AP English III Literary Terms

Predicate adjective

One type of subject complement is an adjective, group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. Ex. Yoga class is intimidating for an uncoordinated person like me.

Compound sentence

a sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses, often joined by one or more conjunctions Ex. Sarah enjoyed last night's concert, but John slept through it. *Note that a sentence can be both compound and complex: Although John slept through the concert, Sarah enjoyed it, and she and Paige talked about it for many days

Antecedednt

the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP Language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. Ex. If you tell me your secret, I promise not to tell it to anyone. "Secret" is the antecedent referred to by "it."

Syllogism

From the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second, "minor") that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: Major premise: All men are mortal Minor premise: Socrates is a man. Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. A syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first ("Socrates") and the general second ("All men").

Rhetoric

from the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

Sarcasm

from the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony is a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic, that is, intended to ridicule. When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when done poorly, it's simply cruel.

Periodic sentence

- a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. For example: "Ecstatic with my AP score, I let out a loud, joyful shout!" The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. Ex. "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, that is genius." - Ralph Waldo Emerson

Aphorism

- a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point. Ex. "Three may keep a secret if two of them are dead." - Benjamin Franklin

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element to the other. You should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing. Ex. I was thrilled that I passed my AP exam with flying colors. "I was thrilled" is the independent/main clause. "that I passed my AP exam" is the dependent/subordinate clause.

Subordinate clause

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause, sometimes called an independent clause, to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses, such as: although, because, unless, if even though, since, as soon as, while who, when, where, how and that. Ex. I was thrilled that I passed my AP exam with flying colors.

Style

The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) an evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating that author's style). Compare, for example, Jonathan Swift to George Orwell or William Faulkner to Ernest Hemingway. We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples. (2) classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the Romantic, Transcendentalist or Realist movements.

Rhetorical modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing. These four modes are sometimes referred to as mode of discourse.

Apostrophe

a figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect is to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back: Ex. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee." "Heart! We will forget him! / You and I, tonight!" - Emily Dickinson

Argument

a form of communication (written, visual, or verbal) that primarily relies on reason and evidence to discover truth; author's intention is to lead the reader/audience to conviction, or agreement with the author's claim and/or suggested course of action.

Persuasion

a form of communication (written, visual, or verbal) that, in comparison with argument, is more aggressively designed to lead an audience from conviction to action; relies on reason and other appropriate techniques. Persuasion may resort to propaganda to manipulate an audience; however, writers and speakers of integrity should use arguments—whether logical, emotional, or ethical—that are honest and fair.

Appositive

a noun, noun phrase, or series of nouns placed next to another word or phrase to identify or rename it Ex. James Naismith, the inventor of basketball, later coached and served as the athletics director at the University of Kansas.

Predicate nominative

a second type of subject complement - a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that names the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Ex. I am not a yoga expert.

Cumulative sentence (also known as a "loose sentence")

a sentence in which the main independent clause is elaborated by the successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases. A work containing many cumulative/loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. Ex. "Cumulative sentences are easy to write, a process of adding modifying phrases to the base clause of the sentence, each phrase or level adding to our understanding of the preceding phrase or of the base clause, taking us through increasingly specific sentence levels, forcing us to write more than we normally might, to draw material from our thinking that we did not first consider sharing, actually a generative process, like a rolling snowball, picking up details and explanation as it goes." - Brooks Landon "We observe today not a victory of party but a celebration of freedom, symbolizing an end as well as a beginning, signifying renewal as well as change." - from John F. Kennedy's inaugural address in 1961

Balanced sentence

a sentence in which words, phrases, or clauses are set off against each other to emphasize a contrast Ex. "She was savage and superb, wild-eyed and magnificent; there was something ominous and stately in her deliberate progress." - Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness "The first half of life consists of the capacity to enjoy life without the chance; the last half consists of the chance without the capacity." - Mark Twain

Complex sentence

a sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause Ex. Although John slept through the concert, Sarah enjoyed it.

Anecdote

a short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The term most frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person. Ex. In The Crisis, No. 1, Thomas Paine tells an anecdote of a Tory tavern-keeper who said the "unfatherly" expression "Give me peace in my day!" in front of his son.

