AP European History Master Set

Raya

"Flock" in Turkish, these were the non-muslims in the Turkish Empire. Non-muslims paid taxes, could not serve in the army, but were under the jurisdiction of their religious officials, who had the true local authority in the Ottoman Empire.

Test Act

1673-excluded those unwilling to receive the sacrament of the Church of England form voting, holding office, preaching, teaching, attending universities, ore assembling for meetings (ie Catholics)

United Kingdom of Great Britain

1707, Britain and Scotland united under this name; rule was shared between the king and Parliament. It was made up of the landed aristocracy, and was divided into the House of Lords (upper aristocracy) and the House of Commons (landed gentry). It was done to ensure that the Scots would not revolt against William by giving them the economic advantages the English had before kept from the Scots

Peace of Belgrade

1739. Prince Eugene of Savoy continues to push Turks eastward though Belgrade. By this treaty, frontier drawn by which Austrian side until 20th century. Turks kept Romania and whole Balkan peninsula except Catholic Croatia which was part of Habsburg empire. Habsburg opened port on Mediterranean- Trieste (now Italian).

Taff Vale Decision

1901, court decides that unions are responsible for business losses during a strike, aka strikes now bankrupt the unions. This encouraged workers to suppord the Labour party for they worked to undo this court decision through acts of Parliament, which was done in 1906

Siglo de Oro

the Spanish Golden Age: a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain, coinciding with the political rise and decline of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty

Usury

the act of lending money at illegal rates of interest; forbidden in christianity, until the church began to practice it, so people went to jews and the jews became the major bankers in Europe

Diderot

"A philosopher on the throne." This was said by this man to Catherine

Whigs

After the Treaty of Utrecht, the parties of England began to dissolve, the forces uniting the parties passed, however their names remained. This group became defined by their closeness to the government in power in 18th century England, as well as Anglian Bishops

White Russians

Belorussians

William Shakespeare

English poet and dramatist considered one of the greatest English writers (1564-1616)

Battle of White Mountain

Fought near Bohemia; Momentous victory of Habsburgs over the Protestant Union and allowed constitutionalism to be replaced by authoritarian government in Bohemia (1620). Frederick fled Bohemia after the battle, giving him the title "winter king". Spain took Palatinate for itself

Father Jahn

German extremist who had an aversion to anyone corrupting the Volksgeist or non-nationalistic. Founded a youth group that would go marching through forests discussing these ideas. Disliked the French

Die Macht

German term for power

The Great Codifier

Hammurabi title for creating the first system of laws

Bank of France

Highlighting the successful taxation by the Consulate and the establishment of a good and stable currency to replace assignats, this was created in 1800

Final Solution

The Nazi program of exterminating Jews under Hitler

Richard Nixon

This US president in 1971 normalized diplomatic channels with Mao's China and ended the United States's objection to China replacing Taiwan in the United Nations. The US conceded that Taiwan would one day be ruled by Beijing, but would not allow it to be forcibly annexed. No other single political actions since has had a more profound impact on the economy of the modern world.

German

This ethnic group mainly migrated during the second half of the nineteenth century to America, although a few went to Argentina.

Russian

This ethnic group mainly migrated during the second half of the nineteenth century to Asiatic Russia.

Germanic Liberties

This means that the Germans and there sovereign states were free from control by an emperor or an Empire and all would gladly accept the aid of outsiders to protect these (including France)

Kingdom of the Netherlands

This nation, formerly the Dutch Republic, was restored by the Congress of Vienna under the House of Orange and to it was given the Austrian Netherlands. This combination hoped to provide a strong northern barrier to French aggression

Aristocracy

A government in which power is in the hands of a hereditary ruling class or nobility. It was employed in some Greek city-states

Sans-Culottes

A reference to Parisian workers who wore loose-fitting trousers rather than the tight-fitting breeches worn by aristocratic men. In the French Revolution, a radical group made up of Parisian wage-earners, and small shopkeepers who wanted a greater voice in government, lower prices, and an end of food shortages

Silesia

A region of central Europe rich in deposits of coal and iron ore. It was annexed by King Frederick II (Frederick the Great) of Prussia in 1742 but now largely in Poland. Frederick II took this region in spite of the Pragmatic Sanction of Maria Theresa of Austria. The annexation of 6 million in the very industrious region went smoothy as 200,000 Prussians soldiers entered the territory.

Federal Republic of Germany

A republic in north central Europe on the North Sea, this country was established in 1949 from the zones of Germany occupied by the British and French and Americans after the German defeat. Its capital was strategically placed in the small Rhineland city of Bonn. This country was reunified with East Germany in 1990

Gabelle

A salt tax in France. This is an example of one of the ways monarchs could raise money by levying taxes on basic food and clothing instead of taxing land or the people directly

Impressionism

A school of late 19th century French painters who pictured appearances by strokes of unmixed colors to give the impression of reflected light

Concert of Europe

A series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions

Novum Organum

A volume from Instauratio Magna that was published in 1620. Translates to New Method of Acquiring Knowledge . In Sir Francis Bacon insisted on use of the inductive method. Experimentation should proceed from the particular/specific to the general, from the concrete to the abstract.

Zionism

A worldwide movement, originating in the 19th century by Theodor Herzl after the Dreyfus affair that sought to establish and develop a Jewish nation in Palestine. Since 1948, its function has been to support the state of Israel

World Trade Organization

An international organization based in Geneva, founded in 1997 to regulate the international trade that GATT began, that monitors and enforces rules governing global trade

International Monetary Fund

An international organization, run by the UN, of 183 countries, established in 1947 with the goal of promoting cooperation and exchange between nations, and to aid the growth of international trade

Battle of Marengo

Bonaparte inflicts a shattering defeat on Austrians by which he is able to establish peace with Austria, bring the effective end to the War of the Second Coalition

Mines Act

Drafted in 1842, this act did not allow women and children under 10 to work underground. Robert Peel only accepted the act due to the influence of Viscount Stanley (an ex-Whig) and when it was made clear there would be no negative impact on the economy.

General Hideki Tojo

General who took power in Japan and was the major architect of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and gave it his final approval. He plan to bomb America was, however, already being developed before he took office. He was Prime Minister of Japan from 1941 to 1944

Cameralists

Germans who pushed for economic changes similar to the physiocrats.

Bohemia-Moravia

Going back on the Munich Agreement signed not one year early, in March of 1939 Hitler occupied this region, transforming it into a German protectorate. Hitler gave the Slovaks their independence. Czechoslovakia no longer existed on the map.

Christian Democratic Union

Governed FRG (1949-69), this party put an emphasis on moral idealism and ethical purpose. This party was support from and for Protestants and Catholics equally and attracted middle class and business persons

Knights of the Empire

In South Germany and Rhineland. Acknowledged no overlordship. If count these, there were 2,000 German states (more than the 300 usually referred to). they were private persons enjoying sovereign status- last anomaly of neo-feudalism and they protected their freedoms jealously- they were sticklers for "German Liberties". They sovereign status was a product of the Peace of Westphalia

Education

In an effort to produce knowledgeable priests that were less corruptible, this was stressed in the 16th century to an extent that was not matched until the 1970's. For the only time until the 20th century, class mobility was quite possible through this effort.

Édouard Herriot

Interrupting a string of conservative coalitions in the 1920s controlled by business and financial interest, this man was Prime Minister of France from 1924 and 1926 when the government was controlled by the Radical Socialists, who were neither radical nor socialist. He ran on the support of the lower classes and farmers and advocated progressive legislation, but it defended capitalism and private property. It was, however, extremely anticlerical.

Robert Boyle

Irish chemist who established that air has weight and whose definitions of chemical elements and chemical reactions helped to dissociate chemistry from alchemy (1627-1691). He also discovered the relationship between temperature and pressure of a gas in a closed system (his name is bestowed upon this law)

Thrity-Nine Articles

Issued by Elizabeth I, these provided for the foundation of the Anglican Church, maintaining all the outward appearances of Catholicism, but implanting Protestant doctrine into the Church of England. It was a church run by the secular world with all services and prayer in the vernacular.

Pogroms

Persecution of minorities, especially the Jews in Russia

Gubernii

Peter the Great reorganized old organs of local self-govt. Old system of duma and national assembly replaced with a senate, dependent on himself and ten territorial areas called "governments" or this. Use of Latin words shows imitation of West.

Cesare Beccaria

Philosophe; promoted criminal justice; applied logic and reason to crime and punishment; felt that the justice system should focus on preserving social order instead of avenging crimes; called for the abolition of capital punishment and torture; wanted speedy trials and the elimination of cruel and unusual punishment

Diaz

Portuguese explorer who in 1488 was the first European to get round the Cape of Good Hope (thus proving that a sea route from the Atlantic to Asia could be established) (1450-1500)

Act of Settlement of 1701

Provided that the English crown would go to the German Hanovers if none of Queen Anne's children survived, for no Catholic would ever be ruler of England again.

Frederick III

Prussian elector who succeeded Frederick William; he was known as "the Ostentatious," and in 1701 was crowned King Frederick I as payment for aiding the Holy Roman Emperor during the War of the Spanish Succession.

Strabo

Published 17 volumes of geography which was by far the most voluminous to date. He is the father of geography

J. S. Bach

Now known as one of the greatest composers ever. During his life, he was known as a great organist. He lived during the Baroque period, standardized music theory and harmony as we know it today. (1685-1750)

Black Tuesday

October 29th, 1929, on this day prices in the American stock market took their first, steep dive, plunging over $10 million dollars and over 11% (it should be noted that, while loosing about the same amount the day before, the markets gained about 12% on the 30th)

Kulaks

Rich peasants in the Russian Empire who owned larger farms and used hired labour. They were their own class separate from the mirs and the old aristocracy.

The Valois

Ruled France for 250 years and played a crucial role in establishment as Major Europeon Power

Leo Tolstoy

Russian author remembered for War and Peace and Anna Karenina, both widely read throughout Europe. He can be argued as the greatest realist writer of all time (1828-1910).

Pyotr Tchaikovsky

Russian composer whose works are noted for their expressive melodies (1840-1893)

Fourth Lateran Council

Significant medieval church council held in 1215 which affirmed the doctrine of transubstantiation as well as the seven sacraments and strengthened Papal authority. It was called by Innocent III. It was the largest gathering of the Catholic church ever even to this day, since most of the Eastern Church came as well

Father Hildago

Started the mexican independence, had support of creoles at first, but they turned against him after he said they would seize the property of wealthy creoles. Those creoles did complete the movement of Mexican independence, but this man did not have any power in the new Mexican state

Cotton Lords

Term for the first industrialists in England; they were fiercely independent.

Grand Vizier

The Ottoman Sultan's chief minister, who led the meetings of the imperial council. He also controlled the outlying, non-muslim regions of the empire

William Pitt

The Prime Minister of England during the French and Indian War. He increased the British troops and military supplies in the colonies. He concentrated on the seas and subsidized Frederick the Great of Prussia through the enormous credit secured by the Bank of England.

Boettcher

This German discovered a way to make a vitreous and translucent material that was nearly the same as Chinese porcelain. No longer did China have a monopoly on china and cities such at Sevres and Dresden became the centers of china production in Europe

General Erich Ludendorff

This German general assumed rule over Germany by the conclusion on the war as the Germans began to operate along lines of total war. This man is why the Germans did not seek peace in the beginning of 1918 when they had a positional advantage over the English and French. He was an old-type Prussian: very bellicose.

Tata Family

This Indian family took WWI as the opportunity to take control of India's manufacturing and expand it. One of their steel works was the largest in the entire British Empire.

Madame Mere

This woman, whose real name was Letizia Ramolino, was the mother of Napoleon and most of the Kings of Europe after Napoleon established them as such throughout the lands he controlled. She always believed that her son's rise to power was too good to last, and outlived him by 15 years

Caroline Bonaparte

This younger sister of Napoleon was established as the Queen of the Kingdom of Naples after Joseph took the more vital post as King of Spain

Wirtschaftswunder

Translating to "economic miracle", this was ignited by the German currency reform of 1948 (the same one that triggered the Berlin Blockade) and the Marshall Plan. By 1950 West Germany exceeded pre-war Nazi Germany's production levels and by 1958 it had easily become the largest economy in Europe. Unemployment did not exist, the true issue being a devastating labor shortage. Similar tales of growth from 1950 to 1974 were found all over western Europe, save Britain who, while growing the fastest in its history, grew much slower than the continental countries as its aged industry and welfare reforms dragged it down.

Treaty of Nanking

Treaty that concluded the Opium War. It awarded Britain a large indemnity from the Qing Empire, denied the Qing government tariff control over some of its own borders, opened additional ports of residence to the English, and ceded Hong Kong to Britain (1842)

Norway

Used as a testing ground to ensure that the invasion of France would be successful, this country was invaded and demolished militarily by the Nazis on April 9th, 1940. While this country prosed no threat to Germany itself, it was a loyal ally of the French and the British with important mineral reserves. This country also was the base for the British laying mines in the North Sea and the entire Baltic region.

Harriet Taylor

Wife of the author Stuart Mill, extended the logic of liberal freedom to the position of women in her book, the subjection of women. She helped write The Subjection of Women 1869

On the Motion of the Heart and Blood

William Harvey wrote this book in 1628 which was the first ever to speculate on the continual circulation of blood throughout the body through arteries veins. His work on animals was proved to be correct when the Italian Malpighi in 1661 found Capillaries which Harvey had said must exist and just were too small to be seen

War of the Roses

struggle for the English throne (1455-1485) between the house of York (white rose) and the house of Lancaster (red rose) ending with the accession of the Tudor monarch Henry VII

Croix de Feu

"Cross of Fire," right wing league composed of army veterans. hostile to parliamentary government, socialism, and communism. wanted the glory of France to be set above all

Battle of El Alamein

(1942) World War II battle in which the Britain won a decisive victory over Germany in Egypt, securing the Suez Canal

Mestizo

A person of mixed Spanish and Native American heritage. They were usually the poorest in the Spanish empire and were treated much like indians.

Labour Party

A political party formed in Great Britain in 1900 characterized by the promotion of labor's interests and the socialization of key industries. It replaced the Liberal Party and created a two-party system in the UK in which the two parties were truly divided.

First Continental Congress

September 1774, delegates from twelve colonies (Georgia did not come) sent representatives to Philadelphia to discuss a response to the Intolerable Acts. They agreed to boycott British goods

The Press

The Fourth Estate

Baltic Barons

The Teutonic Order

New Model Army

The disciplined fighting force of Protestants led by Oliver Cromwell in the English civil war. It was made up of every kind of Englishman in the Kingdom

War of the Austrian Succession

The name that developed for the wars that occurred between European powers between 1739 and 1748

Simony

The selling of Church offices

Denis Papin

This Frenchman in 1681 invented a piston that was moved by steam, but was only used in cooking for the meager power output it produced

Constitutional Convention

This body was to replace the Legislative Assembly to govern all of France after the Commune took power in Paris and effectively destroyed the Legislative assembly in August of 1792

Ism

This is any word that is the conscious espousal of a doctrine in competition with other doctrines.

Aristotle

This man became The Philosopher: the one to whom all was to be referred to outside of religion once his writings were rediscovered by European from the Arabs

Duke of Choiseul

This man was the French negotiator at the Treaty of Paris (1763)

Grigory Zinoviev

This man was the first president of the Third International.

George Sorel

This man, a leading philosopher of syndicalism, wrote in 1908 this work which declared that violence was good no matter what; not dependent of the end accomplishment. It also pronounced that the general strike would be effective.

Avignon

This region, which was always left to the direct rule of the papacy, was forcibly annexed by the Constituent Assembly

Siege of Vienna

This was when the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman The Magnificent (I) attemped to invade Vienna but they were stopped by Leopold I (1683)

George Lazar

Tried to inspire Roman nationalism by teaching in Romanian in Romania when the upper classes preferred Greek.

Gosplan

Under soviet command-economy socialism, this was the planning agency that had the respondibility of creating the economic plan for the nation and determining how all resources, especially men and women, would be used

Muzhik

a Russian peasant (especially prior to 1917)

Mestizos

A person of mixed Native American and European (usually Spanish) ancestry

Queen Christina

Daughter of Gustavus Adolphus who inherited the throne after her father's death in battle. Absorbed in religion, she allowed estates to gain authority before she abdicated to become a devout Catholic

Samuel Johnson

English author who made lasting contributions to Engish language as a poet, author of essays, moralist, literary critic, biographer, editor, and lexicographer. His dictionary compiled during the 18th century was far beyond those that had been created before

Second Balkan War

Failing to agree on how Macedonia would be split by the victorious power following the First Balkan War, this began a year later in 1912 in which Albania and Macedonia were the issues. Serbia, defended by Russia, wanted a sea port in Albania, and had occupied it for two years, but Austria would not allow such a thing. Greece also had claims to parts of Albania, and it had by promised to Italy by Bismarck. The Great Power stepped in and ended this war, creating the independent Kingdom of Albania.

Lord Ashley

Famous member of Parliament who worked to improve conditions for children, laborers, and the mentally handicapped during the period from 1833-1847

USSR

Fearing the rise of Fascism and Nazism throughout the world, this country joined the League of Nations in 1934, urging supporters to work with socialists and the Popular Fronts throughout Europe to prevent such totalitarian governments from rising. France and the Czechs quickly signed mutual assistance pacts in 1935 with this nation which agreed to battle Fascism.

Irish Parliament

Feeling the great sympathy in Ireland towards the America revolution, parliament looked to please the Irish by allowed Catholics in this, but they still could not sit in parliament at Westminster

Rome

In order to protect the independence of the Papacy and to oppose republican movements, the Second Republic of France took this city from Mazzini by force and put the Pope in power. Those troops would stay for 20 years in the heart of Italy.

Act of Union

In response to the 1793 attempted landing in Ireland by the French and the 1798 revolt by the Irish to establish their own republic, which was brutally crushed, parliament in London passed this in 1802 which dissolved the separate Kingdom of Ireland, which included the parliament of Ireland and all other representative bodies. Ireland now was at the same rank as Calcutta: a poor, and a lot less wealthy then Calcutta, colony.

German Democratic Republic

In response to the formation of a united West Germany in 1949, the Soviets created this country, also known as East Germany. Even before 1950, two Germanys had emerged to the dismay of the Germans and many British and Americans, but to the pleasure of the French and the Soviets

Cato Street Conspiracy

Following the Peterloo Massacre and passing of the Six Acts (which hindered free speech) a group of revolutionaries came up with a plan to assassinate several cabinet ministers, overthrow the government and start a radical revolution. The plan failed and they were hanged.

Andre Gide

French author and dramatist who is regarded as the father of modern French literature (1869-1951)

Moliere

French author of sophisticated comedies (1622-1673) including The Misanthrope. He was well liked by Louis XIV

Nicholas Poussin

French classical painter who painted the Rape of the Sabine Women, known as the greatest French painter of the 17th century. Like most artists of his era, many if not most of his commissions were from Versailles itself

Georges Clemenceau

French statesman who played a key role in negotiating the Treaty of Versailles (1841-1929). He demanded the ridiculous war reparations and the war guilt clause.

Breitenfeld

In 1631, the combined Protestant forces under Gustavus Adolphus defeated Tilly's imperial Catholic army at this place near Leipzig.

Slavery

In 1833 this was abolished in the British Empire.

Nuremberg Laws

In 1935, after driving all Jews from all position of power in the government, Hitler introduced these laws, depriving Jews of the rights of a German citizen and forbade intermarriage and sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews. A "Jew" was also established as anyone who had a Jewish grandparent, even if both parents were not Jews.

King Charles I of Spain, King Philip II, King Philip III, King Philip IV, King Charles II

Put in order the leaders of the House of Habsburg (residing in Madrid once the house breaks into Austrian and Spanish sides) from 1519 to 1700

Cortes

Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico (1485-1547)

Annates

The Church's policy where all the income a bishop received in his first year went directly to Rome.

Ottomans

The French built a long last alliance with this country by sending French merchants to learn the secrets of their commerce. As countries began to send merchant delegates to foreign powers, city-states that had one ruled Asian trade (Flanders and Venice along with essentially all of Italy) lost substantial power

French and Indian War

The North American portion of the Seven Years War in which England asserted its dominance against France, taking all French possession on the Containment after taking Quebec in 1759 and Fort Dusquesne and Louisburg in 1758

Black Hand

The Serbian terrorist group that planned to assassinate Franz Ferdinand, part of the Pan-Slavism nationalist movement, with the intention of uniting all of the territories containing South Slav populations (Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, Slovenes, etc) annexed by Austria-Hungary

Ottoman Empire

The Sick Man of Europe.

Virtu

The striving for excellence and being a virtuous person. Humanistic aspect of Renaissance. Root of the word comes from a latin word meaning man

Anschluss

The union of Austria with Germany, completed briefly by the occupation of Austria by the German army in 1938. Once the dissolution of the Austrian Empire occurred after WWI, it has always been a dream of Vienna, but Europe's other players would never allow it

Irish and British

These ethnic group mainly migrated during the second half of the nineteenth century to America.

Croatian and Slovakian

These two slavic languages are both written in Roman script as they are closer culturally to Europe and the Catholic Church

Algeciras

This conference, demanded by Kaiser Wilhelm II, met in 1906 to discuss Moroccan independence from France but only Austria vote with Germany for such movement. Great Britain was pushed into a closer pact with France.

