures take on new functions through descent with modification -Ex. flagella

cognition

the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgement -most complex forms of learning -distinguish "same" and "different" -problem solving

Photosynthesis

the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy -directly or indirectly nourishes almost entire world -reverses the direction of electron flow compared to respiration 6CO2 + 12H2O + Light energy ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

genetic recombination

the production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent

clonal selection

the proliferation of a lymphocyte (B or T cell) into a clone of cells in response to binding an antigen and to immune cell signals -encounter with antigen selects which lymphocyte will divide to produce clonal population of cells specific for epitope -cells that have antigen receptors specific for other antigens do not respond -generate memory and plasma cells [secrete antibodies specific to antigen] (B) -generate memory and effector T cells [cytotoxic and helper T cells] (T)

relative abundance

the proportion each species represents of all individuals in the community

tumor-supressor genes

the proteins they encode help prevent uncontrolled cell growth -normal products inhibit cell division -mutation can decrease activity of tumor-supressor to lead to cancer -can repair damaged DNA and control adhesion of cells to each other or extracellular matrix (proper cell anchorage crucial) -components of signaling pathways that inhibit cell cycle

transport work

the pumping of substances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement

Chemical work

the pushing of endergonic reactions that would not occur spontaneously -polymers synthesis

Magnification

the ratio of an object's image size to its real size

phosphorylated intermediate

the recipient with the phosphate group covalently bonded to -reactive (less energy w/ more free energy) -must form intermediate -chemical work of ATP

concentration gradient

the region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases.

cytoplasm

the region in a cell between the cell membrane and nucleus -it contains the cell structures and organelles

biogeography

the scientific study of the geographic distributions of species -continental drift influence geographic distribution (Pangea) -predict where fossils might be found -tend to be more closely related to others from same area than to others with same way of life in diff area -endemic: found nowhere else in the world

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

ecological succession

the sequence of community and ecosystem changes after a disturbance

monosaccharide

the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also called simple sugars, they have formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O (1:2:1).

species selection

the species that endure the longest and generate the most new offspring species determine the direction of major evolutionary trends -model suggests that "differential speciation success" plays role in macroevolution similar to diff. reproductive success in microevolution

Bioenergetics

the study of how energy flows through living organisms

proteomics

the study of sets of proteins and properties proteome: entire set of proteins expressed in given cell, tissue, or organism

monomer

the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.

deoxyribose

the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose -lacks oxygen atom on 2nd carbon

ribose

the sugar component of RNA nucleotides. -has oxygen on 2nd carbon

hydrophobic interaction

the tendency for hydrophobic molecules to cluster together when immersed in water -at core of protein -tertiary structure (R groups) -weak but cumulative effect give shape (van der Waals)

microfilaments

the thinnest part of the cytoskeleton, are used to give shape to the cell and support all of its internal parts -actin filaments (globular proteins) -twisted double chain -all euk -linear and structural -bear tension (pulling) -cortical microfil -cell motility

half-life

the time required for 50% of the parent isotope to decay -not affected by temperature, pressure, other environmental variables -each radioactive isotope has characteristic half-life

metabolism

the totality of an organism's chemical reactions -transforms matter and energy -emergent property from orderly interactions btwn molecules -manages material and energy

gene flow

the transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes -tends to reduce genetic diff btwn pop. or result combining pop. -transferred alleles can affect how adapted pop. is to local environment -can also transfer alleles that improve ability of pop. to adapt to local conditions -important for evolutionary charge in humans

communication

the transmission of information between a sender and a recipient -proximate causation of behavior

codominance

the two alleles each affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways -both alleles shown -Ex. blue+red=purple

conservative model

the two parental strands somehow come back together after the process -restore parental double helix -parental molecule conserved

canopy

the uppermost trees or branches of the trees in a forest

Darwin's theory of evolution

theory: accounts for many observations and explains and integrates variety of phenomena -not widely accepted unless predictions stand up to through testing -natural selection widely accepted -Darwin thought evolution slow (not always true) -natural selection not only mechanism for evolution

carbon

this atom has 4 electrons in valence shell and can form 4 covalent bonds with other atoms -making possible diversity of organisms (carbon chains and valence electrons) -proteins, DNA, carbohydrates -H, O, N, S, P, C (elements of life) [common evolution] -CO2 is not organic

zoonotic pathogens

those that are transferred to humans from other animals, either through direct contact w/ infected or by vector (intermediate species such as parasites) -3/4 of human diseases -can track

myosin

thousands of actin filaments and thicker filaments made of protein -interact to muscle contractions -amoeba and white blood cells (pseudopodia) -cytoplasmic streaming

grana

thylakoid sacs stacked

chromosomes

tightly coiled structures that carry the genetic information (can be seen during nuclear division) -proteins help coil DNA, reduce length to fit in nucleus -one long DNA associated w/ proteins

mesophyll

tissue in interior of leaf (30-40 chloroplasts)

anchorage dependence

to divide, must be attached to substratum -signaled to cell cycle control system via pathways involving plasma membrane proteins and cytoskeleton like cell density