Analogy

a similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. Ex. "He that voluntarily continues ignorance is guilty of all the crimes which ignorance produces, as to him that should extinguish the tapers of a lighthouse might justly be imputed the calamities of shipwrecks." - Samuel Johnson

Paradox

a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. Ex. "I felt as if I alone of all my townsmen had paid my tax." - Henry David Thoreau in "Civil Disobedience" (after being jailed for refusing to pay a poll tax that he believed ultimately supported slavery)

Metonymy

a term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name." Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional response. Ex. a news release that claims "the White House declared" rather that "the President declared" The famous sentence "The pen is mightier than the sword" (from Edward Bulwer Lytton's play Richelieu) has two examples of metonymy. The "pen" stands in for "the written word." The "sword" stands in for "military aggression and force."

Synecdoche

a type of metaphor in which the part stands for the whole, the whole for a part, the genus for the species, the species for the genus, the material for the thing made, or in short, any portion, section, or main quality for the whole or the thing itself (or vice versa). Ex. Farmer Joe has two hundred head of cattle [whole cattle] and three hired hands [whole people]. If we had some wheels *whole vehicle+, I'd put on my best threads *clothes+ and ask for Jane's hand *hopefully her whole person] in marriage.

Parody

a work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. As comedy, parody distorts or exaggerated distinctive features of the original. As ridicule, it mimics the work by repeating and borrowing words, phrases, or characteristics in order to illuminate weaknesses in the original. Well- written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly-written parody offers only ineffectual imitation.Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original Ex. News articles from the Onion parody features of sincere news articles by fabricating a time, place, interviews with "credible" sources, etc. to report on fabricated events.

Satire

a work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought-provoking and insightful about the human condition. Ex. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn satirizes racism, slavery, Romantic literature, religion, superstition, cruelty, greed, etc.

Parallelism

also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve—but is not limited to—repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. A famous example of parallelism begins Charles Dickens's novel A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity . . ." The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

Pendantic

an adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

Undertone

an attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening undertones. Ex. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has a predominantly satiric, humorous tone but at moments is dark, somber, or even menacing.

Asyndeton

consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. This can give the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity, of an extemporaneous rather than a labored account. Asyndetic lists can be more emphatic than if a final conjunction were used. Ex. On his return he received medals, honors, treasures, titles, fame. They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking, understanding.

Rhetorical question

differs from hypophora in that it is not answered by the writer because its answer is obvious or obviously desired, and usually just a yes or no answer would suffice. It is used for effect, emphasis, or provocation, or for drawing a conclusionary statement from the fact at hand. Ex. We shrink from change; yet is there anything that can come into being without it? What does Nature hold dearer, or more proper to herself? Could you have a hot bath unless the firewood underwent some change? Could you be nourished if the food suffered no change? Do you not see, then, that change in yourself is the same order, and no less necessary to Nature? - Marcus Aurelius

Polysyndeton

figure of addition and emphasis which intentionally employs a series of conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) not normally found in successive words, phrases or clauses; the deliberate and excessive use of conjunctions in successive words or clauses. The effect is a feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up - a persistence or intensity. Ex. "Is it so bad, then, to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be great is to be misunderstood." - Ralph Waldo Emerson "*Football is+ a way of life, really, to those particular people who are a part of it. It's more than a game, and regardless of what level it's played upon, it still demands those attributes of courage and stamina and coordinated efficiency and goes even beyond that for [it] is a means - it provides a mental and physical relaxation to everybody that watches it, like yourself." - Vince Lombardi

Enumeratio

figure of amplification in which a subject is divided into constituent parts or details, and may include a listing of causes, effects, problems, solutions, conditions, and consequences; the listing or detailing of the parts of something. Ex. I love her eyes, her hair, her nose, her cheeks, her lips. "Who's gonna turn down a Junior Mint? It's chocolate; it's peppermint; it's delicious . . . It's very refreshing!" - Kramer (Seinfeld).