Austria

This country, looking to appease socialists aware that the true power of the government did not lay in the legislature but truly lay in the Emperor, gave universal male suffrage to its people in 1912.

Sforza

This family came to power in Milan 1450. They were a Condottiere family that hired mercenaries

Eugene Beauharnais

This man, son of Josephine and therefore Napoleon's stepson, was never made King of Italy, that title Napoleon reserved for himself, but he did rule it effectively as Viceroy.

Cardinal Mazarin

This was the man who served under Cardinal Richelieu and laid the foundations for Louis XIV's expansionist policies. Successor of Cardinal Richelieu, it was his bad attempts to increase royal revenue that lead to the Fronde

Queen Christina of Sweden

This woman abdicated her Swedish throne to become a Catholic, which Charles II envied while striking fear into the minds of Englishmen. Even more fear came to the English when the Duke of York, brother and heir t Charles II, became a Catholic

Behaim's Globe

Was constructed in 1492 and suggested that China could be reached by crossing the Atlantic. This effected the decision of Columbus.

Lawrence of Arabia

Welsh soldier who from 1916 to 1918 organized the Arab revolt against the Turks. Because of his actions, the Kingdom of Hejaz under the emir Hussein in 1916 became independent from the Ottoman empire.

Albigensian Crusade

a crusade begun by Innocent III against the Cathar heresy in southern France that began around 1250

Petrine Supremacy

a doctrine based on the belief that the bishops of Rome occupied a preeminent position in the Church, was grounnded in Scripture

Viceroyalty

by mid 1500s Spanish America consisted of two of these units of government - Mexico & Peru with 22 bishops and a university in each. (Universities of Lima and Mexico pre-date Harvard)

Transubstantiation

the Roman Catholic doctrine that the whole substance of the bread and the wine changes into the substance of the body and blood of Christ when consecrated in the Eucharist

Olympe de Gouges

"Male and female citizens being equal in the eyes of he law, must be equally admitted to all honors...without...distinction besides virtues and talents."

Wahabis

Branch of Sunni Islam; They believe that people should not pray to saints or pray at the tombs of former Immamans and Caliphs; they believe your sole focus should be on god only. They display strict rules for women

Neville Chamberlain

British statesman who as Prime Minister pursued a policy of appeasement toward fascist Germany (1869-1940)

Society of Friends of the Constitution (Jacobins)

By far the most powerful of the Parisian political clubs, this was the radical portion of the National Assembly that would finally take power and initiate the Terror

Constitutional Democratic Party

Cadets. Staunch liberals who demanded constitutional government and thought that Nicolas's promised reforms left the essential structures of autocracy unchanged. It was not a party truly interested in the workers but in industry and general classical liberalism. It was not a radical political party; a rarity in Russia

World Bank

A specialized agency of the United Nations that makes loans to countries for economic development, trade promotion, and debt consolidation

Indirect Rule

A system of colonial government under which the governor and a council of advisers developed laws for the colony but local rulers were given the opportunity to exert some degree of authority.

First Battle of the Marne

After taking some men back to protect East Prussia, the German right flank was attacked by General Joffre of France seeing the gap. This battle, September 5 through 12, ensued. Paris was saved, but the war completely changed character. Trench warfare was installed on the western front

Sudetenland

An area in western Czechoslovakia, with a German majority, that was coveted by Hitler. It was given to Czechoslovakia because this mountainous region is the best natural defense in the generally flat region from Paris to the Ural Mountains. The Versailles treaty keeping it out of German hands proved out self-determination would not be observed at the risk of political equality between Germany and her enemies.

Pact of Paris

An alternate name for the Kellogg-Briand Pact; it was a pledge to forswear war as a national policy. It was ultimately ratified by sixty-two nations

Chronometers

An exceptionally precise time piece used by navigators, in coordination with the known movements of the heavenly bodies, to determine longitudinal position on the globe

1494

In this year the French began crossing the Alps to increase their control on Italy, taking Milan and the Northern portions of Italy quite easily. With this action, Italy became a battleground for French and Spanish/Austrian (Habsburg) dominance in Europe

1529

In this year the Turks laid siege to Vienna

Jawharlal Nehru

Independent India's first prime minister. A devoted follower of Gandhi who was educated in Britain, he emphasized democracy, Cold War neutrality, and economic and social reform

V-E Day

May 8th, 1945

Pope Gregory VII

This Pope fought lay investiture by issuing a decree forbidding high-ranking clerics from receiving their investiture from laymen. His philosophical goal was to separate the church and the rest of the world. Therefore, all marriages, or any sexual affairs, by clergy must end

Lutheranism

This Protestant religion failed to take root anywhere outside of the Baltic because no other region had any desire to defect from the Catholic Church and then join a religion that held its power in the Baltic between the Kingdom of Sweden, Denmark, and much of the northern reaches of the HRE

India and Indonesia

These two colonies, controlled by Great Britain and the Netherlands respectively, were seen by Europe as ideal colonies. Both had export surpluses. Both had a vast array of nature resources, but tropical resources that did not compete with Europe. Both had vast and powerful populations, but they were divided by language and so were easy to conquer, manage, and spread European languages into common use throughout the colony. The most ideal fact of both, British and Dutch rule was never challenged in these territories.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born rulers of Spain's colonial empire. They were hated by creoles, were disliked by mestizos (although these people were preferred to creoles), and were ousted by the locals after the deposition of Ferdinand VII by Napoleon.

Public Office

This form of property, much like mastership in a guild but in the public sphere, was destroyed through the revolution in order to get rid of all things that worked to the advantage of only the privileged.

War Industries Board

This government agency during World War I oversaw the production of all American factories. It determined priorities, allocated raw materials, and fixed prices; it told manufacturers what they could and could not produce

The Chinese Revolution

This was a nationalist democratic revolt led by Chinese revolutionaries against the Qing dynasty. This replaced the Qinq dynasty with the creation of the Republic of China, ending the imperial system. This came about because the Qing dynasty was declining due to corruption, bankruptcy, backwardness, etc

North German Confederation

While not absorbing the other states that made up this group, Prussia asserted itself by creating a constitution for this group. Its head would be the King of Prussia and through the constitution two houses of a congress were established on the American model with the lower house, the Reichstag, being elected with universal male suffrage. While the other 21 states that made up this group other than Prussia were locally independent, internationally they were the playthings of Prussia and Bismarck.

Creditanstalt

While the Americans incomes had already dropped over 50% and the US was certainly in a depression, Europe attempted to float on without US investment and did not immediately fall into a depression in 1929, although stocks did take a very hard hit. Banks only began to fail like those in the US in 1931 following the failure of this leading bank of Vienna. By this point world production fell an estimated 38%.

Ostpolitik

Willy Brandt's policy of "opening toward the east" that increased relations between West and East Germany in 1972

Nature

With the development and acceptance of evolution in academic circles, this lost its appearance of harmony. Now this was a scene of struggle in which there was neither good or bad, but success and that was the only thing that mattered. Science appeared to now defend Realpolitik and those that abandon morals for great gains.

Rights of Man

Written by Thomas Paine. It has been seen as a defense of the French Revolution, but it's also an influential work that embodied ideas of liberty and human equality.

The Structure of the Human Body (de Fabrica)

Written by Vesalius in 1543 and replaced the incorrect anatomy works by Galen who wrote in the second century AD with more accurate descriptions

Elements of the Philosophy of Newton

Written by Voltaire (1738), popularized the thought of Isaac Newton

Vertical Integration

absorption into a single firm of several firms involved in all aspects of a product's manufacture from raw materials to distribution. In such a firm, raw materials would become finished product without leaving the firm, even in such monumental tasks as railroad construction of ship building

Napoleon Bonaparte

"My power proceeds form my reputation, and my reputation from Victories I have won. My power would fail if I were not to support it with more glory and more victories."

Catherine the Great

"What do cobblers know of ruling?"

February Revolution

1848 Revolution in Paris, primarily by lower-class workers who overthrew Louis Philippe in three days of insurrection inside Paris which became a barricaded battle ground, established universal adult male suffrage, and elected Louis Napoleon Bonaparte president. Along with overthrowing Louis Philippe's regime, this sparked the general revolution fever throughout Europe in 1848.

Louis Blanc

A Paris journalist, editor of Revue de Progres and author of Organization of Work. Proposed social workshops/state supported manufacturing centers as a way to deal with the problems of industrialization (recognized the developing hostility toward the owning class/bourgeoisie).

Weltanschauung

A comprehensive world view is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the entirety of the individual or society's knowledge and point-of-view, including natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics. It is a concept fundamental to German philosophy and epistemology and refers to a wide world perception. Additionally, it refers to the framework of ideas and beliefs through which an individual, group or culture interprets the world and interacts with it.

Battle of Austerlitz

A decisive battle during the Napoleonic campaigns in which the Third Coalition was fully decimated (1805). The French under Napoleon defeated the Russian armies of Czar Alexander I and the Austrian armies of Emperor Francis II

Bourgeois

A member of the middle class (French term). It was a very indefinite and broad category during the 16th century. It was by far the most broad in England, where it supplied both the clergy and most of the governors of cities who quickly began to replace the aristocracy in those positions that were not or no longer heredity.

Chiaroscuro

A monochrome picture made by using several different shades of the same color. Used to create the intricate shading of Renaissance art

Liberalism

A political or social philosophy advocating the freedom of the individual, parliamentary systems of government, nonviolent modification of political, social, or economic institutions to assure unrestricted development in all spheres of human endeavor, and governmental guarantees of individual rights and civil liberties, although they did appose universal male suffrage and government intervention in business that would have opposed laissez-faire, though they did support free trade to spread maximize the wealth of all nations. The term arose among the Spanish opponents to French rule during the Napoleonic Era and first appeared in the English language in 1819. England became generally more liberal during the 19th century, its base was in the Whig party and John Stuart Mill.

Treaty of Neuilly

According to the August 9th, 1920 treaty, Bulgaria was forced to cede territory to Yugoslavia and Greece. The reduction of territory mandated the transferring of some 300,000 Bulgarians, reduced their army to 20,000, and greatly restricted their access to the Aegean Sea. Bulgaria was also required to reduce its army to 20,000 men, pay reparations of 100 million pounds, and recognize the existence of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes

Ukase

An edict of the Russian tsar

Constituent Assembly (1848)

As the provisional government of Lamartine established after the abdication of Louis Philippe, this would be elected by a universal male electorate to established a constitution for the Second French Republic. This body immediately replaced the Provisional Government with a board of executives of its own. This body, well represented by all of France, was hostile to socialists, a small minority compared to the bourgeois and small peasants of France, and none of the five elected to the new executive board of France that would run the country while a constitution was created were social Republicans like Louis Blanc.

Liberia and Ethiopia

Being what amounted to a protectorate of the United States, and destroying the Italians at the Battle of Adowa, these countries, respectively, were the only two to resist colonization in Africa.

Baruch Spinoza

Believed in pantheism that God had no existence apart from the world, that everything was itself an aspect of God. He was a Jewish lens grinder of Amsterdam who was excommunicated by his synagogue, and his works were feared by many for they were so radical, almost atheistic

General Kitchener

British general that was sent with an expeditionary force to put an end to one of the most serious threats to european domination in Africa. He defeated mahdist cavalry at battle of Omdurman in 1898

Tycho Brahe

Danish Lord influenced by Copernicus; Built observatory and collected data on the locations of stars and planets for over 20 years, making him the most famous astrologer of his time; His limited knowledge of mathematics prevented him from making much sense out of the data, but it was from his data that Kepler derived his theorems

Duke of Bavaria

During the Thirty Years' War, this duke was given the right to vote as the eighth elector of the Holy Roman Emperor

18th Century

During this century in France wages rose 22%, while the price of good rose 65%. While wage earners were a small percentage of the populous, this inadequate rise of wages did aid in the desire for revolution in France

Hanse

Economic alliance of trading cities and their guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe in the later Middle Ages. It stretched from the Baltic to the North Sea and inland during the Late Middle Ages and early modern period (13th-17th centuries). Copies of this system were not done in other parts of Europe because only in the Baltic and Germanic regions were states small enough to encourage such unions. France, England, Holland, and the like thought that they would replace the emerging nations, and Italy fought with itself and France too much to unite as such

Dakar to the Gulf of Aden

France's version of Great Britain's "Cape to Cairo"

Bossuet

French bishop, theologian, and renowned pulpit orator and court preacher. According to this man, Royal power was absolute but not arbitrary, and not arbitrary because it must be reasonable and just, like the will of God which it reflected. Law was the will of the sovereign king as long as it conformed to the higher law which was the will of God

Jules Michelet

He was a French historian noted for his 17-volume Histoire de France. (p.762). He was the first to use the term "Renaissance"

The Dismal Science

In response to the generally bleak theorems prosed by the Manchester School, the science of economics gained this illustrious nickname

Cesare Borgia

Italian cardinal and military leader. He was the Florentine model of Machiavelli's "Prince"

Danton

Jacobin French revolutionary leader who stormed the Paris bastille and who supported the execution of Louis XVI but was guillotined by Robespierre for his opposition to the Reign of Terror (1759-1794)

25-Point Program

Joining this party in 1920 at the demands of the army, who he was still working during this period, Hitler soon became the leader of the German Workers' Party. Once in power, Hitler proclaimed his goals, and therefore the party's goals, through this. He also remained the party, calling it the National Socialist German Workers' party. It was often shortened to the Nazi Party, based on the German pronunciation of the first two syllables of the work National. The Nazi name was born.

D-Day

June 6, 1944, the day on which Allied forces landed in Normandy to begin a massive offensive against the Germans in the occupied territory of Europe. The plan succeeded far better than expected, actually exposing the allies to a German counter-attack once they became over-extended

Admiral de Coligny

Member of the French nobility who was a leader of the Huguenots and had influence over the young King Charles IX. Led wedding party to Paris in 157 where he was killed in St. Bartholomew Massacre. His head sent to Pope who returned a Golden Rose in gratitude.

Junkers

Members of the Prussian landed aristocracy (Lords), a class formerly associated with political reaction and militarism.

Condottieri

Military brokers that provided mercenary armies to Italian despots. The Solders that came from these brokers were referred to by this name as well

Jacques Hebert

One of the most radically left-leaning of the Jacobins, he proposed the Cult of Reason in opposition to Robespierre's Cult of the Supreme Being, and for his troubles was guillotined during the climax of the Terror.

Gallican Church

Roman Catholic church in France, headed by the monarch, not the pope after the Concordat of Bologna was secured by Francis I in 1516 (in only his second year as monarch)

Congress of Oppressed Eastern European Peoples

Seeing that Europe was not ripe for communist revolutions following WWI, the Soviets looked east. In 1920 this met in Baku, head by Zinoviev, President of the Communist International. This congress called for war upon " the wild beats of British capitalism. Many eastern leaders were inspired by Zinoviev, pushing them not particularly closer to Moscow, but farther away from capitalism.

Herodotus

The ancient Greek known as the father of history. His accounts of the wars between the Greeks and Persians are the first known examples of historical writing (425-485 BC)

Prussia

The area along the coast between the Nieman and Vistula Rivers, conquered by Frederick William

Humanitarianism

The doctrine that people's duty is to promote human welfare. Torture was not used after the French Revolution and conditions in hospitals, asylums, and orphanages improved greatly.

Vladivostok (1860)

The seaport of the Asian part of Russia, its name means Lord of the East. It is the most eastern of any Slavic City ever founded.

Borough-Mongers

These men owned all, or at least controlled all, of extremely small boroughs that had the same power of much larger boroughs, all created at least 200 years earlier (and the smaller boroughs usually had been created in the middle-ages). Because of these men about 500 men, out of all the men in the United Kingdom, could elect a major in the House of Commons. Because of this unrepresentative nature that Parliament had taken, especially since the Industrial Revolution had shifted the entire population of England to regions that weren't even represented in Parliament, reform against these men was demanded by liberals throughout England

Levellers

They were lead by Puritan John Lilburne. They wanted universal manhood suffrage, equality of representation, a written constitution, and subordination of parliament to a reformed body of voters.

Lepanto

Turkish sea power was destroyed in 1571 by a league of Christian nations organized by the Pope and Philip II. It actually was unsequential as a new Ottoman fleet took Tunis only two years later from Philip II

People's Will

group of radicals; succeeded in assassinating Alexander II; inspired by Vera Zasulich's successful use of violence against the tsarist regime

Parlements

law courts in France, each being supreme for a certain area of the country. Upheld certain "fundamental laws" which they said the king could not overstep - and they often refused to uphold royal edicts which they declared to be unconstitutional. Beneath surface, France still very composite. Different "local liberties"-> 300 different regional systems of law. No uniformity of codes or taxes or united economic body lacking internal tariffs. The only difference between France and HRE is that France had, especially once Henry IV came to power, a dominate king by heritage that would not be truly questioned

John of Leyden

led a radical group of Anabaptists to take control of the northwestern German city of Munster to create the reign of "saints". After ruling as a tyrant for a year, Muster fell to its former rulers and this man was killed during torture. He had 16 wives.

Decameron

literary work by Boccaccio which was composed of 100 vulgar tales told by three men and seven women in a country retreat from the plague that ravaged Florence in 1348; both a stringing social commentary (sexual/economic misconduct) and a sympathetic look at human behavior

Consubstantiation

the doctrine of the High Anglican Church that after the consecration of the Eucharist the substance of the body and blood of Christ coexists with the substance of the consecrated bread and wine

Maximilien Robespierre

"The incorruptable;" the leader of the bloodiest portion of the French Revolution. He set out to build a republic of virtue. He had been a member of the Third Estate, Legislative Assembly, the Girondins, and finally the Mountain in which he gained full power over the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety. He was killed in the Thermidorian Reaction

Joseph II

"The state...the great good for the greatest number."

Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès

"What is the Third Estate? Everything."

Olympe de Gouges

"Woman is born free and lives equal to man in her rights."

Frederick the Great

"I must enlighten my people, cultivate manners and morals, to make them as happy as people can be."

Charles Fourier

1772-1837. French doctrinaire thinker, certainly a utopian, who subjected all institutions to sweeping condemnation. Advocated "phalanstries" or small self-sufficient communes and a system of social and economic organization. None of those experiments that were tried in France succeeded. However, Brook Farms, on a similar principle, was run for about 5 years in America.

Kapp Putsch

1920 armed conservative insurrection that temporarily caused the German government to flee and resulted in workers' strikes. It represented a right wing challenge to the Weimar government

Great Terror

1934- 1938 The worst time of Stalin's purge trials when the most counterrevolutionaries, or those communist who remembered Lenin and held somewhat of a distaste for Stalin, were killed by the KGB/ Cheka. The KGB has admitted that over 3,700,000 were sentenced by stalin for counterrevolutionary activity and at least 780,000 were executed for the crime, although even the KGB admits the real number is certainly larger.

Seven Years War

(1756-1763) This war began with Frederick II's invasion of Saxony in order to defend Prussia. Funded by Britain, Prussia battled against Austria and her ally France. With the Treaty of Hubertusburg and Treaty of Paris (both of 1763), the nations returned to their prewar-set borders and Silesia remained under Prussian control. This war was a global military conflict between 1754 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines. In the historiography of some countries, the war is alternatively named after combats in the respective theaters: the French and Indian War (North America, 1754-63), Pomeranian War (Sweden and Prussia, 1757-62), Third Carnatic War (Indian subcontinent, 1757-63), and Third Silesian War (Prussia and Austria, 1756-63).

Peace of Hubertusburg

(1763) treaty between Prussia and Austria ending the Seven Years' War in Germany and signed in tandem five days after the Treaty of Paris, guaranteed that Frederick II the Great maintained his possession of Silesia, confirmed Prussia's stature as a major European power

Treaty of Portsmouth

(1905) This treaty ended the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). It was negotiated by Theodore Roosevelt (for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize). Japan had dominated the war and received an indemnity, the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria, and half of Sakhalin Island, but the treaty was widely condemned in Japan because the public had expected more. Roosevelt refused to give more to protect American interests in the Pacific, specially the Philippines

Easter Rebellion

(1916) in the midst of WWI while British were distracted, a small group of Irish nationalists rebelled in Dublin over the delay in home-rule during Easter week which aroused nationalist Irish support. This rebellion was immediately unsuccessful but Ireland was to receive home rule soon after the war. The rebellion was instigated by Sir Roger Casement who was deployed by the Germans.

Marshall Plan

A United States program of economic aid for the reconstruction of Europe following WWII. It was prompted after London and the Labour Party informed Washington that they no longer could afford to keep Turkey and Greece safe for democracy (1948-1952)

Limited Liability

A form of business ownership in which the owners are liable only up to the amount of their individual investments. It was legalized in France in 1863 and became an extremely popular form of business that encouraged risky investments.