Wilkins, Franklin (purpose)

to understand structure of DNA utilizing X-ray diffraction

biomass

total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level

allometric growth

tracks how proportions of structures change due to different growth rates during development -modification=heterochrony

mutant phenotypes

traits alternative to the wild type Ex. white eyes in fruit flies

Redox reactions

transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic molecules - released energy used to synthesize ATP

Redox reaction

transfer of electrons from one molecule to another -some change degree of electron sharing in covalent rather than complete transfer -releases chemical energy when move electrons closer to O2 -energy must be added to pull electron away -more electronegative, more energy req. to pull away -loses potential energy when shift from less to more electronegative

RNA

transmission of information, consists of monomers with a ribose sugar and nitrogenous bases cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A) & uracil (U). -Single stranded (allow versatile shape) -complementary base pairing btwn 2 RNA or 2 stretches in same RNA -mRNA: messenger from DNA to ribosome (protein synthesis) -conveys info from nucleus to cytoplasm

heredity

transmission of traits from one generation to next

carrier proteins

transport proteins that bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane.

channel proteins

transport proteins that have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions use as a tunnel though the membrane. -increase in rate of movement across -aquaporins

passive transport

transport that requires no energy from the cell to make it happen

active transport

transport that requires the cell to expend metabolic energy -enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules. -Requires energy. -against its gradient -carrier protons, not channel -ATP hydrolysis supplies energy

exocytosis

transport vesicle budded from the Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. -When the 2 membranes come in contact, the bilayers fuse spill the contents. -vesicle becomes part of membrane

tumor angiogenesis

tumor grows a network of blood vessels before metastasis -deliver oxygen and nutrients to cancer cells -can spread cancer cells -facilitate metatasis as cells don't adhere or stick together

p53 gene

tumor-suppressor gene -block cell cycle if DNA damaged -encodes for specific transcription factor that promotes synthesis of cell cycle inhibiting proteins -"guardian angel of genome" -increased levels in damaged cells -stimulate DNA repair -slows or stops cell cycle -most frequent mutation leading to cancer -over half of human malignant cells -loss of leads to accumulation of damaged DNA (may lead to malignanoy) -loss of p53 seen in every cancer -sense DNA damage and induces G1 arrest and induces DNA repair process activator of other genes -activates p21, which halts cell cycle by binding to cyclin dependent kinases allowing time to repair DNA -activates miRNA that inhibit cell cycle -turn on genes directly involved in DNA repair -activates "suicide" genes when DNA damage irreparable (apoptosis)

homologous chromosomes

two chromosomes of a pair have same length, centromere position, and staining pattern -carry genes controlling same inherited characters -exception to general pattern is X and Y -females have homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX) -only small parts of X and Y are homologous

Meiosis I and II

two consecutive cell divisions that produce 4 daughter cells rather than 2 in mitosis -each daughter cell only have half as many chromosomes as parent (one set rather than 2)

Mullerian mimicry

two or more unpalatable species resemble each other -both benefit

depurination

type of DNA damage in which a purine base is removed

deamination

type of DNA damage in which an amine group is removed from a molecule

Reaction center complex

type of protein complex surrounded by light harvesting complez

amino acid side chains

types of bonds/interactions in __________ : hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds and disulfide bridges

lymphocytes

types of white blood cells that originate from stem cells in bone marrow -white blood cell -some migrate to thymus (organ in thoracic cavity above heart)=T -some remain and mature in bone marrow= B -some remain in blood=natural killer cells active in innate

isolated system

unable to exchange either energy or matter with its surroundings

Mendel (purpose)

understand inheritance of traits within species

fertilization

union of gametes, culminating in fusion of their nuclei -zygote

genealogical or phylogenetic species concept

unique genetic history

facultative anaerobes

use O2 if it is present but can also carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration in an anaerobic environment

Franklin and Wilkins

use X-ray crystallography analysis of DNA to show DNA helix structure

immunization

use of antigens artificially introduced into body to generate an adaptive immune response and memory cell formation -protection provided by second immune response -vaccines triggers rapid and strong secondary immune response

Chemiosomosis

use of energy in H+ gradient to drive cellular work

energy coupling

use of exergonic process to drive an endergonic one

cytotoxic T cells

use toxic proteins to kill cells infected by viruses or other intracellular before pathogens fully mature -cell mediated immune response -req. signals from helper T cells and interaction w/ antigen-presenting cell -recognize foreign protein produced in infected host w/ I MHC and on cell surface -CD8 (accessory protein) keeps two cells in contact while cytotoxic T activated -secrete proteins that disrupt membrane integrity and trigger cell death (apoptosis)