Antithesis

figure of balance in which two contrasting ideas are intentionally juxtaposed, usually through parallel structure; a contrasting of opposing ideas in adjacent phrases, clauses, or sentences. Antithesis creates a definite and systematic relationship between ideas. Ex. "He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain that which he cannot lose." - Jim Elliot "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind." - Neil Armstrong

Hypophora

figure of reasoning in which one or more questions is/are asked and then answered, often at length, by one and the same speaker; raising and responding to one's own question(s). A common usage is to ask the question at the beginning of a paragraph and then use the paragraph to answer it. You can use hypophora to raise questions which you think the reader obviously has on his/her mind and would like to see formulated and answered. Ex. "When the enemy struck on that June day of 1950, what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism of its youth." - Dwight D. Eisenhower

Euphemism

from the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Ex. saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse"

Oxymoron

from the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness."

Litotes

from the Greek word "simple" or "plain." Litotes is a figure of thought in which a point is affirmed by negating its opposite. It is a special form of understatement, where the surface denial serves, through ironic contrast, to reinforce the underlying assertion. Ex. He's no fool (which implies he is wise). Not uncommon (which implies that the act is frequent)

Chiasmus

from the Greek word for "criss-cross," a designation based on the Greek letter "chi," written X. Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which two successive phrases or clauses are parallel in syntax, but reverse the order of the analogous words. Ex. "The land was ours before we were the land's" - Robert Frost (N, V, Pro: Pro, V, N) "Pleasure's a sin, and sometimes sin's a pleasure." - Lord Byron Sitting together at lunch, the kids talked incessantly; but they said nothing at all sitting in the dentist's office.

Didactic

from the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic works have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles

Deductive reasoning

reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case Ex. The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.

Diction

related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.

Anaphora

repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive lines, clauses, or sentences Ex. "It was the best of times; it was the worst of times." "They are masters who instruct us without rod or ferrule, without angry words, without clothes or money." - Richard de Bury

Epistrophe

repetition of the same word or group of words at the end of successive lines, clauses, or sentences Ex. "Government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." - Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address

Tone

similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author's tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.

Semantics

the branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

Theme

the central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

Irony

the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language; (1) In a verbal irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and the readers think ought to happen. (3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction, but know to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create poignancy or humor.

Allegory

the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. Ex. Animal Farm by George Orwell "The Fall of the House of Usher" by Edgar Allan Poe is often interpreted as an allegory for a journey into the human mind.

Understatement

the ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. Ex. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the downtown area.

Genre

the major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries, many subdivisions exist that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing

Mood

the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood.

Denotation

the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion attitude, or colo

Colloquial/colloquialism

the use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include regional dialects.

Syntax

the way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice section, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

Subject complement

the word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it or (2) describing it. The former is the technically a predicate nominative, the latter a predicate adjective. Ex. see examples for predicate adjective and predicate nominative above

Juxtaposition

when two words, phrases, images, ideas are placed close together or side by side for comparison or contrast. Ex. Jack London's short story "To Build a Fire," set in the Yukon with a temperature of -75 degrees Fahrenheit, juxtaposes the main character's human judgment with his dog's survival instincts. In the Odyssey, images of Polyphemus the Cyclops tenderly caring for his ewes are juxtaposed with images of him crunching on men.

Simple sentence

a sentence consisting of one independent clause and no dependent clause Ex. Sarah enjoyed last night's concert.

Exclamatory sentence

a sentence expressing strong feeling, usually punctuated with an exclamation mark Ex. "It's alive! It's alive!" - Colin Clive as Dr. Frankenstein in Frankenstein, 1931 "Have fun storming the castle!" - Billy Crystal as Miracle Max in The Princess Bride, 1987

Dialect

a variety of speech characterized by its own particular grammar or pronunciation, often associated with a particular geographical region.

Invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

Inductive reasoning

deriving general principles from particular facts or instances Ex. Every cat I have ever seen has four legs; cats are four-legged animals.

Repetition

the duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

Connotation

the non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. Examining connotation often becomes interesting when looking at words with similar denotations but very different connotations, e.g. "skinny" versus "thin"; "childish" versus "childlike

Ellipsis

the omission of a word or phrase which is grammatically necessary but can be deduced from the context Ex. "Some people prefer cats; others, dogs.