Seven Electors

A letter of Pope Urban IV suggests that by "immemorial custom", seven princes had the right to elect the King and future Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. These were three ecclesiatics and four secular leaders: the Archbishop of Mainz, the Archbishop of Trier, the Archbishop of Cologne, Four secular, the King of Bohemia, the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, and the Duke of Saxony (Herzog von Sachsen)

William III

A quiet leader, this man, a calvinist, revolutionized the position of the Stadholder, which before him was about to fade out of existence. He married Mary Stuart of England in 1677. Under his rule the Netherlands and England would be united under one Monarchy that would be used to contain Louis XIV over his long, powerful reign

Syndicalism

A radical political movement that advocates bringing industry and government under the control of labor unions. Its name comes from the French word for trade unionism. It was very popular among the Russians that had no real parliamentary structure from social reform could be executed as was favoured by the Germans and the English. It was also favoured anywhere unions were weak such as France, Italy, and the Iberian peninsula. Its base was the French General Confederation of Labour which was founded in 1895

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

A statement of foreign policy which proclaimed that Europe should not interfere in affairs within the United States or in the development of other countries in the Western Hemisphere. It was in response to Russian and Spanish desires at the Congress of Verona a year earlier.

Neoclassicism

A style of art and architecture that emerged in the later 18th century. Part of a general revival of interest in classical cultures, Neoclassicism was characterized by the utilization of themes and styles from ancient Greece and Rome. It was the art of the French Revolution and Napoleon. Romanticism followed it as a rejection of Napoleon and his art.

Putting Out System

A system in which the machinery for production is given out to poor farmers in the country-side in order for them to produce the product, avoiding the guilds in the process. The machinery is almost always owned by the entrepreneur who sells the raw material to the farmers and buys back the finished product (also called the Domestic System, that term almost always refers to the production of cottons or wools

Three Field System

A system of farming developed in medieval Europe, in which farm land was divided into three fields of equal size and each of these was successively planted with a winter crop, planted with a spring crop, and left unplanted. This, along with the Horse Collar and the heavy plow, revolutionized agriculture during the 11th century in Europe and effectively killed any slavery that had remained from capturing invading barbarians

Walter Rathenau

A talented foresighted Jewish industrialist who was in charge of Germany's largest electric company. He convinced the government to set up the war raw materials board to ration and distribute raw materials to ration and distribute the raw materials. All of this went towards powerful war machines. He was murdered by the Brownshirts in 1922

Korean War

A war between North and South Korea instigated without warning by the Communist North Koreans. South Korea was aided by the United States and other members of the United Nations, being the first police action of the United States and the first real test of containment during the Cold War (1950-1953).

Jean Bodin

A writer in 16th century England who wrote The Six Books of the Commonwealth (1576), which strongly supported the divine right of kings. This was the man who created the theory of sovereignty in which a state becomes sovereign by claiming a monopoly over the instruments of justice

Horizontal Integration

Absorption into a single firm of several firms involved in the same level of production and sharing resources at that level. In America they were known as trusts; in Europe cartels. These cartels were most common in the steel industry and other new very large scale industries such as oil, chemicals, and aluminum. They were largest in the US, where they came under fire and made illegal through the Sherman Act of 1890, although it lacked real power

Winston Churhill

(30 November 1874 - 24 January 1965) This man was a British Conservative politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century, he served as Prime Minister twice (1940-45 and 1951-55). A noted statesman and orator, this man was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British prime minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States

Gertrude Stein

American writer of experimental novels, poetry, essays, operas, and plays. In Paris during the 1920s she was a central member of a group of American expatriates that included Ernest Hemingway. Her works include Three Lives (1908), Tender Buttons (1914), and The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas (1933)

Twenty-One Demands

An ultimatum presented by Japan to China primarily requiring China to cease its leasing of territory to other foreign powers and to allow Japan to control Manchuria and Shandong; name for Japan's demands to the U.S., including its threat to close China to European and American trade

Emile

Book by Jean Jacques Rousseau that spelled out the principles of education according to which the child was allowed to follow his or her own path of intellectual development. This work advocated breast feeding and natural dress and that boys' education should have plenty of fresh air and exercise and he said a women's nature was a life of marriage and child rearing

Origin of Species

Book written by Charles Darwin that focused biologists' attention on the great diversity of organisms and his hypotheses of how and why they developed in the manner that they did

The Advancement of Learning

Book written by Sir Francis Bacon in 1623. In it he continued the discussion of inductive method and empiricism and, especially, he insisted that true knowledge was useful knowledge. In other words he extolled the practicality of science. Thus, usefulness of knowledge is another major element in the Baconian tradition. Should be noted that he saw no sharp distinction between pure and applied science (the two being often practiced separately in modern (20th century) science.

Thomas Pitt

Born 1653, son of a parish priest; went to India, 1674; made fortune as "interloper," illegal trader. Bought English manor which controlled a "rotten borough," giving a seat in Parliament without election. Returned to India, again as "interloper" and also as legal trader; made enough to buy a diamond for 20,400 pounds--sold in Amsterdam for 135,000 pounds. Children became nobility; grandson was William Pitt, Prime Minister during the Seven Years War. Pittsburgh named for him.

Kingdom of Italy

By 1810 this included Lombardy, Venetia and most of former Papal States and replaced Napoleon's Italian Republic, adding Rome and Venice. Napoleon retained title of king but set up stepson Eurene Beauharnais as viceroy.

Sun Yat-sen

Chinese nationalist revolutionary, founder and leader of the Guomindang until his death. He attempted to create a liberal democratic political movement in China but was thwarted by military leaders

Communism

Coming into the English language from Germany along with Nationalism during the 1840s, this term had no specific meaning, as it did until the formation of the USSR, and was used as an uncertain synonym for socialism, but was used by Marx and Engels to distinguish their socialism from the nearly utopian socialist ideas of Owen, Fourier and Saint-Simon. After 1848 it in all practicality went out of use before 1917.

Black Legend

Concept that Spanish conquerors merely tortured and murdered Indians, stole gold and infected them with smallpox, leaving nothing of benefit. Protestant idea

Marie Antoinette

"Pardon, Monsieur, I did not do it on purpose"

Baruch Spinoza

from family of refugee Portuguese Jews, philosopher examining fundamentals of reality, human conduct, church and state. Made a living as lens grinder. Believed that God had no existence apart from the world, that everything was itself an aspect of God.

Ivan III

grand duke of Muscovy whose victories against the Khanate of the Golden Horde laid the basis for Russian unity, ending the forced payments to the Mongolians that had lasted 200 years (1440-1505)

Declaration of Pillnitz

afraid that other countries would follow France's lead and begin revolutions, Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued this declaration in August 27, 1791, inviting other European monarchs to intervene on behalf of Louis XVI if his monarchy was threatened. If Louis XVI (and more importantly his wife) was threatened, England, Prussia, and Austria would all invade France (A defense of the Habsburg daughter with the bonus of annihilating a revolutionary France)

Dante

an Italian poet from Florence famous for writing the Divine Comedy that describes a journey through hell and purgatory and paradise guided by Virgil and his idealized Beatrice (1265-1321)

The Praise of Folly

an essay written in 1509 by Desiderius Erasmus; considered one of the most influential works of literature in Western civilization and one of the catalysts of the Protestant Reformation. Erasmus' most famous book; ridiculed ignorance, superstition, and vice among christians. It also exposed much of the corruption in the Roman Catholic Church

General Wolfe

commander of a British fleet sailed to Quebec and defeated French Troops that were defending the city in 1759, British seized Quebec and took control of New France

Mary I

daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon who was Queen of England from 1553 to 1558. she was the wife of Philip II of Spain and when she restored Roman Catholicism to England many Protestants were burned at the stake as heretics (1516-1558). While England was divided by the death of Edward VI on the issue of religion, this Queen, especially her Spanish husband, made England detest catholicism and endorse the Anglican Church of Henry VIII

Time of Troubles

followed death of Ivan IV without heir early in 17th century; boyars attempted to use vacuum of power to reestablish their authority, but the lack of any true authority led to great famine (two million dying) and foreign invasion; ended with selection of Michael Romanov as tsar in 1613. It resembled, to a greater extent, the religious civil war of France and was very similar to the Thirty-Years War if it is just observed as a German civil war.

Council of Troubles

inaugurated reign of terror against Spanish rule (dutch called it Council of Blood) by Calvinists, nobles and merchants, 1,000s killed, begins and is the symbol of the Spanish inquisition in Netherlands

Aryan

one of a group of seminomadic people that originally came to western Europe from eastern Europe and spoke a Indo-European language

Mulattos

persons of mixed european and african ancestry, usually referring to Spanish colonies, even though all Europeans mixed with other cultures

Julius II

r(1503-1513) Pope - very militaristic. Tore down the old Saint Peter's Basilica and began work on the present structure in 1506. Sponsored Michaelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel. "Warrior Pope"

Statute of Artificers of 1563

regulated admission to apprenticeship and level of wages in various trades. Guilds ceased to have importance in England.

Jansenism

the Roman Catholic doctrine of Cornelis Jansen and his disciples. Salvation is limited to those who are subject to supernatural determinism and the rest are assigned to perdition. It was often described as a Catholic Calvinism. It criticized immorality, especially from the powerful, and the Jesuits. Populous in France to a great enough extent that it caught the attention of Versailles, Louis XIV persecuted this religion and tried to destroy it, but not nearly to the extent which he wished to get rid of Protestantism.

Elector of Brandenburg

the leader of the Brandenburg who had the right to choose the Holy Roman emperor with six other electors beginning in 1356. By 1415 the elector was always Hohenzollern until the HRE was dissolved by Napoleon.

Glorious Revolution

the revolution against James II due to his son being baptized immediately into the Catholic faith and the fact that he openly disobeyed the test act by giving catholic clergy members government positions everywhere. There was little armed resistance to William and Mary in England although battles were fought in Scotland and Ireland (1688-1689). James II fled to France and remained their acting as if he was the King of England in exile with Louis XIV as his ally

Hundred Years' War

the series of wars between England and France, 1337-1453, in which England lost all its possessions in France except Calais.

Julian Calendar

the solar calendar introduced in Rome in 46 b.c. by Julius Caesar and slightly modified by Augustus, establishing the 12-month year of 365 days with each 4th year having 366 days and the months having 31 or 30 days except for February

Gregorian Calendar

the solar calendar now in general use, introduced by Gregory XIII in 1582 to correct an error in the Julian calendar by suppressing 10 days, making Oct 5 be called Oct 15, and providing that only centenary years divisible by 400 should be leap years (1900 was not a leap year, and 2000 was). It also standardized January 1st and the beginning of each year (a movement that had gotten significant traction before this calendar was produced)

Pope Boniface VIII

this Pope prohibited the taxation of clergy by the civil leaders, especially Philip of France and Edward I of England. In 1302, he issued the famous bull, Unam Sanctam. The French king Philip the Fair of France retorted by sending soldiers to arrest him, and he soon died. Since he was in hostile hands when he died, the Cardinals were convinced enough to elect a French puppet as a Pope, who quickly moved the Papacy to Avignon

William Paley

was a British Christian apologist, philosopher, and utilitarian. He is best known for his exposition of the teleological argument for the existence of God in his work Natural Theology, which made use of the watchmaker analogy (God as the great clockmaker)

Henry Purcell

was an English Baroque composer. He has often been called England's finest native composer. Purcell incorporated Italian and French stylistic elements but devised a peculiarly English style of Baroque music. (1659-1695)

Vindication of the Rights of Woman

written by the eighteenth-century British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft as a response to Declaration of the Rights of Woman by Olympe de Gouges (which essentially was a satire of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789), is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy; instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men.

Drang nach Osten

"Drive to the East" of German peoples from Elbe towards Poland and the Vistula. German settlers moving eastwards had been replacing slavs. Term is in German

Petrarch

"Father of Humanism." studied classical Greek and Latin. introduced emotion in "Sonnets to Laura". He was an exile from Florence (July 20, 1304 - July 19, 1374)

Festung Europa

"Fortress Europe" - what was created by these conquered European countries - now under German occupation/garrison. Nazis found sympathizers/collaborateur in every country

Napoleon Bonaparte

"I closed the gulf of anarchy and cleared the chaos. I excited every king of emulation, rewarded every king of merit, and extended the limits of glory."

Cogito Ergo Sum

"I think therefore I am" Descartes argues that one must doubt everything that one cannot be absolutely sure of. Descartes contends that the only thing humans can be sure of is their own existence. From there on they must form clear and distinct ideas to discover truth.

Louis XVI

"Rein" French for nothing, this was the only entry in this man's diary the day the Bastille fell in response to an unsuccessful hunt

Thomas Paine

"The scene that now open itself to France extends far beyond the boundaries of her dominions. Every nation is becoming her ally...it is the cause of all nations."

Voltaire

"This agglomeration which was called and which still calls itself the Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire"

Vingtieme

"Twentieth", this was arguably the most successful tax ever imposed by the French royalty. It was implemented by Louis XV during the 1740's to cope with war costs and was designed to be a five percent tax on all forms of income. It ended up being less then five percent and only taxed land, but everyone, regardless of rank and stature, paid it. During the Seven Years' War the monarchy attempted to raise it, but failed due to the Parlements and the Church quoting Montesquieu to support their opposition to the crown

Italia Irredenta

"Unredeemed Italy", this term gave the English language irredentism, a word signifying a vociferous demand for annexing regions based on nationalism

St. Petersburg

"Venice of the East" Capitol city created by Peter the Great to resemble a French city. It was built on swamp land taken from Sweden at the mouth of the Neva on the Gulf of Finland. Peter forced all of the nobility of Russia to live there, making them even weaker. It faced west, the Neva flowing into the Baltic compared to Moscow on the Moscow River which followed into the Volga emptying into the Caspian Sea (facing east). In 1914 it was renamed Petrograd. In 1917 it was renamed Leningrad. In 1991 it was renamed back to its original name

Boccaccio

(1313-1375) Poet who wrote the Decameron which tells about ambitious merchants, portrays a sensual, and worldly society.

Bank of Amsterdam

(1609)- This innovative bank regulated the exchange rates of different currencies, which helped stabilize the chaos that resulted from trading many different coins. Having a system minimized things like dishonesty and quickly fluctuating preferences when traders/merchants exchanged currency. Once this was regulated, gyro banking became possible because each individual business agreement was not unique in its exchange rate. Also through this bank reliable loans of reasonable rates were offered for the first time

John Lilburne

(1614 - 29 August 1657) An English political agitator before, during and after the English Civil wars. He coined the term "freeborn rights" defining them as rights with which every human being is born, as opposed to rights bestowed by government or human law. He was associated with Puritans and Quakers. He was arrested for unlicensed publishing, which resulted in him demaning to be known the charges in English (the law was in French at the time). This was the first in a series of trials that lasted throughout his life for what he called his "freeborn rights." He was even called "Freeborn John." He participated in the war in Parliament's army, believing he was fighting for his rights against the Royalists.

Thirty Years' War

(1618-48) A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a batlte between France and their rivals the Habsburg's

Edict of Restitution

(1629) Emperor of the HRE (Ferdinand II) declared all church territories that had been secularized (taken by Protestant rulers during the Reformation) since 1552 to be automatically restored to Catholic Church. Was the zenith point of the Counter-Reformation

Peace of Westphalia

(1648) is the collective name for two treaties ending the Thirty Years' War that were signed by the Holy Roman Empire, minor German states, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic. It confirmed the principle of "cuius regio eius religio" (that a ruler's religion determined that of his country) introduced by the Peace of Augsburg, but mandated relative tolerance of other (Christian) faiths. It adjusted the borders of German states and strengthened their princes with respect to the Emperor and transferred most of Lorraine and some of Alsace to France. The HRE was essentially dissolved

Treaty of Dover

(1670) secret treaty in which Charles II of England pledged to convert to Catholicism in exchange for Louis XIV's support against the Dutch as well as monetary shipments to Charles II

Treaty of Nystad

(1721) Russia gained Sweden's Baltic territories, and became the greatest power in Eastern Europe. Sweden would lose all over seas territories.

Marquis de Condorcet

(1743-1794) One of the most famous Salon throwers during the Reign of Terror, this man wrote The Progress of the Human Mind. He identified humans will go through 10 stages of progress. They were about to enter the tenth where humans will be perfect in understanding. He advocated liberal economy, free education, constitutionalism, equal rights for women/all races. Infinitesimals and calculus. Died mysteriously in prison during French Revolution.

J. G. Herder

(1774-1803) Protestant theologian, this man was a forerunner of the German Romantic movement who believed that each people shared a national character, or Volksgeist. He was the author of Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind which contested that the thoughts of their French and their enlightenment were frivolous and that all cultures produced different ideas for they all had different people, the Volk, with different backgrounds. This man believed that all people would not follow the same path of reason towards a similar enlightened civilization.

Treaty of Shimonoseki

(1895): Disastrous treaty for China, ending the Sino‑Japanese War (1894‑1895). Under its terms Korea effectively became a Japanese protectorate. China ceded to Japan Taiwan, the Pescadores, the Liaodong region of Manchuria, added four more treaty ports, and promised to pay Japan 200 million taels in war indemnities

Antonio de Salazar

(28 April 1889 - 27 July 1970) This man was a Portuguese professor and politician who served as the Prime Minister of Portugal from 1932 to 1968. He also served as acting President of the Republic briefly in 1951. He founded and led the Estado Novo (New State), the authoritarian, right-wing government that presided over and controlled Portugal from 1932 to 1974. Opposed to communism, socialism, anarchism and liberalism, this man's regime was corporatist, conservative, and nationalistic. Its policy envisaged the perpetuation of Portugal as a pluricontinental empire under the doctrine of lusotropicalism, with Angola and Mozambique as main colonies (as well as Portuguese provinces after 1951), and a source of civilization and stability to the overseas societies in the African and Asian possessions

Zinoviev Letter

(Also known as the Red Letter) this was a letter in which the head of the Comintern, Zinoviev, urged the British workers to provoke revolution in Great Britain. Publication of this letter in the British press was a major reason why the Conservative Party won the following elections in 1924 and the fledgling Labor Party under Ramsay McDonald lost. The letter is largely believed to have been a fabrication

Tennis Court Oath

(June 20th, 1789) Frightened in the new found power of the third estate, the second estate forced Louis XVI to close the chamber in which the third estate met, which was in Versailles. Finding a nearby indoor space, the delegates of the National Assembly swore this. This stated that the National Assembly would be in existence wherever those who swore this oath gathered and they would not disband until a constitution was written for France. Frightened, Louis XVI demanded that the estates sit in their separate houses, but he was too late. Near the end of June, Louis called 18,000 to defend Versailles

Tugendbund

(League of Virtue), a secret political society in Germany, founded in April 1808 for the purpose of reviving the national spirit after Napoleon's crushing defeat of Prussia. This had more than 700 members, mostly liberal noblemen, representatives of the bourgeois intelligentsia, and officials not connected with the popular masses. They desired to develop their own moral character which were to contribute to the future character of Germany. The society was officially disbanded in January 1810

Battle of Ulm

(October 16-19 1805) This was a series of minor skirmishes at the end of Napoleon Bonaparte's Danubian Campaign against the Third Coalition, culminating in the surrender of an entire Austrian army near this place in Württemberg.

Discourse on Method

(Rene Descartes)- This written work used skepticism to come to the conclusion "I think, therefore I am" by questioning everything that anyone thinks they are certain of. Thus, the only thing we can be certain of is that we have doubt, and doubt is thought, and thought must come from a mind. He also concluded that because we know we are not perfect, there must be something perfect that gives us that knowledge, and that perfect thing is God. In this way his highly untraditional ideas did not conflict too much with Christianity. (1637)

Flanders Galleys

1317 Venetians' commercial flotillas that went regularly between Adriatic and North Seas

Peace of Ryswick

1697. Ended War of League of Augsburg at the city the peace is named for in Netherlands. Louis XIV lost most of gains made in war but did get to keep Alsace and Strasbourg. The borders of Belgium and the United Provinces were assured, but the Huguenots were not assured the liberties of Catholics in France

Battle of Oudenarde

1708 allies victory in the War of Spanish Succession in the Spanish Netherlands

Treaty of Utrecht

1713, ended War of Spanish Succession between Louis XIV's France and the rest of Europe; prohibited joining of French and Spanish crowns; ended French expansionist policy; ended golden age of Spain; vastly expanded British Empire. To Savoy was given Sardinia (this kingdom in the 19th century would unity Italy) and to the Austrians was given all the remaining Italian Spanish possessions and the Spanish Netherlands (now the Austrian Netherlands). Louis Duke of Burgundy did take the throne in Spain, but he bourbon branches were actually quite disconnected. England and France are now fighting for rule in Europe. Savoy, Austria, and Brandenburg are rising, and Spain and Portugal have fallen far past their prime

Regulating Act

1773 act by parliament that began to regulate the East India Company rather than let it run wild and not be able to handle the private trading throughout the region. It also led to the creation of governor generals, oversight by council and supreme court. It made it so the trading companies would no longer fight wars by themselves in the name of Britain. If Britain felt that war in India, or any colony, was worth it, England itself would go to war.

Brunswick Manifesto

1792, during the radical stage. Austria and Prussia made this saying that they would destroy Paris (they were decimating the French to this point in the war) if any harm came to the French king Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette. Due to this statement, the opposition had a claim of treason by Louis XVI, and they successfully used that claim to behead the king

Ernest Renan

1823 -1892 A Fench historian and man of letters. Wrote on origins of Christianity and life of ancient Israel. Like Strauss' work, his further undermined many articles of faith. These were times of material emphasis in which people were increasingly falling away from the church, especially protestants that had a very hard time attracting people as they had put all of their doctrine in the bible that had been under seriously intellectual attack. Catholicism faired better as the Popes of this era were very belligerent against those who were questioning the church and Rome.