Wilkins, Franklin (finding)

used X-ray diffraction to see DNA strands -phosphate on outside of helical structure -confirmed Watson and Crick's model of DNA

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

used to study the internal structure of cells -aims electron beam through thin section -specimen stained w/ atoms of metals -use electromagnets as lenses to bend paths of electrons

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

useful for detailed study of the topography of a specimen -3D -electron beam scans surface, coated w. thin film -uses electromagnets as lenses to bend paths of electrons

30-nm fiber

uses H1 histone that packs the nucleosome into thicker fibers

organelles

various functional components in cells

quantitative characters

vary along CONTINUUM -due to POLYGENIC INHERITANCE -2 or more genes influence single phenotype -genetic variation

quantitative characters

vary in population in gradations along a continuum -polygenic inheritance

chaparral

vegetation consisting chiefly of tangled shrubs and thorny bushes.

transport vesicles

vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another

light microscope (LM)

visible light is passed through the specimen and then through glass lenses -lenses refract light to magnify image

membrane potential

voltage across a membrane. -Ranges form -50 to -200 millivolts. -The inside of the cell is negative to the outside. -favors passive transport of cations into cell and anions out of cell -membrane proteins that actively transport ions contribute

Watson, Crick (purpose)

want to discover structure of DNA

Chargaff (purpose)

wanted to test belief that DNA is primary component of gene and living species are diff

aposematic coloration

warning coloration -shared appearances of Mullerian mimics can become aposematic -Ex. black and yellow caterpillar

cyanobacteria

water splitting photosynthesizers evolved over 2.7 bya

Visible light

wavelengths that produce colors we can see -drive photosynthesis

fusion

weakening reproductive barriers -speciation process reverses -eventually cause two hybridizing species to fuse into single species -so much gene flow may occur that reproductive barriers weaken further -gene pools increasingly alike

hypotonic (animal cell)

when a cell is immersed in a solution, water enters the cell faster than it leaves -it swells and lyses (explodes) -less non penetrating solutes in environment

founder effect

when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population, smaller group may establish a new population whose gene pool differs from source pop. -Ex. blown by storm to new island -accounts for relatively high freq of certain inherited disorders among isolated pop.

isotonic (plant cell)

when a plant cell is immersed in a _______ solution; there is no net movement. The cell becomes flaccid and the plant may wilt.

hypotonic (plant cell)

when a plant cell is immersed in a __________ solution the cell contents swell due to osmosis until the elastic cell wall exerts turgor pressure on the cell that opposes further water outake.

allopolyploid

when a sterile hybrid changes into a fertile polyploid after 2 diff species interbreed and produce hybrid offspring -plants -asexual -fertile when mating w/ each other but cannot interbreed w/ either parent species -represent new biological species

triploidy

when an organism has three copies of every chromosome instead of two -3n -fertilization of abnormal diploid produced by nondisjunction

long, thin chromatin fiber

when cell not dividing and as it replicates DNA for preparation -becomes condensed after DNA replication (chromosomes shorter and thicker)

multinucleated cells

when nuclear division takes place without cytokinesis -Ex. skeletal muscle and fungi animals cells=syncytia plant and fungus cells= coenocyte

hypertonic (animal cell)

when the cell is immersed in a solution where it loses water to its environment -shrivels and probably dies. -more non penetrating solutes in surrounding solution -increase in salt can kill

turgid

when the plant cell is very firm, -healthy state for most plant cells -hypotonic solution as water enters -turgor pressure

extracellular matrix (ECM)

where animal tissue cells are embedded, consists of protein and polysaccharides -glycoproteins and carbohydrate molecules secreted by cells -animal cell walls -collagen -fibronectin -regulate cell behavior -influence gene activity -ECM info reaches nucleus by fibronectin, integrin, microfilaments

chiasmata

where crossovers occurred -each homologous pair has one or more X-shaped regions

Sutton (purpose)

where is genetic material of cell stored

ultimate causation

why behavior occurs in context of natural selection

Morgan (purpose)

will breeding many flies lead to mutations in new species?

nonspontaneous

will happen only if energy is supplied -on own leads decrease entropy -leads to increase in entropy as whole b/c energy lost as heat

jaundice

yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes caused by an accumulation of bile pigment (bilirubin) in the blood -broken down by UV

meisosis

yields daughter cells with only one set of chromosomes, half as many chromosomes as parent cells -produce gametes -only occur in special cells in ovaries or testes -reduce chromosome number from 46 (2 sets) to 23 (1 set) -sperm & eggs fertilization fuses the two = 46 chromosomes

synaptonemal complex

zipper-like protein complex that attaches one homolog to other -chromatin continues to condense

trisomic

zygote has three copies of a particular chromosome -aneuploid cell if chromosome present in triplicate in zygote -pregnancy loss or down syndrome