Alexander Herzen

1864, lead the populist movement that believed that peasants should initiate the reform, peasants not enthusiastic enough to initiate the revolts though. Wrote The Bell

Post-Impressionism

1885-1920.This is a handy title for what wasn't a movement, but a group of artists (Cézanne, Van Gogh, Seurat and Gauguin, primarily) who moved past Impressionism and on to other, separate endeavors. They kept the light and color Impressionism bought, but tried to put some of the other elements of art - form and line, for example - back in art

Jameson Raid

1895: Dr. Leander S. Jameson. Led unsuccessful and unauthorised raid into the Transvaal to restore status of Brit citizens living there. Fueled fears that Kruger, the president of the Transvaal, and other Boers already had about Brit intentions.

Zinoviev Letter

1924. This was a letter in which the head of the Comintern, Zinoviev, urged the British workers to provoke revolution in Great Britain. Publication of this letter in the British press was a major reason why the Conservative Party won the following election and the fledgling Labor Party lost under Ramsay McDonald

Atlantic Charter

1941-Pledge signed by US president FDR and British prime minister Winston Churchill not to acquire new territory as a result of WWII amd to work for peace after the war. Very similar to Wilson's fourteen points following WWI, it pledged that sovereign rights and self-governemnt would be restored to all who had been forcibly deprived of them and that all nations would have access to world trade and world resources

The Storming of the Bastille

1st violent act of Revolution, July 14, 1789 French peasants stormed the prison the Bastille in attempt to free prisoners and arm themselves, copying Louis XVI at Versailles with his soldiers. It may have been violent, but it was actually productive as Louis was frightened into recognizing the National Assembly and demanding that the three estates meet together

Marcel Proust

20th century French author; wrote semi-autobiographical Remembrance of things Past, which recalls bittersweet memories of childhood and youthful love and tries to discover their innermost meaning; lived like a hermit in a soundproof apartment for ten years, withdrawing form the present to live in the past

The Women's March on Versailles

7,000 Parisian women, demanding bread while fearing another attempt by the king to use force, marched to Versailles and brought the king and queen back to the Palace in Paris so that they could be more easily watched (October 1789)

Dr. Zhivago

A 20th century novel by Boris Pasternak, first published in 1957. The novel is named after its protagonist, Yuri, a physician and poet. It tells the story of his life and how it is affected by the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent Russian Civil War. Pasternak won the Nobel Prize for this novel, but the Soviets would not let him accept it

Lusitania

A British passenger ship, carrying a large shipment of contraband, that was sunk by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915. 128 Americans died. The sinking greatly turned American opinion against the Germans, although did little to get America to enter the war. Germany did stop unrestricted submarine warfare after the incident

Karl Kautsky

A Czech-German philosopher and politician. He was a leading theoretician of Marxism. He became the leading promulgator of Orthodox Marxism after the death of Friedrich Engels and led the attack against Alexandre Millerand who accept a ministerial post in the French cabinet

Hugo Grotius

A Dutch journalist who called for an international code based on natural law in his Law of War and Peace (1625) believing that one body of rules could reduce the dealing of governments to a system of reason and order. His general ideas were endorsed by freedom of the seas and treaties such as Westphalia and Utrecht, but overall such an idea a international body was not endorsed until after the horrific World Wars of the 20th century

Legislative Assembly

A French congress with the power to create laws and approve declarations of war, established by the constitution of 1791 in September of that year. It replaced the National Assembly that had been established by the Tennis Court Oath. It was replaced in September of 1792 by the National Convention

Pierre-Auguste Renoir

A French impressionist painter and sculptor of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One of the most popular of the impressinoists, he is known for his extravagant use of light and color, especially red, and for frequent use of the impressionist technique of small brushstrokes. His most famous paintings include Dance at Bouvgival and the series The Bathers

Oradour-sur-Glane

A French town in which civilians attacked by the Nazis in June 1944. The attack was not politically motivated and thus the memorial, the origonal village that has not been altered, that remains today serves to reinforce the French's selective memory of their innocence in the war. At least 642 Frenchmen died. It represents the evil Nazis and the victimized French

Werner Heisenberg

A German physicist that speculated that there was no real certainty in where an electron was, and only tendencies. This broke down Newton's dependable laws to only probabilities. This man's uncertainty principal, as his ideas became known as, dictate quantum physics without fail

Dreyfus Affair

A Jewish captain was falsely accused and convicted of comitting treason, really done by a catholic. Family and leading intellectual individuals and republicans like Zola wanted to reopen the case. Split in two, first army who were antisemetic and mainly catholic, and other side the civil libertarians and more radical republicans. Result was that the government severed all ties with church, no longer priests in state schools, catholicism loses a lot of power of indoctrination in France

Anabaptists

A Protestant sect that believed only adults could make a free choice regarding religion so baptism did not happen when one was a infant; they also advocated pacifism, separation of church and state, and democratic church organization.

Karl Barth

A Swiss Protestant theologian who said people were sinful and that religious truth was made know to humans only through God's grace, and people just had to accept God as true and be obedient. This man, working after WWI, was the first protestant voice to lead a revival of protestantism in nearly a century.

Containment

A U.S. foreign policy adopted by President Harry Truman in the late 1940s, in which the United States along with her allies would try to stop the spread of communism by creating alliances and helping weak countries to resist Soviet advances. The US would intervene militarily as it saw fit, as in Korea and Vietnam. Truman also, copying the Soviets, refused to allow the Russians share in the post-war occupation of Japan and Italy, and the USSR controlled so little of Austria, Vienna was also spared from the Iron Curtain

Battle of the Coral Sea

A battle between Japanese and American naval forces that stopped the Japanese advance on Australia. It was the only ray of hope in 1942 as a dark cloud seemingly enveloped the world in the victory of totalitarianism

Battle of Wagram

A battle in the Napoleonic campaigns in 1809 as a part of the War of the Fifth Coalition. The Habsburg were totally decimated during the battle.

Iwo Jima

A bloody and prolonged operation on the island of Iwo Jima in which American marines landed and defeated Japanese defenders (February and March 1945)

Holy Synod

A body created by Peter to make decisions for the Church. It was attached to a Procurator, which was a government bureaucrat who made sure the Church was doing everything the Tsar desired and nothing that displeased him. In 1700, when the body was created, Peter had successfully secularized the Russian Orthodox Church

Okinawa

A campaign in the closing days of World War II in the Pacific (April to June 1945). In savage close-quarter fighting United States marines and regular army troops took this island from the Japanese and, because of the intense Japanese defense, it considered the greatest victory of the Pacific campaign. It lay only 300 miles from Japan, a distance easily transversed by bombers

Nagasaki

A city in southern Japan on Kyushu, this leading port and shipbuilding center on August 9, 1945 became the second populated area to receive an atomic bomb, dropped on the Japanese by the Americans as approved by President Truman

Constitutionalism

A doctrine that desires a system of government according to constitutional principles and a government that does not stray away or disobey such a constitution. The term did not appear in the English Language until the 1840s and became a foundation for any belief or political group aiming to end monarchism.

Absolutism

A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.). It was championed by the longest major reign in European history: Louis XIV

Buchenwald

A large concentration camp established in 1937 by the Nazis located in north-central Germany, near the city of Weimar

Edvard Benes

A leader of the Czechoslovak independence movement, Minister of Foreign Affairs and the second President of Czechoslovakia. He was known to be a skilled diplomat and looked to unite east and west, leading to his political demise in what was becoming Soviet dominated prague

Indian National Congress

A movement and political party founded in 1885 to demand greater Indian participation in government. Its membership was middle class, Hindi, and very westernized. Its demands were modest until World War I. Led after 1920 by Mohandas K. Gandhi, who appealed to the poor

Modernism

A movement in art following WWI in which painters projected disjoined dreamlike scenes evoking their personal memories or disorienting person experiences. It was a period in which writing essentially auto-biographies was not only condoned by encouraged. Writers explored memory, time, and the inter-workeigns of the human mind and what it could be capable of doing

Claude Adrien Helvetius

A philosophe who was also wealthy and gave grand entertainments at which his works were discussed. He wrote the book On the Mind and On Man. As a host he encouraged mingling of people and ideas.

Mohandas Gandhi

A philosopher from India, this man was a spiritual and moral leader favoring India's independence from Great Britain. He practiced passive resistance, civil disobedience and boycotts to generate social and political change. The last method, cutting cloth exports to India in half, hit Britain in a sore spot and did much to bring about Indian independence.

Open Door Policy

A policy proposed by the US in 1899, under which all nations would have equal opportunities to trade in China so to compensate for the lack of US influence in China, who appeared to be close to a formal partitioning by the great powers. Italy joined in half heartedly, and Germany and Great Britain joined in so that Russia and Japan could not annex China outright, and so the European powers conceded this right to the US.

Hiroshima

A port city on the southwestern coast of Honshu, this city in Japan on August 6, 1945 was essentially completely destroyed by the first atomic bomb dropped on a populated area.

Lend-Lease

A program under which the United States supplied U.K, USSR, China, France, and other allied nations with vast amounts of war meterial between 1941 and 1945 in return for, in the case of Britain, Military bases in New Foundland, Bermuda, and the British West Indies. It began in March 1941, nine months before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. It was abruptly stopped by the Americans immediately after V-J day

Tetzel

A rambunctious Dominican, hawked indulgences in Germany for the building of St. Peter's with the slogan "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs." Luther was appalled, and at this site he began his crusade against anything int he Catholic church that could not be found in the bible

Scheldt

A river that rises in France and flows northeast across Belgium and empties into the North Sea. On it lies Antwerp and Ghent, the heart of the Spanish Netherlands, but the mouth was controlled by Zeeland of the Dutch, so this river was "closed" to all naval traffic. Antwerp lost all the wealth it ever had and never recovered

Spirit of Locarno

A series of treaties that were signed in Locarno, Switzerland in 1925 that settled Germany's borders with France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Poland. France also made treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia promising to defend them against German aggression. Britain made the same treaties with France and Belgium, and said some things of good friendship with the Czechs and Poles but made no promises of military aid in case of German aggression. Following this, Germany joined the League of Nations the following year. Foreign relations in Europe appeared to be returning to normal.

The Politiques

A sixteenth century French secular group who concluded that too much was being made of religion, no doctrine was important enough to justify everlasting war, and the country needed civic order (a king)

Communist Manifesto

A socialist manifesto written by Marx and Engels (1848) describing the history of the working-class movement according to their views

Imperialism

A system in which the government of a people is by another. As tensions began to build in Europe post-1870, this became a popular method of exemplifying a countries power. Reasons for this were wide ranging including racism and what developed into neomercantilism.

War Communism

A system introduced under Bolshevik rule after 1917 which involved land being seized and redistributed, factories given to the workers, banks being nationalized, and church property being granted to the state. This was enforced by the Cheka

Cleves

Acquired by Hohenzollerns through an heir, this, along with many very small states Brandenburg acquired on the Rhine through the Treaty of Westphalia allowed Prussia to become very western European and concern their efforts towards the west, unlike Poland or other Eastern European states. This city was Prussia gateway to the power in the west and from this city Prussia would build their territories along the Rhine

Marshal Badoglio

After Fascist govt collapsed in 1943 this individual led the new Italian govt and tried to make peace with the Allies. Hitler's army still occupied northern Italy and in October this man's government in Rome declared war on Germany and came to be recognized as a co-belligerant (fighting with) of the Allies. The Front became stuck just south of Rome because of the terrible terrain for modern warfare, and the allies also could never give enough men as they prepared for the invasion of France. Italy was only conquered after Germany was soundly in the process of being routed in 1945.

Italian Social Republic

After being forced out of office in Rome when Sicily fell to the allies, Mussolini formed this puppet government at Milan to continue the military effort. The Duce, however, at lost all real power and this new nation was run by the Nazis and Hitler.

Lombardy and Venice

After the March Laws, these two duchies in Italy under Austrian rule revolted. Their independence was defended by their own people as well as the Kingdom of Sardinia, Tuscany, Naples, and the liberal Pope Pius IX.

Conservative Party

After the Reform Bill of 1832, new political alliances formed in England as the industrialists joined the aristocracy in Parliament. The tories, weakened by the Reform Bill, moved into a period of two party politics in England between 1832 and 1914 gradually transforming into this party which became the party of the industrial worker.

Paris Commune

After the elections for the National Assembly had proven that the French people still feared republicans, the republican majority in Paris revolted in civil war establishing this which was a revival of Jacobinism from 1793. It only lasted from March to May in 1871 and burned many of Paris's most influential buildings like the Tuileries. As a result, 20,000 republicans were killed and 7,500 were deported to the South Pacific. The Third republic was formed in this atmosphere of civil war.

Ptolemy

Alexandrian astronomer who proposed a geocentric system of astronomy that was undisputed until Copernicus. He lived 2nd century AD

Grand Alliance of 1701

Alliance that included England, Holland, Austria, Brandenburg, Italian duchy of Savoy formed in 1701 because of fears that Louis XIV, with his grandson on the Spanish throne, could establish a universal monarchy. It was led by William of Orange. It was only opposed by Louis XIV (including Spain which stayed reasonably loyal to the will of their king) and the Electorate of Bavaria (ruled by Maximilian II)

Continental Tariff

Although this would have aided the industrial production of France, Napoleon refused to implement it. Although tariffs barriers in each country had been done away with, their were still major tariffs between nations in the continental system. Even the newly incorporated parts of the French Empire, like Holland and the Illyrian Provinces, had tariffs on goods coming from France. France industry increased during the continental system, but it could not take the loss of middle-eastern and colonial trade as trading over land was not profitable without the railroad and such high tariffs

Eli Whitney

An American inventor who developed the cotton gin that was patened in 1793. Also contributed to the concept of interchangeable parts that were exactly alike and easily assembled or exchanged. The cotton gin allowed cotton production to keep up with the demands of a mechanized England. By 1820 the entirely industrialized cloth production line created enough cotton in England that half of English exports were cotton products

Richard Chancellor

An English explorer and navigator. the first to penetrate the White Sea and establish relations with Russia at Archangel in 1553

Bone China

An English form of porcelain originally made to compete with Oriental true hard paste porcelain. The body consists of 40-50% calcined ox bones, which lowers the vitrification point and makes it white and translucent. It was first produced by Boettcher but its better known utilizer was Spode of England

Realism

An artistic movement in 19th century France born out of a reaction against Romanticism (even though the movement began soon after Napoleon's end, it was not overwhelmingly popular until after the revolutions of 1848). Artists and writers strove for detailed realistic and factual descriptions and science was brought back from the enlightenment as the only true way to "know" anything. With empiricism popular once again, religion was de-influenced in life throughout educated (especially western) Europe.

Cubism

An artistic movement in France beginning in 1907 that featured surfaces of geometrical planes. The art created was extremely abstract

Fabian Society

An association of British socialists who advocate gradual reforms within the law leading to democratic socialism. It was very un-Marxist in doctrine. George Shaw, H. G. Wells, and Beatrice Webb were the prominent members of the association

Council of Trent

An ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church convened in Trento in three sessions between 1545 and 1563 (when France and HRE weren't at war) in response to the Reformation. It redefined the Roman Catholic doctrine and abolished various ecclesiastical abuses (such as the abuse of Indulgences but not Indulgences themselves), but strengthened the power of the Pope, not giving into any of the new belief structures that had formed during the Protestant Reformation. There was to be one uniting church out of Rome, not national churches, and the bible alone was not enough to find salvation.

Christine de Pisan

An educated, privelaged, humanistic woman who wrote poetry and "The Treasure of the City of Ladies."

Slavophilism

An idea from the Slavic and Romanian territories of the Austrian empire, it came into Russia in last years of Alexander I and after even though Alexander himself was extremely western. This is the application of principle of Volksgeist in Russia, the same feelings had rejected the ideas of Peter the Great. Before 1848 these sentiments were still pretty embryonic and would not take a firm form until the reign of Alexander III and Nicholas II and the disastrous Crimean and Russo-Japanese Wars

Central Intelligence Agency

An independent agency of the United States government responsible for collecting and coordinating intelligence and counterintelligence activities abroad in the national interest. It was established following WWII to coordinate the efforts of containment against the Soviets during the cold war, and became an efficient operating platform for covert missions

European Coal and Steel Community

An international organization created to control and integrate all European coal and steel production. This organization consisted of West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and France. One of its goals was to be so close together economically so that war against them and between them would be impossible (1952).

United Nations

An organization, headquartered in New York City, of independent states formed in 1945, at that time just of anti-Axis nations, to promote international peace and security, especially designed to avoid WWIII. Its two main appendages were the General Assembly and the Security Council, which was made up of five permanent members with veto power and ten other nations who would rotate. The five "great powers" were the US, the USSR, Great Britain, China (Represented by Taiwan until 1971), and, at Great Britain's demand, France.

John Wesley

Anglican minister; created religious movement, Methodism; led to become missionary to the English people; apealed especialy to lower class; his Methodism gave lower and middle classes in English society a sense of purpose and community. He was an itinerant, or traveling preacher. This man failed to keep his followers in the Anglican church for they soon formed, against his wishes, the Methodist church in both England and the American colonies

Katyn Forest

April 1940. Roughly 10,000 captured Polish officers were slaughtered here by the Russians. The massacre was discovered by the Nazis and used as propaganda for the Third Reich. It was largely ignored by the Western allies

Averroes

Arabian philosopher born in Spain. wrote detailed commentaries on Aristotle that were admired by European schoolmen (1126-1198)

Opportunism

As WWI drew closer and many European countries adopted some forms of socialism, hard-line leftist Marxists referred to such a revisionist movement as this, believing that those who supported towards revisionist marxism were betraying the cause of the proletariate.

Emperor Showa

As a part of the attempt to make the occupation of Japan non-vindictive, this man was allowed to retain his position as Emperor and was never question nor implicated of war crimes. While the US did established a parliamentary democracy in which he had no real power, women were given the right to vote, and the military was to be contained to a very small level for defensive purposes only, he was the figurative head of state, much like the Queen of England today. The Emperor still had such a role today.

Revisionist

As the 1930s moved along, and the loosing powers of WWI became increasing powerful, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the USSR looked to fixed the wrongs they felt were forced upon them at the end of WWI, especially through the treaty of Versailles. These countries were not afraid to get what they desired militarily. These countries were referred to as "this" powers

National Convention

At its closing, the National Convention, seeing their decaying power, mandated that the first Legislative Assembly of the Directory was to be made up of 66% of this group so that the newly made Republic could have some staying power

English Law of Evidence

At the close of the 17th, this began to take on its modern form. It stated that evidence, even for the most atrocious crimes, was necessary for a conviction (which was not the practice during the majority of the 17th century) . After 1650 hearsay evidence was banished from English courts, and even by 1696 all men, no matter the crime, were allowed legal counsel. All these efforts, without really meaning to, destroyed Witchcraft as a suitable charge for there was no credible evidence for a conviction

Berne

At the first post-war meeting of the Second International in 1919 in this city, the Marxist organization had to chose whether to follow Lenin or the revisionist socialists that still held power throughout Europe, especially in Germany. Failing to gain any support, Lenin took his country and the communist party and founded the Third International as the true line of succession from the First International of Karl Marx.

130

At the height of the French Empire, there were this many departments (compared to the 83 established by the Constituent Assembly and the 101 today, much this new land German) due to the addition of Holland, Belgium, Rome, Holland, Genoa, ad the Illyrian Provinces

Casablanca

At this January 1943 conference, Churchill and FDR agreed to only accept unconditional surrender from the Axis-powers. While this was not totally fulfilled (Italy switched sides, again) it was to ensure that the Germans could not feel "stabbed in the back" and that when defeated, they would be totally defeated without any jurisdiction of power whatsoever.

Peasant Revolt of 1524

Bands of angry peasants that went about the country side raiding monasteries, pillaging, and burning feeling that they could defy all injustices and still go to heaven with Luther's teachings. Princes' armies with Luther's support crushed these revolts in Germany and over 100,000 were killed. Because of this, Luther seriously began to questions his efforts if they produced so much death. This was the greatest German peasant rebellion ever

Seven Sacraments

Baptism, Confirmation or Chrismation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick (last rights), Holy Orders, and Matrimony.

Jesuits

Because of the spread of Europeans throughout the world as told through the Travelers' Tales, especially these missionaries, it became increasingly difficult for Europeans to believe that their beliefs were the sole correct ones, leading to the creation and popularity of skepticism during the 17th century

German

Believing, unlike his mother Maria Theresa, in a centralized government, Joseph II refused to allow the regional diets, especially Hungary, to act under their own accord as they had done prior. Joseph attempt to unite his empire under one nationality, making this language the national language, which enraged the outlying region of the Austrian Empire and strengthened their nationalistic goal. Joseph also established a secret police to defend his policies through his empire.

Extraordinary All-Russian Commission of Struggle Against Counterrevolution, Speculation, and Sabotage

Better known as the Cheka, and in later years the OGPU, NKVD, MVD, or KGB, this was established in 1917 by Leon Trotsky, the war commissar of the new Soviet government. It was the USSR's secret policy, and its name does not leave room for speculation on its true mission: destroy everything that is not Soviet.

Treaty of Campo Formio

Between Austria and France, Oct 17 1797. Incorporated Napoleon's ideas after the Fructidor. Truce on continent. Austrian recognition of French annexation of Belgium, Lt bank of Rhine and Cisalpine Republic. In return Austria received the port Venice. France got Ionians Islands.

Radicalism

Born out of Thomas Paine and the Jacobins of years past, this philosophy was proudly created by the Philosophical Radicals in 1820. Their main philosophy came from the writing of Jeremy Bentham. They fully believed that the right form of institutions were to be found in the fundamental traits of human nature and psychology and not by custom or history, and so vehemently opposed the church and parliament, as well as the monarchy itself. They demanded to go to the root of all things. It was the largest democratic voice in England. On the continent this doctrine was represented by militant republicans, the last remaining heirs of the revolution.

Navigation Act of 1651

British regulations designed to protect British shipping from competition. Said that British colonies could only import goods if they were shipped on British-owned vessels and at least 3/4 of the crew of the ship were British. It also stated that all goods imported to England must be on English ships or ships of the country where the goods originated. The Dutch didn't produce anything really, they were merchants and middle-men, so this greatly weakened the Dutch trading mechanism that was attempting to monopolize the seas

Great Northern War

Broke out as Peter, allied with Denmark, Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony, attacked Sweden, allied with the Ottomans (Poland and GB fought in the war, changing sides multiple times) in his quest to establish a Russian trading port on the Baltic. After being routed initially, Peter re-organized his army on the western model and eventually gained Estonia, Livonia, and Karella on the Baltic. The war was decided with the Battle of Poltava where Sweden was decimated and ended with the Peace of Nystad in 1721. Sweden becomes a second-rate power after the war.

Count of Artois

Brother of the king and leader of aristocracy who wanted to concede nothing. Emigrated with many others and prepared to agitate abroad and consult with foreign governments on how to overthrow the revolution. He led the French emigres in foreign countries. He was the one who convinced Louis XVI to conduct his flight to Varennes

Declaration of Verona

By Louis XVIII in 1795- announced his intention to restore L'Ancien Regime and punish all the revolutionaries. Obviously he had "learned nothing and forgotten nothing". This action severely weakened the push of the royalists against the Directory

Age of Louis XIV

By Voltaire - praised LXIV for splendor of art and literature in his reign. Shows lack of interest in Political liberties, and the clash between Enlightened writers (contemporary Montesquieu was the farther of balance of powers) since Sun King been extremely absolutist. This work was very Voltaire, for he also praised Frederick the Great, especially for his religious tolerance, and all absolute leaders, generally condemning the English political model

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges

Charles VII asserted French control over papacy and appointment of French bishops, depriving Pope of French money. Affirmed special rights of French church, consolidated French authority.

Battle of the Atlantic

Coined by Winston Churchill in 1941, is a partial misnomer for a campaign that began on the first day of the European war and lasted for six years, involved thousands of ships and stretched over hundreds of miles of the vast ocean and seas in a succession of more than 100 convoy battles and perhaps 1,000 single-ship encounters. American Liberty Ships vs German U-Boats

Kim Il Sung

Communist leader of North Korea; his attack on South Korea in 1950 started the Korean War. He remained in power until 1994 and established the cult of personality.

Unions

Completely illegal during the French Revolution and the era after it, these became legal in 1864, and workers also were given the right to strike. These moves, as well as the welfare support during the depression of 1857, gave Napoleon III the title "Social Emperor".

Wannsee

Conference of Nazi leaders in January 1942 during which they designed the system of concentration/death camps to execute the final solution

Alexander VI

Corrupted Pope and father of Cesare Borgia and Lucrezia Borgia (1431-1503)

Emelian Pugachev

Cossack soldier who sparked a gigantic uprising of serfs (1773) in Russia during the reign of Catherine the Great-he proclaimed himself the true tsar and issued decrees abolishing serfdom, taxes, and army service-thousands joined him, slaughtering landlords and officials-lost to Russian army-he was captured and savagely executed in 1774

The Treaty of Tordesillas

Created by the Pope and signed between Spain and Portugal in late 15th century. It decided how Columbus' discoveries of the New World would be divided between Spain and Portugal

Sobibor

Death camp in Poland where about 250,000 Jews died in gas chambers. in 1943 it was blown up by prisoners who then escaped but most were caught and killed

Battle of the Bulge

December, 1944-January, 1945 - After recapturing France, the Allied advance became stalled along the German border. In the winter of 1944, Germany staged a massive counterattack in Belgium and Luxembourg against an American line that had been overstretched which pushed a 30 mile "bulge" into the Allied lines. The Allies, although originally very confused by the bulge as the battle lines were no longer in a traditional shape and it was easy to attack your own allies, stopped the German advance and threw them back across the Rhine with heavy losses

Battle of the Nile

Decisive battle by Nelson over Napoleon's navy after which Napoleon was forced to flee from Egypt, leaving his army behind.

Khedives

Descendants of Muhammad Ali in Egypt after 1867 who were the formal rulers of Egypt instead of the Shah of the Ottoman Empire even though Egypt was not officially separate from the Ottomans until during WWI, although after 1882 the British had a firm control over the entire country, until overthrown by military coup in 1952.

Indian Mutiny

Discontent with British administration in India led to numerous mutinies in 1857 and 1858. These revolt was put down after several battles and sieges (notably the seige at Lucknow). This caused the British to be more accommodating to the demands of Indian culture and led to the abolition of the British East India Company, the Mogul Empire, and the imposition of direct rule. While the description of direct rule is accurate, over 200 original states, not including the Mogul Empire, were allowed to remain, although ultimately under British control

Child Labor Laws

Due to these, which came into full enforcement during the 1880s, children no longer were an economic asset and so the poorest inner city classes could no longer have sprawling families that they could support, lowering the birth rate for those countries that had very industrialized urban centers. With economic liabilities staying in the family until 22 in some cases with education, large families were less desirable.

Labor Conscription

During WWI, governments would use wages, draft exemptions, and control of manufacturing to manipulate the labor market, but never directly told men, and increasingly women, to work certain jobs. Germany shifted away from such a view to this system, in which the central government did dictate what jobs certain individuals would work. It was quickly put out of use after the war was over.

Squirearchy

During the period between 1688-1832 the British government was in the hands of the wealthy landowners known as this or the "gentlemen of England." They helped foster a total transformation of farming - an agricultural revolution without which the industrial revolution could not have occurred. They also provided the government backing of the industrialization in England which was not found on the continent, one of the many reasons England industrialized faster than the continent.

Arminius

Dutch Protestant theologian of Leyden who founded Arminianism which opposed the absolute predestinarianism of John Calvin (1559-1609). While his works weakened Calvinism in the Netherlands, it was still the dominant religion in a state that was very tolerant of all (it was so diverse it had to be to survive)

Manorial System

Economic system where wealth is based on land rather than money; barter system; trade was not encouraged, or at least not prevalent

Planned Economy

Economy that relies on a centralized government to control all or most factors of production and to make all or most production and allocation decisions. Competition is eliminated, failing corporations necessary to war effort are kept afloat, and rationing of products, especially in cities, occurs. While the term is most associated with the USSR and Mao's China, it aptly described the waring economies during World War I.

Salons

Elegant private drawing rooms-in Paris used for regular social gatherings of great and near-great presided over by a number of talented and rich women-allowed philosophes to exchange witty, uncensored observations of literature, science, philosophy, with great aristocrats, wealthy middle-class financiers, high-ranking officials, and noteworthy foreigners. It was the greatest exchange of philosophical thought that happened commonly in human history to that point and directly influenced the great achievements in science in the 17th century and philosophy in the 18th century

Streltsi

Elite guard of moscow. composed of nobles. They revolted during his youth while Sophia ruled for him and Ivan V as well as in 1698 while Peter was touring Europe. After this revolt Peter reorganized his army on the Prussian model (recruited foreigners and natives on a regional basis so that unit had unity), making it much more effective in the upcoming Great Northern War (he got rid of them)

Thomas Malthus

English economist who argued that increases in population would outgrow increases in the means of subsistence (1766-1834)

David Ricardo

English economist who argued that the laws of supply and demand should operate in a free market. He wrote Principles of Political Economy in 1817 (1772-1823)

Richard Arkwright

English inventor and entrepreneur who became the wealthiest and most successful textile manufacturer of the early Industrial Revolution. In 1769 this man patented the water frame, a machine that, with minimal human supervision, could spin several threads at once. As its name suggests, it was designed to be powered by water, but in 1780 this man pioneered a way to power the water frame through steam. The water frame took up so much space that the most efficient way to use it was in large dismal buildings called mills in England (factories in America). This man was the father mills which would come to define the British midlands.

John Locke

English philosopher who advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property. He also believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience (1632-1704)

Puritains

English protestants who sought to "purify" the Church of England of any vestiges of Catholicism; Calvinists. Protestants who worked to purify the protostant church and to make its doctorine more persise. Then disliked Elizabeth I because of her retaining Cathlic Traditions and because of the current system of church government

Prussia

Even though it had been completely destroyed by Napoleon, this major power was established on the the Rhine as the major deterrent to any French aggression. It also received nearly all of the Grand Duchy of Baden and about half of Saxony as the King of Saxony had been the last to leave the alliance with Napoleon. Metternich referred to the country as some sort of a bridge that would take the first blow, instead of Austria, from any French or Russian conquests.

Action Francaise

Extreme right/royalists in France. Anti-republican. Acted principally outside the Chamber of Deputies as a militant and noisy pressure group. (They were somewhat Fascist - something of an imitation of the groups gaining power in Italy and Germany)

Treaty of Luneville

Feb, 1801. Austrians signed this with France after had been defeated by Napoleon at Marengo. Terms of Campo Formio confirmed and all troops of the Second Coalition were removed from the battle fields. In 1802 a peace was also signed with the Britain

Frederick II (Frederick the Great)

First Servant of the State

Socialism

First arriving as an English word in 1832, this doctrine was mainly republican but also demanded great economic reforms. While appealing most to the lowest classes, this doctrine's greatest champions were of the highest classes and Cotton Lords like Count de Saint-Simon and Robert Owen. They were similar to the republicans of the Continent that they were more akin to the revolution than the reaction, abut they all believed and were more concerned with the current economic system which was aimless, chaotic, and outrageously unjust. Finding a leader before 1848 in Louis Blanc who edited Revue de Progres and wrote the Organization of Works (1839), this group was mainly French and found absolutely no political support out side of the French, who hated the bourgeois more than any other country.

Sputnik

First artificial Earth satellite, actually born out of an offshoot from the Soviet nuclear program, it was launched by Moscow in 1957 and sparked U.S. fears of Soviet dominance in technology and outer space. It led to the creation of NASA and the space race

Munich Agreement

Flying for only the second time in his life, Chamberlain and French officials met with Hitler in 1938 regarding the Sudetenland conflict. At the demands of the United Kingdom, France and the UK signed an accord with Hitler that gave the Sudetenland to Germany and the independance of Czechoslovakia was to be assured. The Czechs had lost their defensive network against the Germans and the Triple Entente had been abandoned by France. Chamberlain returned home, a hero for brining "peace in our time." The Czechs were not a part of the negotiations and forced to accept the terms. The Czechs were forced by their allies to sign their own death warrant.

Brussels Congress of 1889

Following the Berlin Conference in 1885, this conference between imperial powers made agreements that were designed to root out the slave trade and protect the rights of the local people as well as reducing the trafficking of arms and liquor without regulation in Africa.

Germany Social Democratic Party

For the first time in its history, this party took control of the Reichstag in 1912. This party was anti-bellicose, as was the majority of Germans, but foreign policy was controlled by the Prussian Junkers alone and Wilhelm was fine with war.

Illuminati

Formed in Southern Germany as an offshoot of Freemasonry - considered dangerous by Bavarian government so it was suppressed in 1786. Later some insisted that French Revolution caused by Illuminati conspiracy with philosophes and other plotters. No basis to this belief. Secrecy was foreign to Enlightenment and was one of the reasons they were shunned

Maryland Colony

Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore, founded to be a place for persecuted Catholics to find refuge from England

July Monarchy

France's government from 1830 to 1848 (King Louis Philippe). Only about 1/30 adult males had vote. Reflected the "stake in society" theory - that those should govern who have something to lose. Less landed aristocracy influence in government led to a general disinterest in government.

Joan of Arc

French heroine and military leader inspired by religious visions to organize French resistance to the English and to have Charles VII crowned king. She was later tried for heresy and burned at the stake (1412-1431)

Rene Descartes

French philosopher and mathematician. developed dualistic theory of mind and matter; introduced the use of coordinates to locate a point in two or three dimensions (1596-1650)

Positivism

French philosophy based on observation and scientific approach to problems of society; adopted by many Latin American liberals in the aftermath of independence. Knowledge could only be based on "positive" or proven facts, as was the definition of this philosophy's champion Auguste Comte.

Antoine Henri Becquerel

French physicist who discovered that rays emitted by uranium salts affect photographic plates (1852-1908)

Aristide Briand

French prime minister who championed the League of Nations and tried to tell France that its army didn't mean that it had unlimited influence over Europe. He led France along side Herriot during the Spirit of Locarno.

Blaise Pascal

French scientist who wanted to keep science and religion together. He had a mystical experience and from then on sought to convert rationalists to Christian religion, which he was determined to show did not conflict with reason (which was done in his book Pensées which means Thoughts). He invented modern probability (1651) as well as developed many laws concerning the pressure of liquids (the SI unit for pressure is in his name)

Jean Jaures

French socialist leader who formally repudiated revisionist doctrines in order to establish a unified socialist party-remained at heart a gradualist and optimistic secular humanist. He was the third option for socialists who did not want to follow strict Marxism or use parliamentary methods to support the rise of socialism

Alexandre Millerand

French socialist who had accepted a ministerial post in 1899 in Third French Republic. Kautsky said of his actions that it was like "sleeping with the enemy." His actions did go in the face of orthodox marxism and for this the Second International damned his actions, saying that socialists should use parliaments for discussion of ideas but should never enter the government; the enemy. No other socialists would join any European government until after WWI

Cordon Sanitaire

French term for the ring of small anti-communist states on the border of U.S.S.R which was established in 1919 by the post-WWI treaties and seen as preventing the communist infection from spreading. It was mainly produced by Germany destroying Russia during the war, forcing the Treaty of Brest-Livosk on Russia. The line ran from Finland to Rumania

Michel de Montaigne

Frenchman who developed the essay form. From his "Que sais-je?" (What do I know) Skepticism was born to be more fully developed later, but his writings highlighted the prevailing theme of the 16th century that that true knowledge could not be obtained.

Communist League

Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx join this which was created to link the German Socialists, many of whom, like Marx were living in exile. From the time in this group, Marx and Engels were inspire to write The Communist Manifesto. The league was crushed in 1848 with the failure of the revolutions in Germany.

Louis XIV

Grand Monarque

Galen

Greek anatomist whose theories formed the basis of European medicine until the Renaissance (circa 130-200)

Invisible Exports

Having a considerable trade deficit since Britain repealed the Corn Laws in 1846 and Napoleon III opened his country to free trade in 1860, the inner zone of Europe was able to increase its capital and not be significantly weakened by this systemic deficit through these. Non-Europeans were essentially forced to rely on inner Europe's shipping capabilities, banking facilities, and Lloyds of London for offsetting any type of risk. These income streams kept Europe very powerful and wealthy despite trade deficits.

Albert of Brandenburg

Head of Teutonic order in 1523, declared for Luther and made East Prussia secular duchy in which his heirs would rule for many year to come

General Kornilov

Highest general in Russia in 1917, this man wanted to be the savior of Russia. Tried to stage a coup-demanded the resignation of all ministers Kerensky ordered him to turn over command. But soldiers refused to follow him. He represented a reaction of the right against the middle, which just ended up giving more support to the left: the soviets

Fuhrer

Hitler's title as Germany's dictator. It means leader in German.

Imre Nagy

Hungarian Communist Party leader who attempted to end association with the USSR which lead to the 1956 Hungarian revolt

Balthasar Bekker

In 1691 this man wrote World Bewitched which was a decisive blow against expiring superstition of witchcraft

Zollverein

In 1818 Frederick William III initiated a tariff union for the enclaves within Prussia to be included inside tariff free Prussia. By 1848 this union had vastly expanded to include nearly all of the 39 German states.

German Social Democratic Party

In 1875 this party was founded by a mix of Lassalle socialists and Marxists socialists on platform of government reform to gain Marx's goals, a plan that Marx had denounced during his lifetime. In 1878, after two attempts on the life of William I by individual radicals (though not socialists), Bismarck used a carefully orchestrated national outcry to ram through the Reichstag a law that strictly controlled socialist meetings and publications and outlawed this, which was thereby driven underground until 1890 when the laws were repealed by Wilhelm II. By 1912 they owned a third of the Reichstag

Beer Hall Putsch

In 1923 the Nazis attempted to overthrow the government in Munich. It was a total failure, and Hitler received a brief prison sentence (five years, of which he served less than 1) during which time he wrote Mein Kampf

Rome-Berlin Axis

In 1936, as the Spanish Civil War broke out, this was signed between Hitler and Mussolini. The Spanish civil war pushed these men closer to each other as they combined to fight communism. Because Hitler gave so much aid to Franco, Mussolini allowed the Anschluss in 1938.

Western European Union

In 1948 France and the Benelux countries created this to collect their resources for self defense, especially against another German assault. Their military resources by this point in history were very low, however, and NATO soon replaced this union.

Assignats

In December of 1789 this was a paper currency issued by the Constituent Assembly which had confiscated church property and issued this paper money based on this land. Initially could just by land with it though later it was used as a general currency. Supposed to help ease the difficulties of peasants but all sorts of problems with it - overissued plus easily forged. By the middle of the 1790's inflation had made it totally worthless and bartering was the main method of transaction in France for significant lengths of time

Paul von Hindenburg

In June of 1932, following the onset of the Great Depression against which he could do nothing, Heinrich Brüning, the longest termed Chancellor of the Weimar Republic, was forced to resign. Following him came the leadership of Nationalists Franz von Papen and General Kurt von Schleicher. Both failed to keep the Chancellorship for more than 5 months. In January of 1933, at the failure of the Nationalists to maintain a party, the Nationalists called upon this man, the president of the Weimar Republic, to offer Hitler the position of Chancellor in a coalition government with the Nazis and the Nationalists. By fully legal means, accepted and became Chancellor of Germany.

Remagen

In March 1945 American troops found an intact bridge here over the River Rhine, the only bridge that Hitler's retreating troops failed to destroy. These were the first troops to cross the Rhine into Germany since those of Napoleon

Defenstration of Prague

In May 1618, when Ferdinand violated Protestant religious liberties, a group of noblemen marched to the palace in Prague and threw two chief advisers out of a window

Commune

In response to the revolt of the Parisian working class in August of 1792, Paris established this that usurped the powers of the Legislative Assembly and demanded a new constitution that would be assembled by a new elected body that was elected by universal male suffrage. This Constitutional Convention would govern France through this time

Battle of Leningrad

In the Soviet Union, this was a three year siege. 660,000 Soviets died of starvation and disease before Germans retreated. The battle was significant for the bravery of the Soviets against the Germans. Russian perseverance is only perhaps better represented by the defensive of Stalingrad on the Volga in the south

Jawaharlal Nehru

Indian statesman. He succeeded Mohandas K. Gandhi as leader of the Indian National Congress. He negotiated the end of British colonial rule in India and became India's first prime minister (1947-1964)

Sepoys

Indian troops who served in the military forces of the European companies. They were first utilized by Dupleix in 1740's-50's but were most effectively used by the British later in the 18th century

James Joyce

Influential Irish writer noted for his many innovations (such as stream of consciousness writing) (1882-1941). He wrote Ulysses

Desert Campaign

Instead of trying to immediately retake France, Britain, once it was clear that the island nation itself was secure, looked to Africa to find wins against the Russians in this campaign and ensure the protection of the Suez Canal, still vital to British existence. The Italians were no match for the British, who sen them back from Ethiopia and Egypt deep into Libya. German General Rommel and his Afrika Korps soon arrived on the continent and gave the British fits, forcing them back to El Alamein where they made their final stand to save the Nile and the Suez Canal.

Carlsbad Decrees

Issued by Metternich in 1819, required 39 independent German states, including Prussia and Austria, to root out subversive ideas. (censorship) Also established permanent comittee with spies to punish any liberal or radical organization.

Cabot

Italian explorer who led the English expedition in 1497 that discovered the mainland of North America and explored the coast from Nova Scotia to Newfoundland (ca. 1450-1498)

Duce

Italian for leader, this was the title taken by Benitto Mussolini after he rose to power. He was copied by Hitler when he took the title Fuhrer.

Christopher Columbus

Italian navigator who discovered the New World (Hispaniola in 1492) in the service of Isabella of Castile (Spain) while looking for a route to China (1451-1506)

Alcide De Gasperi

Italian who survived the Fascist years as a librarian in the Vatican and went on to become an effective leader. 1946-53 he presided over a series of coalition governments. This man allowed for postwar reconstruction and expansion and kept Italy in Western camp in Cold War. This man lead the Christian Democratic Party (appealed to all classes and sectors - blended democracy, free enterprise, and labor tenets of Social Catholicism). When Communists fomented strikes in 1947 he dismissed them from the cabinet. In 1948 the US supported the Christian Democrats over the Communists in elections. CDs won an absolute majority and excluded the Communists from the cabinet. After this man left if was very difficult for the CDs to maintain stable coalitions. Since 1945 Italy has averaged approximately 1 government change per year

Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Japan's propaganda used to validate their military efforts in the Pacific, this was an idea to promote the economic growth of Asia, under Japanese influence, without the capital of Europe, essentially ridding Asia of European influence.

Commonwealth Men

Kept alive memories of the Levellers and ideals of equality, mixed with a pseudo history of a simple Anglo Saxon England that had been crushed by the despotism of the Norman Conquest. Less influence in England than in American colonies and especially in New England which had originated in close connection with the Puritan Revolution. This group is very similar to the Dissenters (those who did not accept the anglican church) and the parliamentary reformers. All three groups were on the outside and more powerful outside of England then in England (such as Scotland, Ireland, or America)

Flight to Varennes

King Louis XVI and his families attempt to escape Paris June 21st of 1791; made it only to this city where they were arrested and put on house arrest. End of French Monarchy as they were soon killed on January 21th, 1793 (Marie Antoinette was killed 10 months later in October)

Richard II

King of England from 1377 to 1399. He suppressed the Peasant's Revolt in 1381 but his reign was marked by popular discontent and baronial opposition in Parliament and he was forced to abdicate in 1399 (1367-1400) indicating the power of Parliament at the end of the 14th century, but also the divisions in England

Syngman Rhee

Korean leader who became president of South Korea after World War II and led Korea during Korean War. Even though he was elected into a democratic government under a UN election, his anti-communist regime was very autocratic and anti-American, until he need their aid in the Korea War.

Claude Lorrain

Landscapes, seascapes, classical buildings, small people, middle vanishing point. He was a French Baroque painter for Louis XIV, as were most of his era

Aurungzeb

Last significant Mogul emperor (1658-1707). Earlier Moguls had invaded N. India and spread muslim culture. This man used repression of Hindus. After his death in 1707 there was increasing dissolution of empire into growing number of smaller princely states- each with own autocracy. Thus India ripe for exploitation by outside powers

Second International

Lasted from 1889-1914-formed by socialist leaders- a federation of national socialist parties-great psychological impact-delegates met to interpret Marxian doctrines and plan coordinated action. It gave some power to minor Marxist parties in the many states across Europe

de Rerum Novarum

Leo XIII's most important statement in which he attempted to resolve conflict between the Church and modern thought. It upheld private property as a natural right, but it damned capitalism as the rout of poverty, insecurity, and degradation of labouring classes. Socialism was more Christian in principal, but it damned the current social thoughts of that era for it was too materialistic and belligerent against religion. The Church recommended trade unionism or socialism, but demanded that it was reformed.

John Wilkes

London member of Parliament who denounced George III's policies. Fled to France after publishing a piece offending the government. Came back to England in 1768 and ran for parliament but was arrested. In 1774 he found himself back in parliament introduced many bills of reform, none of which passed Loved by the colonists (1727-1797)

Dutch War

Louis XIV invaded the United Provinces to disrupt their trade as recommended by Richelieu between 1672 and 1678. The Dutch, HRE, Spain, and Brandenburg sued for peace and Louis received Franche-Comte by the Treaty of Nimwegen

Count Kaunitz

Maria Theresa's foreign minister, proposed a switch to French alliance. Encouraged French aspirations for Belgium (which Austrians did not really want - noncontiguous) in exchange for French support of destruction of Prussia. He also successfully created a tariff union for Bohemia in 1775 that was the largest on the continent. While never overcoming the loss of Silesia, Bohemia was quickly industrialized due to this tariff union, becoming the only industrialized area in the Empire

Josip Tito

Marx-Leninist communist who hated Stalin. Soviet forces never were allowed to come in and liberate Yugoslavia. He created his own communist authoritarian regime, which is often praised by outsiders for being benevolent. This man was never under Moscow's control

Junkers

Members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, a class formerly associated with political reaction and militarism. They were not allowed to sell their lands to commoners, keeping the commoners from becoming a powerful bourgeois. All members were essentially required to join the military and through this created a united nation which was really a recent augmentation of random regions and a military culture

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus which became most well known for their work in education of Catholics in Europe. They were devoted to preaching, educating the young, fighting against heresy, serving the Pope, and caring for the needy.

House of Lords

Members of this house of the British Parliament have inherited titles or been given them by the Queen. It includes all people of nobility, great and small, and the clergy

Diggers

More of a fringe group during the English Civil War, these occupied and cultivated commonlands, or lands privately owned in a general repudiation of property. Wanted communal ownership of property.

Charter of 1838

More of movement than French socialism (members were not socialists, but all were anti-capitalists), 6 points in charter: 1) annual election of Commons. 2) universal suffrage for adult men. 3) secret ballot. 4) equal electoral districts. 5) abolition of property qualifications for membership of Commons. 6) salaries to elected members of Parliament. By 1842 a petition for the this had 3,317,702 signatures (out of 19 million people in Great Britain), yet Parliament resounding rejected the petition.

Great Russians

Moscovites

Congress of Berlin (1878)

Noticing the outrage of Britain at the Treaty of San Stefano, Bismark a few months later called a pan-European congress to discuss the treaty. The Russians were convinced to give up the Treaty of San Stefano, but were allowed to keep the territories that had been ceded to them. Bulgaria was divided into three zones with varying autonomy but it was clear that Germany and England would not allow Russia to created a sphere of influence in Bulgaria. Bosnia was to be occupied by Austria, and Montenegro was added to the list of independent states in the Balkans, as well as Serbia and Romania. Britain was appeased as they were given Cyprus to protect the Suez Canal. Italy was allowed to take Albania if it wished, but never did. Germany and Bismarck took nothing, but became financial allies with Istanbul, eventually building the Berlin-Baghdad railroad which was completed in 1914. War was far off, but this congress did not appease the Young Turks nor pan-slavists, the true threats to European peace.

Reflections on Violence

One of the many works of Sorel that proclaimed that violence between the classes was a good thing, even if the outcome was not any different than the previous status quo, this book was a great inspiration to Mussolini and the Fascists. This reflects Sorel's attitude towards 19th century society. Moreover, in this work he alerted the working class to always be ready to take action against the bourgeoisie in the action of a "general strike"

Interloper

One who trades in defiance (and therefore illegally) of the British East Indian Company's trade monopoly. It is through this profession that William Pitt made his fortune

Pope Pius IX

Originally coronated as the liberal Pope, this man wrote Syllabus of Errors in which he strongly denounced rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty, denying that "the Roman pontiff can and ought to reconcile and align himself with progress, liberalism, and modern civilization." He also called the Vatican Council in 1870

Eisenhowever

Out of respect for the Russians, who accounted for half of all the deaths around the world during WWII, this American general refused to let his men take Berlin, giving the German capital, and the major causalities that came with taking it, to the Russians. This would have major Cold War implication that at that moment could not have been foreseen. The same gesture was done for Prague and Bratislava, but not Vienna.

18th Century

Overly elaborate, formal, and indecisive battles represent the fighting style of this century prior to Napoleon. Battles could only be fought so many miles from supply depots, and muskets were terribly inaccurate. So many wars were fought in this century because the fighting style affected the common man to the lowest degree ever to that point in history (only challenged by wars post- WWII) and there was no such thing as nationalism. Deserters offer joined other armies, Prussia's army was not even half prussian, France had German legions, and in all countries soldiers were the outcasts who were useless to the economic machine. Only in England could some argue a feeling of nationalism existed

Tuileries Palace

Palace and royal residence built for Catherine de Medici in 1564 that burned down in 1871. It was stormed August 10, 1792 symbolizing the loss of respect and love for the monarch by the French people

Tuileries

Palace and royal residence built for Catherine de Medicis in 1564 and burned down in 1871. All that remains today are the formal gardens next to the Louvre. It replaced Versailles as the working center for the French government under Napoleon III who desired to be in Paris, no longer fearing the Parisians as all of his predecessors had.

Scholastics

People who gathered and taught at medieval European universities.

New Economic Policy

Policy proclaimed by Vladimir Lenin in 1921 to encourage the revival of the Soviet economy by allowing small private enterprises, essentially reintroducing capitalism because Lenin believed that Russia had not created a large enough proletariate through capitalism to truly go through a Marxist revolution. Capitalist had to be restored so a true economic revolution could begin. A pragmatic reason for the change was the all trade from the country to the cities had died, and cities were still starving even in peace time. Joseph Stalin ended this in 1927 and replaced it with a series of Five-Year Plans

Szlachta

Polish aristocracy - 8% of population (much larger than in other contemporary countries) - sticklers for Polish Liberties, suspicion of centralization. Elective(not hereditary) monarchy - usually the Polish aristocracy picked foreigner to be monarch since could never agree on Pole. Only 2 native kings - Sobieski and Poniatowski.

Copernicus

Polish astronomer who produced a workable model of the solar system with the sun in the center (1473-1543)

All-India Muslim League

Political organization founded in India in 1906 to defend the interests of India's Muslim minority. Led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, it attempted to negotiate with the Indian National Congress and would eventually demand Pakistan once India was independent

St. Francis Xavier

Portuguese Jesuit who, by 1550, baptized thousands of souls in India, Indonesia and Japan - in areas of Portuguese influence. Followed da Gama & Albuquerque.

Braganza

Portuguese dynasty until 1910 that was restored in 1640 when Portugal rebelled from Philip IV of Spain

Materialism

Preoccupation with physical comforts and things; excessive regard for worldly concerns (rather than spiritual matters). After 1848 this philosophy was very popular as the benefits of the industrial revolution were clear and religion's influence was, once again, diminished.

Beveridge Report

Published during WWII, it proposed a social insurance program that made all citizens eligible for health, unemployment, pension, and other benefits. The plan was enacted by the Labour Party when they took power in 1945 and established the bedrock from which the modern welfare state of the UK exists today. The Conservatives never truly undid the efforts of the Labour party, just simply curtailed some of the more extreme nationalization of certain industries.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England from 1558 to 1603. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn; she succeeded Mary I (who was a Catholic) and restored Protestantism to England; during her reign Mary Queen of Scots was executed and the Spanish Armada was defeated. She defended Anglicism because she was illegitimate in the Catholic tradition

Chartists

Reformers of England who wanted changes to the government like universal male suffrage, a secret ballot, and payment for members of Parliament so that even workingmen could afford to enter politics. This group supported a document called the People's Charter which by 1848 contained over 6 million signatures (England at the time had about 35 million people) and despite this Parliament refused to act on their demands

Fyodor Dostoyevsky

Russian novelist who wrote of human suffering with humor and psychological insight (1821-1881). He was the pan-slavist who wrote Crime and Punishment

Soviet

Russian term that translates to "council".

Mir

Russian village commune where emancipated serfs lived and worked collectively in order to meet redemption payments to the government after serfdom was abolished by Alexander II in 1861, one day before his death. These redemption payments ended in 1906, but these communes were still taxed heavily and most foodstuffs were went overseas all in an attempt to keep a large trade surplus, pay off foreign debt, and industrialize at the cost of the agricultural worker. Because of such demands, these developed "land hunger" and they demanded and took more land under their control.

Nuremberg Trials

Series of trials in 1945 conducted by an International Military Tribunal in which former Nazi leaders were charged with crimes against peace, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. In this way Nazis, was internationally condemned and the old hierarchy was eliminated from ever again rising to power (even with the highest bass in the Nazi party committing suicide). Twelve were sentenced to death, seven received prison sentences, and three were acquitted.

Suez Canal

Ship canal dug across the isthmus of Suez in Egypt by the French, designed by Ferdinand de Lesseps. It opened to shipping in 1869 and shortened the sea voyage between Europe and Asia. Its strategic importance led to the British essentially taking it from the French (hostile takeover) in 1875 aiding to their conquering of Egypt in 1882.

Peace of Alais (Edict of Grace)

Shortened the Edict of Nantes by denying Protestants the right to maintain garrisoned cities, separate political organizations, and independent law courts. It did not yet encroach and take away huguenot's religious rights as future agreements would

Prussia

Since the War of Spanish Succession, the first secular war, all European wars had been designed to partition a weakening power or a growing power. The War of Austrian Succession had failed to partition the fading power of Austria (since that power was in fact not fading but growing under Maria Theresa) so the Seven Years War was ultimately designed to destroy and partition the growing power of this

Compagnonnages

Since the guilds were very restrictive, the journey men of France that had not made it into the guilds formed these that acted as guilds, but were illegal under the Old Regime. Their practice of striking to gain the prices they desired characterize them as the first labour union, and so, after first being lauded to replace the guilds, these groups were eventually once again illegal

Charles I

Son of James I who was King of England and Scotland and Ireland. He was deposed and executed by Oliver Cromwell (1600-1649) His fall began with the revolt in Edinburgh in 1637 when he desired money from Parliament to quell the riot. Parliament would not help, and reelections simply put the same suborn men in charge. The Long Parliament had arrived and in 1642 the King and Parliament went to open war

Afrikaners

South Africans descended from Dutch and French settlers of the seventeenth century. Their Great Trek founded new settler colonies in the nineteenth century. Though a minority among South Africans, they held political power after 1910. (735)

Gachupines

Spaniards born in Spain but living in Mexico (also called Peninsulares)

Marranos

Spanish Jews who converted to Christianity rather than be expelled(1492). Their conversion was often questioned and they were tested-forced to eat pork, etc. They were often persecuted by Inquisition after the Jews who would not convert were expelled with the Muslims in 1492

Pizarro

Spanish explorer who conquered the Incas in what is now Peru and founded the city of Lima (1475-1541)

Conquistadores

Spanish for conquerors. Men who traveled extensively through the Americas, leading small armies of men, and who established themselves as imperial rulers. They came and conquered Meso-America so quickly because they were the gentry that had solely lived for the extermination of the Moors in Spain. With that completed, they were bored

William the Silent

Stadholder from the House of Orange during The Council of Blood, this man was the first Stadholder to act as if he was a ruler of an occupied state instead of a country ruled by a foreign leader. He set up the "Sea Dogs" and promoted the united efforts for the 17 provinces against the Spanish

Second Five-Year Plan

Started in 1933, heavy industry became the top priority which placed USSR behind only Germany and the US as one of the major steel producing countries of the world. Communication became faster. However, the focus of the planners' preferences replaced consumer preferences in the Soviet economy, with an emphasis on military goods and heavy industry. This resulted in a much lower quality and quantity of available consumer goods

Ministries

Stemming from the multi-party system in France, there were 50 of these in the Third Republic between 1871 and 1914 resulting from ever-changing party alliances in the Chamber of Deputies as pluralities attempted to created majorities, or as minorities tried to take down pluralities.

Jacobites

Supporters of James III who was known to non-supporters as the "Pretender." Many of these people hoped that if James III gave up Catholicism he would become king of England.

Central Committee

Supposedly the most important body in a communist party at the time of the Bolshevik ascension; its influence declined as it grew in size and the party needed daily leadership

Central Committee

Supposedly the most important body in a communist party; its influence declined as it grew in size and the party needed daily, more constant, leadership.

Caesaropapism

System in which the temporal ruler extends his own power to ecclesiastical and theological matters. Such emperors appointed bishops and the Eastern Patriarch, directed the development of liturgical practices, and even aided the recruitment of monks. The kings of the west were too numerous and the single pope too different from their culture for this to appear in the west as it had in the east, and in the Arab world it was law

Finland

Taking back what Lenin had ceded by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Stalin used his nonaggression treaty with Hitler to maximize his empire. While Eastern Europe did not even attempt to fight the Soviets, this country did. While initially it was hopeful, the Soviets overwhelmed this small country. By March of 1940 the Soviets had taken a bit more than they originally demanded, which they sought to ensure Leningrad's protection, but this country was allowed to remain independent.

Leopold II

Taking over the throne when his brother, Joseph II, died prematurely at age 49, this man undid most of Joseph's reforms. The peasants did not go back to full serfdom nor did the diets ever regain their former power, but both reemerge in some way under the rule of his man. (ruled 1790-1792)

Long March

The 6,000-mile (9,600-kilometer) flight of Chinese Communists from southeastern to northwestern China where the Communist were better supplied by the Soviets. The Communists, led by Mao Zedong, were pursued by the Chinese army under orders from Chiang Kai-shek. The fighter eventually ended, for a moment at least, when Japan invaded China from Manchukuo in 1937 and the Communists and Nationalists combined their forces, under Nationalist leadership, to fight off the Japanese.

Windischgratz

The Austrian military leader who brought forces in from Bohemia, in which he had put down the insurrection in June as the first counter-offense by the old governments, and put down the October uprisings in Vienna which had caused the emperor to flee. He led a five day siege against the city and forced the revolutionaries to surrender on October 31st, 1848.

Revanche

The French desire for revenge against Germany for the loss of Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). It evolved into one of the main causes for WWI and the cause for the disastrous terms in the Treaty of Versailles.

Diktat

The German term for the Treaty of Versailles which they were forced to sign without being allowed to negotiate any of the details. This was an important factor in the anti-Versailles resentment of later years

Squirearchy

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 had confirmed that the Parliament (made up of this landowning gentry class) had power over king. They could live off the rents of their lands, using them for either agriculture or, later, industry

Plantation of Ulster

The Scottish Presbyterian settlement in Ireland. It was funded by the British government and was meant to push British influence on Ireland. It succeeded and made the Irish more resentful towards their ` overlords

South Sea Bubble

The South Sea Company was a British joint stock company that traded in South America during the 18th century. Founded in 1711, the company was granted a monopoly to trade in Spain's South American colonies as part of a treaty during the War of Spanish Succession. In return, the company assumed the national debt England had incurred during the war. Speculation in the company's stock led to a great economic bubble known as this in 1720, which caused financial ruin for many. In spite of this it was restructured and continued to operate for more than a century after the Bubble, mainly due to the great faith in the credit of the British government, which was seen as a national debt. It also caused the rise of Robert Walpole who was against the South Sea Company during its entire existence

USSR

The UN police action in Korea was able to occur because this nation boycotted the Security Council meetings after the western nations refused to allow Mao's communist China to replace Nationalist China (only ruling Taiwan by 1950) in the UN.

Social Darwinism

The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies, particularly as a justification for European imperialist expansion and many racist hypotheses

European Court of Human Rights

The court, established under the European convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950, that enforced compliance with the convention's stipulations. This court banned corporal punishment in schools and outlawed the death penalty for the states it represented

Reconquista

The effort by Christian leaders to drive the Muslims out of Spain, lasting from the 1100s until 1492. It included conquering Portugal, Leon, Castile, Aragon, and Valencia by 1250, leaving much more powerful and better fortified Granada for 1492

James I

The first Stuart to be king of England and Ireland from 1603 to 1625 and King of Scotland from 1567 to 1625. He was the son of Mary Queen of Scots who succeeded Elizabeth I. This man alienated Parliament by claiming the divine right of kings (1566-1625). He is known to historians as the wisest fool in Christendom: wise in small things, but very foolish on weighty matters

Canossa

The location of the castle in the high mountains of northern Italy where Emperor Henry IV of the HRE stood barefoot and dressed as a pilgrim for three days in the bitter cold waiting for Pope Gregory VII to revoke his excommunication

Third Carnatic War

The outbreak in 1756 of the Seven Years' War in Europe resulted in renewed conflict between French and British forces in India. This war spread beyond southern India and into Bengal where British forces captured the French settlement of Chandernagore (now Chandannagar) in 1757. British commander Sir Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French under the Comte de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760. After Wandiwash, the French capital of Pondicherry fell to the British in 1761. The war concluded with the signing of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, which returned Chandernagore and Pondicherry to France, and allowed the French to have "factories" (trading posts) in India but forbade French traders from administering them. The French agreed to support British client governments, thus ending French ambitions of an Indian empire and making the British the dominant foreign power in India.

Organization of Work

The principles laid down in this famous essay form the key to Louis Blanc's whole political career. He attributes all the evils that afflict society to the pressure of competition, whereby the weaker are driven to the wall. He demanded the equalization of wages, and the merging of personal interests in the common good. It was in this essay that he developed his idea of National Workshops.

Europeanization

The process by which Peter the Great made Russian less Asian and more European by using all resources available to him to create a western European state. The extent of his reforms, and even if Russia was Asian to begin with, can be questioned

Cheka

The re-established tsarist secret police, which hunted down and executed thousands of real or suspected foes, sowing fear and silencing opposition in the USSR

Queen Anne's War

The second of the four imperial wars that were fought between Britain, France and Spain in the colonies. It took place from 1702-1713. Though many Spanish colonial towns were captured and burned by English forces, American colonists met with military failure creating a feeling of dependence on Britain. England gained Acadia and Newfoundland from the French as well as recognition that the French would not try to take the Hudson Bay colony in the future. The war ended with Peace of Utrecht (foreign theater of the War of Spanish Succession)

Splendid Isolation

The traditional British policy of thinking of Britain as separate from the rest of Europe. It turned into insecurity when the European political atmosphere became menacing, especially when Kaiser Wilhelm II challenged British naval supremacy prior to the Great War

Risorgimento

The widespread political movement from 1848 to 1870 demanding Italian unification, this term means resurgence in Italian

Junkers

These East Prussian landed aristocrats represented the only group in Prussia during the Frankfurt Assembly that opposed unification, understanding that their land dominating status in East Prussia was unknown to any German class and therefore in a united German they could expect to loose their rights

Small Freeholders (The Yeomanry in England)

These were the men who held bits of land in return for payments to a manorial Lord, but these payments had been consistent during the 16th century. Since then, crops brought in much more substantial gains and therefore this small group of individuals rose between the middle class gentry and the rural poor. They became in some sense middle class farmers, and on the continent secured more property rights than before

Philosophes

Thinkers of the Enlightenment who wanted to educate society about their beliefs. They were not allowed to openly criticize church or state, so used satire and double-meaning in their writings to avoid being banned. The different levels of censorship also pushed Enlightened thinkers to certain countries. England had almost no censorship laws, while France's were very easy to get around. However some states, like Spain, had very powerful censorship laws. Salons held by wealthy women also kept these people safe. They considered themselves part of an intellectual community, and wrote back and forth to each other to share ideas. For wrote for "the publick"

War of the First Coalition

This (1792-1797) was the first major effort of multiple European monarchies to contain Revolutionary France. France declared war on the Habsburg monarchy of Austria on 20 April 1792, and the Kingdom of Prussia joined the Austrian side a few weeks later. These powers initiated a series of invasions of France by land and sea, with Prussia and Austria attacking from the Austrian Netherlands and the Rhine, and Great Britain supporting revolts in provincial France and laying siege to Toulon. France suffered reverses (Battle of Neerwinden, 18 March 1793) and internal strife (Revolt in the Vendée), and responded with extreme measures: the Committee of Public Safety formed (6 April 1793) and the levée en masse drafted all potential soldiers aged 18 to 25 (August 1793). The new French armies counter-attacked, repelled the invaders, and moved beyond France. French arms established the Batavian Republic as a satellite state (May 1795) and gained the Prussian Rhineland by the first Treaty of Basel. With the Treaty of Campo Formio, the Holy Roman Empire ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France and Northern Italy was turned into several French "Sister Republics". Spain made a separate peace accord with France (second Treaty of Basel) and the French Directory carried out plans to conquer more of Germany and northern Italy (1795). North of the Alps, Archduke Charles of Austria redressed the situation in 1796, but Napoleon carried all before him against Sardinia and Austria in northern Italy (1796-1797) near the Po Valley, culminating in the peace of Leoben and the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797). The union for which this war is named collapsed, leaving only Britain in the field fighting against France. The main force behind this collapse was the unwillingness for the Dutch and English to send land troops into battle coupled with the fact that Prussia was weak under Frederick William II and Austria was distracted by Prussia and Russia in Poland (Also Francis II was quite weak as well)

Philosophical Letters on the English

This 1733 work by Voltaire brought England increasingly before the consciousness of the rest of Europe and popularized scientific ideas, especially the ideas of Locke, Bacon, and Newton

DuCange

This Frenchman in 1678 published a dictionary of medieval Latin which is still used today, highlighting the fact that while 17th scientistic attempted to prove the classics wrong that were so revered during the Renaissance, they still read and studied their works

Pope Gregory XIII

This Pope in 1582 created a new calendar (much more accurate than the Julian) that was only adhered to by Catholic countries. Therefore, Europe began to run on two calendars, and a few countries (or what perhaps resembled countries especially the religiously torn HRE) internally used both calendars. This calendar dispute clearly demonstrates the lack of any true national state represented by the HRE

(First) Treaty of Paris

This Treaty in May 30, 1814 between Louis XVIII and the Quadruple Alliance set in stone with the French what had been decided through the Treaty of Chaumont. There would be no punishment of France for the Revolutionary Wars

Holy Roman Empire

This ancient relic of the middle ages was not restored by the Congress of Vienna. Bavaria, Wurttenberg, and Saxony were allowed to keep their titles as Kingdoms that Napoleon had bestowed upon them. A confederation was made between the 39 states that remained from this, but it, like its predecessor, had no power.

Johann Philipp Palm

This bavarian was the only person executed for selling contraband books, specifically Germany in Its Deep Humiliation that had been published anonymously

The Spirit of Laws

This book is a treatise on political theory first published anonymously by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu in 1748. While it had many odd ideas, like the concept that the form of government of a state was based largely on climate of that state, this book championed the separation of powers now found in many republics in the modern world. Montesquieu championed the English system of government as the most effective defense of liberties in Europe. This book inspired the form of government taken by the United States

The New Atlantis

This book was written by Bacon in 1627. Portrays a scientific utopia in which people enjoyed a perfect society through their knowledge and command of nature. Saw knowledge as empowering because of its practicality

Imperialism, the Highest Stage of World Capitalism (1916)

This book, by Lenin, describes the function of financial capital in generating profits from imperial colonialism, as the final stage of capitalist development to ensure greater profits. The essay is a synthesis of Lenin's modifications and developments of economic theories that Karl Marx formulated in Das Kapital (1867). The post-War edition (1920) identified the territorially punitive Russo-German Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1917) and the Allied-German Treaty of Versailles (1919) as proofs that empire and hegemony and not nationalism were the economic motivations for the First World War. In the preface to the French and German editions of the essay, Lenin proposed that revolt against the capitalist global system would be effected with the "thousand million people" of the colonies and semi-colonies (the system's weak points), rather than with the urban workers of the industrialised societies of Western Europe. He proposed that revolution would extend to the advanced (industrial) capitalist countries from the under-developed countries, such as Tsarist Russia, where he and the Bolsheviks had successfully seized political command of the October Revolution of 1917. In political praxis, Lenin expected to realise the theory of Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism via the Third International (1919-1943), which he intellectually and politically dominated in the July and August conferences of 1920

Napoleonic Ideas

This book, written by Louis Bonaparte in 1859, claimed that Napoleon had been misunderstood and pressured by reactionary forces. Napoleon stressed that his uncle had wanted to advance social and political ideas, but was simply too pressured by the rest of Europe in an never ending war.

Catechism of a Revolutionist

This book, written by the anarchists Bakunin and Nechaiev, laid out what it meant to be a true revolutionary. In this book a true revolutionary is described as being completely devoured to one purpose, thought, and passion: the revolution

Greece

This country, promised by Stalin to be under British influence after WWII, entered a civil war between Communists and nationalists between 1946 and 1949. It was probably for this fact that Stalin did not aid the communists during the war. The Communists were, however, greatly supported by Tito's Yugoslavian government, although the Nationalists would emerge victorious.

France

This country, to ensure an ally against future attacks by Germany, loaned over $2 billion dollars to Russia in order to prop up the powerful but financially unstable Tsar. This amount was more than France invested in all overseas colonies. In this way Russia was powerful and European, but also akin to the failing Ottoman Empire.

Germans

This culture had a very strong sense of community and kinship. Almost all men that were of age to bear arms were self-represented in the very small tribes that worked as sovereign beings during the dark ages. The only laws were the inflexible customs of the individual tribe. There was not a "state". Everyone was self sufficient or died

Schleswig

This duchy, while a member of the German Confederation, was half danish by population and so the Danes in 1864, pushed on by their own nationalism, looked to incorporate it into their own nation. The German Confederation, led by the Austria, ignited an all-German war against the Danes. Prussia occupied this duchy, while the Austrians occupied Holstein to the south.

English Poor Law of 1601

This law was designed to force the poor to work and relieve absolute destitution. The idea, which was believed until 1834, was that if everyone was forced to work the output of the country would be greatest. First Act of Parliament that was very much in support of economic nationalism

Spinning Jenny

This machine played an important role in the mechanization of textile production. Like the spinning wheel, it may be operated by a treadle or by hand. But, unlike the spinning wheel, it can spin more than one yarn at a time. The idea for multiple-yarn spinning was conceived about 1764 by James Hargreaves, an English weaver. In 1770, he patented a machine that could spin 16 yarns at a time.

Jean Calas

This man (1698 - 10 March 1762) was a merchant living in Toulouse, France, famous for having been the victim of a biased trial due to his being a Protestant. In France, he is a symbol of Christian religious intolerance, along with Jean-François de la Barre and Pierre-Paul Sirven. Voltaire famously responded to the whole ordeal, to which this man was acquitted after he died by torture on the wheel, "Opinion governs the world" highlighting the overwhelming truth that it was gossip, a general critical spirit, that was condemning those in power, and not their actions.

Ramsay MacDonald

This man (1866-1937) was the leader of the Labour Party during the 1020's. With the help of the dying Liberal Party, he was able to take power by means of a coalition government in 1924 and 1929. While being the first Labour Prime Minister, he did little for the unions, ending the strike of 1926 and passing the Trade Disputes Act of 1927. He also encouraged cooperation with the Soviets.

August von Gneisenau

This man (27 October 1760 - 23 August 1831) was a Prussian field marshal. He was a prominent figure in the reform of the Prussian military and the War of Liberation. He had served in a Hessian British regiment during the American War of Independence and through that understood the importance of patriotism in the effectiveness of an army. For Prussia to succeed militarily against Napoleon, it had to develop this sense of nationalism and quickly.

Rupert Brooke

This man (3 August 1887 - 23 April 1915) was an English poet known for his idealistic war sonnets written during the First World War, especially The Soldier. He was killed during World War I

Seigfried Sassoon

This man (8 September 1886 - 1 September 1967) was an English poet, author and soldier. Decorated for bravery on the Western Front, he became one of the leading poets of the First World War. His poetry both described the horrors of the trenches, and satirised the patriotic pretensions of those who, in his view, were responsible for a vainglorious war. He later won acclaim for his prose work, notably his three-volume fictionalised autobiography, collectively known as the "Sherston Trilogy"

Galileo Galilei

This man discovered that all bodies fall rate the same rate of increasing speed, regardless of their weight. He is also the father of inertia. His works in physic laid the blueprint for Newtonian physics, still perfectly correct at reasonable speeds and weights

Tsar Peter III

This man took power after his aunt Elizabeth died in 1762. He was quickly assassinated by Catherine the Great, his wife

Pierre Bayle

This man was a French Huguenot who despised Louis XIV and found refuge in the Netherlands. A teacher by profession and journalist by inclination, this man took full advantage of freedom in the Netherlands. One of the most famous skeptics of his time, this man critically examined and criticized the religious beliefs and persecutions of the past. He concluded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt.

Francis I

This man was the husband of Maria Theresa who was declared Holy Roman Emperor in 1745. Maria used his position as reasserting her power during the War of Austrian Succession

James Francis Edward Stuart

This man, known as the Pretender, landed in Scotland in 1715 to in an attempt to overthrow the House of Hanover which had not even ruled for a year under George I. His supporters were willing to toast the "King over the water" but would not support his military aspirations. The revolt he attempted to lead became known as "The Fifteen" for the year it was led

Jérôme-Napoléon Bonaparte

This man, the youngest brother of Napoleon, was made King of Westphalia, a new states created out of Hanover and Prussia to serve as the fourth great Germanic Kingdom under Napoleonic rule, by his brother in 1807 (reign ended in 1813)

Thaddeus Kosciusko

This man, who was also an American Revolutionary War hero at Saratoga, led Poland in 1794 with new reforms including abolishing serfdom. Again, seeing this as another ideal opportunity to invade and partition Poland, Prussia, Austria, and Russia invaded and decimated this man's country, without a fight, in 1795 with the final partition of Poland. A polish states no longer existed

Treaty of Versailles

This treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Although the armistice signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919, and was printed in The League of Nations Treaty Series. Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required Germany to accept responsibility for causing the war under the terms of articles 231-248 (later known as the War Guilt clauses), to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions and pay heavy reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. In 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion Marks (then $31.4 billion or £6.6 billion, roughly equivalent to US $442 billion or UK £284 billion in 2012), a sum that many economists at the time, notably John Maynard Keynes, deemed to be excessive and counterproductive and would have taken Germany until 1988 to pay. Germany lost all of her colonies to the League of Nations (as mandates) which mainly came under the control of the British and Japanese. Germany also lost West Prussia. The treaty, totally opposed in Germany since a shot was never fired on German soil, was agreed to by a coalition of Social Democrats and Catholics. Because of this, these parties were weak in the period before the Nazis, ceasing to exist before WWII.

Treaty of Schönbrunn

This treaty, sometimes known as the Treaty of Vienna, was signed between France and Austria at the palace in Vienna for which it is named on 14 October 1809. This treaty ended the Fifth Coalition during the Napoleonic Wars. Austria had been defeated, again, and so France imposed harsh peace terms, not just reaffirming the Treaty of Campo Formio while taking a few meager territories, so that another war would not occur. Austria ceded Salzburg to Bavaria, West Galicia to the Duchy of Warsaw, Tarnopol district to the Russian Empire and Trieste and Croatia south of the Sava River to France. Austria recognized Napoleon's previous conquests from other nations as well as recognizing Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. Austria also paid to France a large indemnity and the Austrian army was reduced to 150,000 men. This signified the end of the last attempt by Austria to stop Napoleon. The Habsburg time as a true major power was over.

War of Devolution

This war (1667-1668) saw Louis XIV's French armies overrun the Habsburg-controlled Spanish Netherlands and the Franche-Comté, but forced to give most of it back by a Triple Alliance of England, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

Opium War

This war was fought in 1857 by the British and the French to force the Chinese to discuss more favourable trade treaties. Beijing was occupied and the summer palace was raided and burned. The result was the Treaty of Tientsin which opened China further than the Treaty of Nanking.

Crimean War

This war, fought between 1853 and 1856, saw Russian aggression against Turkey halted by France, England, Piedmont, and Austria. Russia was quite easily able to take Wallachia and Moldavia from Turkey, but was unable to keep them once the other European powers intervened. Russia was generally humiliated, only taking peace after the death of Nicholas I when Tsar Alexander II took power.

Three Silesian Wars

This war, whose name is of Prussian origin, was instigated by Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia when he decided to take Silesia, a region lying in the upper valley of the Oder River lying to the south of Prussia, form Austria in late 1740. Frederick the Great was simply the first to disobey the Pragmatic Sanction which was wholly ignored. With the aid of 100,000 Hungarians who were rallied at the concept of guaranteed rights, by Maria Theresa of Austria she was able to defend herself from the new Franco-Prussian-Spanish alliance alone (financial aid from England).

Battle of Eylau

This was a bloody and inconclusive battle between Napoléon's Grande Armée and a mostly Russian army under General Bennigsen near this town in East Prussia in 1807 as Napoleon attempted to recreated the glee he had experienced destroying all of Prussia in a single month the year earlier

Law of Merchant

This was a concept developed by merchants in the late middle ages in order to free themselves from the law of Kings, who usually viewed them as money pits. With an independent idea of law, merchants would soon define their own regions and city-states.

League of Augsburg

This was a military alliance that was created in 1686 by all of the major European nations except for France and England. The purpose of the alliance was to prevent France from dominating Europe, and England joined the alliance when William took the throne in 1689 (he ran the league)

Italian Republic

This was a short-lived (1802-1805) republic located in Northern Italy that was created when Napoleon felt the Cisalpine Republic was not longer to his liking. It was a vassal state of the First French Republic of Napoleon

Pomeranian War

This was a theatre of the Seven Years' War. The term is used to describe the fighting between Sweden and Prussia between 1757 and 1762 in Swedish Pomerania, Prussian Pomerania, northern Brandenburg and eastern Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The war was formally ended on 22 May 1762 by the Peace of Hamburg between Prussia, Mecklenburg and Sweden. The hopes of the Swedish Hats party to recover territories lost to Prussia in 1720 were thwarted, and the unpopular and costly war contributed to their subsequent downfall.

Union of Utrecht

This was a treaty signed on 23 January 1579 in Utrecht, the Netherlands, unifying the northern provinces of the Netherlands, until then under the control of Habsburg Spain. This treaty is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609.

Peace of Fontainebleau

This was an agreement established in the city it is named for (near Paris) on 11 April 1814 between Napoleon Bonaparte and representatives from Austria, Hungary and Bohemia (the states that comprised the Austrian Empire), as well as Russia and Prussia. The treaty was signed at Paris on 11 April by the plenipotentiaries of both sides, and ratified by Napoleon on 13 April. With this treaty, the allies ended Napoleon's rule as emperor of France and sent him into exile on Elba.

The May Fourth Movement

This was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student demonstrations in Beijing on May 4, 1919, protesting the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially the Shandong Problem. These demonstrations sparked national protests and marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism, a shift towards political mobilization and away from cultural activities, and a move towards populist base rather than intellectual elites

Congress Poland

This was created in about the same shape as the Grand Duchy of Warsaw with Alexander as its king. Although not containing all poles as Alexander had demanded, it was a start he was willing to accept

Armada Catolica (The Great Armada)

This was prepared in 1588 with 130 ships carrying 30,000 and 58,000 tons. It was to invade England, for it would be cheaper in the long term to conquer England before the rebellious Dutch, but near Calais it met 200 English vessels. Once defeated their, the winds took the Spanish ships around the British Islands with their force essentially fully destroyed (the term is Spanish)

Article 231

This was the "war-guilt clause" in the Treaty of Versailles that placed total responsibility for World War I on Germany.

Russian Company

This was the first in a long line of government supported merchant monopolies (companies) on foreign trading markets. This one, established in 1553 by the English, sent Merchants to the White Sea.

Rump

This was the name given to the roughly 50 members of Parliament who remained after Pride's Purge

Blackshirts

This was the original group of Fascists headed by Mussolini. They were simply armed bands of young when who continued the street violence that became common place in Italy after WWI. They mainly sought communists, but they would fight with anyone.

Fascismo

This was the ruling ideology as proclaimed by Mussolini when he took power in 1921. It was reflected in the actions of the Fascists in the years to come.

Let Sleeping Dogs Lie

This was the saying of Robert Walpole that kept him in power and out of controversies that could bring down his government: "'Quieta non movere"

Declaration of the Rights of Woman

This was written in 1791 by French activist and playwright Olympe de Gouges. The Declaration is ironic and based on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, seeking to expose the failure of the French Revolution which had been devoted to gender equality. The radicals during the revolution in 1792 did respond by redefining marriage as a civil contract and legalizing divorce as well mandating equal inheritance, but this was undone in 1816

Hortense de Beauharnais

This woman (10 April 1783 - 5 October 1837), Queen Consort of Holland, was the stepdaughter of Emperor Napoleon I, being the daughter of his first wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais. She later became the wife of the former's brother, Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, and the mother of Napoleon III, later Emperor of the French. She had also an illegitimate son, Charles Auguste Louis Joseph, duc de Morny by her lover Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut.

Fanny Kaplan

This woman at age 18, in 1918, attempted to assassinate Lenin, herself favouring a Constituent Assembly and a non-Marxist nation. She was executed and those of her family that did not emigrate were punished. Lenin, however, was severely weakened for the rest of his life.

Bill of Rights

This, enacted by the Parliament that invited William of Orange to invade England, declared that no law could be suspended by the king and no taxes could be raised nor army maintained without Parliamentary consent. It also gave a right of due process to all subjects of the king (even the most poor could not be held without a trial)

Moderns

Those in the 18th century that felt that science, art, literature, and invention of their time had surpassed that of the Greeks and Romans. They no longer fear God or the Devil and felt that God was more the First Cause of the universe and less the father as described through the bible

City of God

Title of a book written by St. Augustine of Hippo, in 5th century A.D., prompted the barbarian sack of Rome. It stated that fortune of Rome does not depend on individual souls, but rather on the grace of God. It was crucial in preventing any more Caesars to rise again in Europe, completely separating the world of religion to heaven, stating that the world that composed of earth was to be secular. No God kings.

Bund

To replace the HRE, Napoleon introduced this even more powerless (if that is possible) body to represent a loose federation of the German states. It remained after the Congress of Vienna as the uniting body of the German people

Congo Free State

Trying to meet demand for rubber, especially from the US, so that he could pay his debts, Leopold II used forced labor under brutal conditions to supply the world with what was at that time the only large source of rubber. This is the name given to the area Leopold controlled. Leopold by 1901 had no interest in this pseudo-colony and simply wanted to pay his debts. The Belgium government took pity on him, along with public outrage over the abuse of human rights, and gave Leopold loans in 1889 and 1885. They finally took the Congo in 1909, becoming the colony called the Belgian Congo. Under the rule of the Belgians, the forced labor ended, but many other abuses went ignored.

Niemen River

Tsar Alexander I (Russia) and Napoleon met on a raft here whlie the two armies and the nervous King of Prussia Frederick William III watched from the bank

Lesser Russians

Ukrainians

Navigation Acts

Under the Tory Regime of the 1820s, these laws were rewritten to allow British colonies to trade with whomever they pleased, instead of with England alone.

Battle of Stalingrad

Unsuccessful German attack on this city of the Volga River during World War II from 1942 to 1943. This represented the furthest extent of German advance into the Soviet Union

Simon Bolivar

Venezuelan statesman who led the revolt of South American colonies against Spanish rule.

Polish Corridor

Versailles gave Poland the territory of Poznania and much of Pomeriania. Led to the Baltic Sea and devided East Prussia from the rest of Germany

Treaty of London

Via this secret treaty created in 1915, the Italians joined the war against Austria for France and Great Britain. Italy was promised Trieste, Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, and the Dalmatian Island and received these possession, even though they had not been Italian and did not represent repressed Italian majorities, after the war. Italian Irredenta was fulfilled. The Italians did not have any appreciative affect on the outcome of the war, being equal if not less powerful compared to the Austrians

Squadristi

Vigilante squadrons who broke up strikes, demolished labor union headquarters and drove the Socialist and Communist mayors and town officials from office. These groups were operating with Mussolini's blessing. Irony - Mussolini declared himself as pro "law and order" and declared fidelity to the king and church - yet, just a few years earlier he had been a republican and anticlerical

Compensation

When feudalism was abolished in France, the Rhineland, and the lowlands, this was not given to the nobles. However, as Napoleon moved east, he discovered that there no longer existed a middle class from which he could built support from the whole populous. Therefore, Napoleon was forced to give this to the nobles who had lost their manorial privileges, like fees, which they survived off of. Finally in the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, the furthest east Napoleon conquered, feudalism was done away with, at least for his rule, but the nobles owned literally all the land so indebtedness to the old lords remained

General Denikin

White general who headed the 150,000 strong largest White army that was defeated by the Red Army during the summer of 1919 in Ukraine. It was composed mainly of Czech prisoners of war who still wanted to fight for the allies cause, and the allies did not trust Lenin nor the Bolsheviks

Bavarian Soviet Republic

With the chaos that erupted after the armistice in 1918, the states of Germany enjoyed a great deal of autonomy as the federal structure of Germany was rebuilt. Bavaria, having the largest communist populations outside of Russia, established itself as its own state, called this, for a three week period in 1919 before being crushed by Berlin. Nevertheless, the region, and Munich itself, continued to be a hot-bed for communism, extreme anti-communism, and anti-democratic groups. Hitler found this place to be a warm home for his more outlandish ideas.

1921

With the understanding that new elections needed to be held, Italy held in this year new elections to replace the elections of 1919 that were though to be too influenced by the war. The Catholic Popular Party and the Moderate Socialists both returned with large minorities and controlled the weak and ineffective parliamentary system. The Fascists took 35 of just over 500 seats.

Reflections on the Revolution in France

Written by Edmund Burke, the philosophical conservative, in England. He had previously advised slow adaptation of liberties for England and used this background to comment on the revolution in France. He predicted anarchy and dictatorship as a result of the too rapid advancement of liberties. He said each country should shape its government based on national circumstances and historical background and character. Advised against wholesale liberalization. Book translated and read by Catherine the Great and Gustavus III.

The Decline of the West

Written by the German Oswald Spengler, this book was based on the idea that every culture has a life cycle of growth and decline. It was alien to classical liberalism that had once owned Europe because it had no confidence in the future state of Europe

Pierre Bayle

Wrote Historical and Critical Dictionary examining religious beliefs and persecutions of the past. He found that human beliefs were very varied and often wrong. He concluded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt, and that one's best hope was open-minded toleration. This skepticism was very influential (one of the reason he changed his religion from protestantism to Catholicism and then to Calvinism). His Dictionary was the most popular book in private French libraries at that time.

Hugo Grotius

a Dutch journalist who called for an international code based on natural law. Believed that one body of rules could reduce the dealing of governments to a system of reason and order. He wrote Law of War and Peace

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov

a Russian composer (1844-1908) whose musical subjects focused on folk tales and legends. One great example of this can be found in his work Scheherezade, the story of "Arabian Nights." Some other works include The Golden Cockerel and Sadko

Battle of Fontenoy

a battle during War of the Austrian Succession in 1745 in Belgium in which the French army under Marshal Saxe defeated the English army and their allies under the duke of Cumberland

Lutzen

a battle in the Thirty Years' War (1632). Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus defeated the Imperialists under Wallenstein; Gustavus was killed

Flanders

a medieval country in northern Europe that included regions now parts of northern France and Belgium and southwestern Netherlands. It emerged as northern Europe's Venice with its wealthy woolen manufacturers during the high middle ages

Holy Alliance

Formed by Tsar Alexander I after the Congress of Vienna consisting of the kings of Austria, Russia, and Prussia - they were the most conservative and they thought they could interfere on any country if they thought the peace was being disturbed; killed a lot of Spainards when they were demanding a representative parliament. They all acted against secularism that had brought about the enlightenment and the French Revolution

The Congress of Vienna

Early 19th of Century. A group made up of conservative political leaders who met as representatives of the 'great powers' that defeated Napolen - Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. They attempted to restore the prerevolutionary order. They were under the guidance of the influential foreign minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von Metternich the group managed to dismantle Napoleon's empie and return sovereignty to Europe's royal families, restored them to the thrones they had lost during the Napoleonic era, and created a diplomatic order based on a balance of power that prevented any one state from dominating the others.

Baroque

Elaborate an extensive ornamentation in decorative art and architecture that flourished in Europe in the 17th century. In art, in which the Dutch were the most profound during this period, normal every-day scenes were commonly painted with the use of lighting being the main focus of the piece. This is especially true with Vermeer

Zemstvos

Elected local rural governments that allowed some democracy without weakening the central Russian government. They were established by Alexander II in 1864

Gestapo

Geheime Stadspolizei, this was Hitler's secret policy that opperated his concentration camps and detained all those who the Fuhrer felt unfit to live or those who opposed him. This group conducted the purge of old Brownshirts in 1934 as Hitler looked to concentrate all power in himself.

Weimar Republic

Elected shortly after Spartacus Week, the National Constituent Assembly of Germany following WWI consisted of a coalition between Social Democrats, who were unable to obtain a majority, the center party, and liberal democrats. It finished the new constitution for the republic, creating in 1919 this nation. While it never was dissolved officially, its name is not used after 1933, when Hitler took power. Even though the country was ran by a party of Marxist dogma, Germany did not change at all after the Hohenzollerns were thrown out. No industries were nationalized and there was no land reform, even in East Prussia where the Junker remained in control of their landed estates. The army even remained as powerful socially in Germany; Versailles had only cut its numbers and not its prestige.

Edward Gibbon

English historian best known for his history of the Roman Empire (1737-1794). While generally conservative, he was slightly provocative in his age for his attitudes towards religion, which he considered a product of ancient society more than a belief in an absolute, concrete God. He was very critical of organized religion

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator as he kept losing support from all benefactors

John Milton

English poet remembered primarily as the author of an epic poem describing humanity's fall from grace (1608-1674) Wrote Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained

Charles James Fox

English statesman who supported American independence and the French Revolution (1749-1806)

Committee of Public Safety

Established and led by Robespierre, this group was 12 were reelected every month (although Robespierre always ruled the group) by the National Convention to rule over France and ensure the preservation of the Revolution and safety of the Mountain. The group fixed bread prices and nationalized some businesses. Basically secret police and also controlled the war effort. Instigated the Reign of Terror.

Danish East India Company

Except for this East India company that lasted about 60 years during the middle of the 18th century, on rising power, including the Habsburg or the Hohenzollerns, could raise any sort of trading company that could last more then 1-3 years. England, France, and the Dutch were to experience no new competition in their trading companies until they were dissolved during Napoleon's reign (England's did last until 1874)

Pugachev's Rebellion

Extremely violent peasants rebelled against Catherine's reforms. The revolution, very much like Stephen Razin's during the time of Peter the Great, died out after a year due to a famine in the Volga, where the revolution was based. Catherine responded by giving more power to aristocracy over surfs, ensuring they had a status much like the slaves of the Americas.

Codetermination Law

FRG (West Germany) pioneered in this kind of law. It brought labor and capitalists together as workers were forcibly placed on boards of directors of larger firms/companies. Labor unions were to have an accepted role as social partners in expanding the economy

Oran

Facing a total defeat in France, the British destroyed most of the French navy in the Algerian port to ensure it did not fall into German use.

Mediator

Feeling that the Helvetic Republic was not controlled properly, Napoleon reorganized its government, making himself this of the new Confederation of Switzerland

Banalities

Fees that peasants were obligated to pay landlords for the use of his monopolized sources of manufactoring like the village mill, bakeshop and winepress.

Protective Tariffs

Following WWI, all the new country in the old Habsburg Empire found themselves in a depression. To create new industry, they established these which prolonged the non-existant industry development in the region. The industrialized zones of the empire, the Sudetenland, Bohemia, and Vienna, were all disconnected and weakened as a result. The only economic advancement was the completion of the land reforms begun by the revolutions of 1848. These new landed populations, that now were the base of political power in Eastern Europe, tended to lean towards socialism, or more specifically away from foreign economic intervention.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

Following the June Days the Constituent Assembly, run by General Cavaignac as a virtual dictator, quickly established the Second Republic of France with a constitution that had very strong executive branch maintained by a President that was to be elected by an electorate of all men in France. In December of 1848 four men ran for President: Cavaignac which would have kept disciplined order, Lamartine who stood for a moral and idealistic republic, Ledru-Rollin who desired a chastened social republic, and this man, who took no stance as what government he desired. In a landslide, this man won with only Cavaignac getting a considerable number of votes other than this man.

Blank Check

Following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand of Austria, Germany famously gave Austria this, which enraged France and Russia, even though France gave the same thing to Russia.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

German Philosopher and historian (1770-1831), this man created the Hegelian Dialectic, that ideas are the driving force of history, and in history being progressive. Even though Marx and Engels disagreed with the Hegelian Dialectic they respected this man

Leopold von Ranke

German historian (1795-1886) he founded a school of historical writing that is used to the modern day and believed Europe was great because no country had ever been able to rule the entire continent. This man also believed that Germany needed to create its own unique political system different from France's. Wrote Latin and Teutonic Peoples.

Fugger

German house, a family banking institution, that paid correspondents in distant locations to report news back along commercial routes and even across the battle when necessary. They essentially owned many of the smaller nations-states in Germany

J. G. Fichte

German moral and metaphysical philosopher, professor of Univ. of Jena. Taught that "inner spirit of individual creates own moral universe". Reflected in U.S. by the transcendental philosophy of Emerson. Initially is was pro French Revolution (as had been Jahn), because is was in favor of the liberation of the human spirit. Even accepted the Terror and was pro-Rousseau's idea of state as embodiment of the sovereign will of people. Saw state as a means of human salvation. He wrote in 1800 Closed Commercial State in which he sketched out a totalitarian system in which the state planned and operated the whole economy for the nation in which it shut itself off from the world to develop that economy and the character of its people. He took and ran with the idea of Volksgeist. Once France invaded Germany, he became very pro-German

Max Planck

German physicist whose explanation of blackbody radiation in the context of quantized energy emissions initiated quantum theory (1858-1947). The proportionality constant between the frequency of light wave and its energy, the most important number in all of science, is named after him.

Hohenzollern

German royal family who ruled Brandenburg from 1415 and later extended their control to Prussia (1525). Under Frederick I (ruled 1701-1713) the family's possessions were unified as the kingdom of Prussia through the Treaty of Utrecht

Vittorio Orlando

He was the Italian representative at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He pushed for a revenge-based treaty at Versailles, hampering the 14 points. He left early when the demands he had for Italy were ignored and had no definite impact on the Paris peace talks. However, Italian Irredentism was fulfilled.

Vidkun Quisling

He was the Norweigan prototype for what Germany had in each country in conquered Europe. He had organized the Norweigan Fascist party in 1933 and was Norweigan premier between 1942-45

Archbishop Laud

He was the archbishop of Canterbury and he supported King Charles I but opposed radical forms of Puritanism. This resulted in his beheading.

Louis Kossuth

Hearing of the February Revolution in France, this man made an impassioned speech to the Diet of Hungary, which had been sitting for many months discussing how to keep German influence out of Hungary, on March 3rd. By March 13th workers and students of Vienna were coming to his call and copying Paris by blockading the streets of Vienna in a fight against soldiers. In response, Metternich resigned and fled to England.

Berlin Decree

In 1806 this by Napoleon proclaimed a blockade of British Isles. Any ship that attempted to import English goods to France or its allies would be seized by France. The British responded with a 2nd Order that required all neutral ships trading in the blockaded zones of Europe to stop at British ports to secure licenses. Napoleon forced Denmark and Portugal, not allied with France, to agree. After being bombarded by the British, Denmark agreed. Portugal, the closest thing to a puppet the British had, refused and was therefore invaded and controlled by Napoleon

Charles IV and Ferdinand VII

In 1808, to truly control the continent and make sure his continental system was upheld, Napoleon forced these two Bourbons (the first the father, the latter the son) to abdicate the throne of Spain so that Napoleon could install his brother Joseph as the King of Spain along with a large French Army. Now, the reasonably constant ally of Spain, became an advisory. France, although more powerful, was surrounded by enemies

Peterloo Massacre

In 1819, during a public riot to protest the grain laws in St. Peter's Fields (Manchester, England), army calvary charged into the rebels to subdue the passive crowd, killing 11 while wounding over 400 people, including 113 women. While the most bloody, such a protest against the corn law was common, inspiring the government during this period to suspend the Habeas Corpus and employ agents provocateurs.

Konstantin Pobedonostsev

In 1861 he was appointed tutor in Russian history and law to the heir to the throne, the future Alexander III. He emphasized the ties between Russian Orthodoxy and Russian national history. By the late 1870s his influence on Alexander had become overwhelming. He also tutored the future Nicholas II. He was the procurator of the Holy Synod and saw the west as alien and doomed. Russia could survive however, in some sort of churchly community in which disciplined clergy would withstand and protect the hell that was the west and its influence

Tripple Alliance

In 1879 Germany formed a military alliance, in which any attack by two or more powers on one would dictate the other joining to help in the war, with Austria-Hungary. Italy, although never a devoted member like the former two, was added in 1882 creating this.

William E Gladstone

In 1884 this Liberal leader of parliament extended the right to vote to many in the UK, adding 2 million more men to the voting populous, making the male suffrage in the United Kingdom a bit over 75%. In his first ministry he also introduced a secret ballot, legalized labor unions (which had been tolerated for years), promoted civil service examinations, eliminated the ability to buy and sell posts in the army, reorganized the judiciary, and allowed people to graduate from Oxford and Cambridge that were not members of the Church of England. He also did much to satisfy the Irish including in 1869 disestablishing the Church of Ireland (that was the protestant pawn of the Church of England) and protect the Irish tenant. In his second ministry he assured compensation for those injured on the job and reduced working hours.

J J Thomson

In 1897 this man used a cathode ray and positively charged plates to discover electrons in a plum pudding model in which he thought electrons were "stuck" in uniform, positively charged matter to form an atom

Bolsheviks

In 1903 meeting of the Russian Social democratic Party in London, a division occurred in the party. Like most Marxist groups, it was between holding orthodox Marxist doctrine or aligning with the revisionist socialists that promoted cooperating with the government through legislative methods. Lenin also stressed the vitality of having a small party of zealous patriots, while the other half of the party desired to open the party to the general Russian populous who may not have a firm grasp of the ideas being discussed. Lenin would never allow such a thing in his party. This party, led by Lenin, at this meeting held the majority. However, it would not hold the majority for the rest of the party's existence. In 1912 this group officially split off to form its own orthodox party of Marxist doctrine by this name.

Italy

In 1911 this country took Tripoli and the Dodecanese Islands from the Ottomans and the Young Turks. Seeing weakness, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Greece declared war on Turkey together, starting the First Balkan War.

Foreign

In 1914 a quarter of the wealth of Great Britain was this, and this was relatively common for the major European powers at this time. As a result of the Great War, Germany lost all $6 Billion of this type of investment, Great Britain about a quarter of its $20 Billion, and France a third of its $8.7 Billion.

Carlsbad Decrees

Issued by Metternich in 1819, required 39 independent German states, including Prussia and Austria, to root out subversive ideas; censorship. It was a blunt demand to end the Burschenchaft and nationalistic gymnastic clubs. Also established permanent comittee with spies to punish any liberal or radical organization. These proved to powerful and their influence long-landing in the slow development of German nationalism.

Order Number One

Issued by the Petrograd Soviet on March 1 1917. It claimed for the Petrograd Soviet the authority to cancel orders of the provisional government on military matters and called for the election of soldiers' committees in every unit. Discipline collapsed throughout the army. Russia no longer had an army to face Germany if it desired to

Vladivostok

In 1918, just three months before the end of the war, the Japanese invaded Russia through this city, with some Americans as well, in order to disrupt the Red Army's path towards the Don valley, the heart of White resistance. They kept this city until 1922

Universal Suffrage

In 1920, through a constitution amendment, this was granted throughout the United States. The same measures were followed by Great Britain in 1928 and all of the new nations of Eastern Europe following WWI. The USSR, however, was the first, granting this in 1917 with the revolution.

Atlantic Pact

In 1949 the U.S. took the lead in the development of this collective security system. Included the U.S., Canada, and 10 European nations. Signed the pact in Washington and established a military agreement for the joint defence of Europe. This military alliance was of unlimited duration and of broad scope. An attack against any one member would always be considered an attack against all members. The U.S. had committed itself firmly for the first time in American history. This pact would evolve into NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

In 1949, the United States, Canada, and ten European nations formed this military mutual-defense pact. Since the Soviets were assumed to have the advanced on the ground, this alliance focused on American airpower for its main tool of defense. In 1955, the Soviet Union countered this alliance with the formation of the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance among those nations within its own sphere of influence.

Council of Europe

In 1949, united economically by the Marshall Plan, ten European nations met in Strasbourg to create this, which many hoped would grow into the governing body of a Federation of Europe. Such political power never materialized and this confined itself to humanitarian issues.

Bubble Act

In England, this 1720 act forbade all companies except those specifically chartered by the government to raise capital by the sale of stock. This slowed down, in France and England, the development. of joint stock companies for over a century. Instead, there was more emphasis on private ownership/partnerships/family businesses. This meant there was greater need to reinvest larger proportions of profit in order to be able to expand. As consequence, wages tended to be kept at their already low levels.

Social-Chauvinist

Lenin's term for patriotism. It was meant to be negativism, as patriotism was for fools caught up in capitalist struggles.

Potosi

Located in Bolivia, one of the richest silver mining centers and most populous cities in colonial Spanish America. With this discovery, the trade of the entire world would be based on the movement of silver. Bullionism was not only possible but, in the short term, could be very prosperous.

Guizot

Louis Philippe's prime minister. It was outside his home in Paris that guards shot demonstrators, killing 20, and provoked the riots which caused Louis Philippe to abdicate. He had supported Louis in his resistance to both liberals and radicals demands for an expanded electorate.

Indulgences

Selling of forgiveness by the Catholic Church. It was common practice when the church needed to raise money, especially for the new Basilica of St. Peter's in Rome. The practice was widely opposed by those who found corruption in the Church and helped lead to the Reformation.

Peter Stolypin

Prime minister of Russia under Nicholas II from 1906-1911. He was very involved in fighting radical groups and he also took upon himself various agrarian reforms - which he thought and were proven to be essential for the Russian economy. His agricultural reforms allowed peasants to leave the mirs, which he considered to have far too much power for groups of peasants. Most of the peasants that left, about a third of the total who could have left, went to zemstvos which were controlled by large landowners that were much easier to deal with for the Tsar. They, while not always in agreement, also aligned with the Tsar's views more often. This man also dissolved the first two Dumas when it was clear that they would only demand more power. His term came to an end when he was assassinated, probably by men of the Tsar. This man's position was usually lost in this time period to assassination.

National Workshops

Product of the Provisional Government, ran by the Ministry of Progress, in France after the abdication of Louis Philippe, these were imagined by Louis Blanc as nearly socialist cooperatives. In reality they were really temporary relief programs akin to the social programs under FDR in which the unemployed and unskilled were given work at a good rate for national projects of infrastructure and so they were disliked by the moderates that dominated the whole of France. When the Provisional Government lost power to the Constituent Assembly in June, these were disbanded which incited a three day revolution (June Days) where workers fought against troops (and lost).

Strength Through Joy

Propaganda campaign of the Nazis designed to promote social events and lifestyles of good Aryans. Many power German throw this campaign could go on vacation or be entertained, fully paid for by the Fuhrer for his people

Corn Law (1815)

Protected the English landowners after the Napoleonic Wars by prohibiting the importation of foreign grain unless the domestic price rose above a certain, ridiculous level. Coupling with a post-war depression, wage workers were severely hurt by the ban on the importation of continental grains.

Dissenters

Protestants who differed with the Church of England. While they were tolerated in England, the did not receive the same rights as a Anglican for they could not participate in any governing bodies, teach school, or some within five miles of an incorporated town (most of these lived in towns). They also were not allowed to meet in groups

Rasputin

Siberian peasant monk who was religious advisor in the court of Nicholas II. He was assassinated by Russian noblemen who feared that his debauchery would weaken the monarchy. His influence proved to many the fundamental weakness in the Romanovs that many believed was destroying Russia (1872-1916)

Shame of the Princes

Since the Treaty of Campo Formio had incorporated the left bank of the Rhine, part of the HRE, the French promised that the princes of Germany would receive lands from ecclesiastical principalities or the weak free cities. In order to receive the most land possible, the ousted German princes, not opposing Napoleon in the slightest nor desiring some sort of German unity, bribed the French as much as possible, an act that has become known as this. Talleyrand received over 10,000,000 francs through bribes. The larger German territories also benefitted as Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemburg, and Baden all strengthen themselves considerably. The HRE was much smaller.

General Zhukov

Soviet General who led the counter attack on the German advance on Moscow; planned and executed the Russian victory at in February of 1943 Stalingrad, at which no Nazi was allowed to retreat and so over 250,000 Germans, who had at one point taken the entire city, were lost to Hitler. After the battle became Stalin's right-hand man and was the military genius behind the obliteration of Germany along the Eastern Front.

General Francisco Franco

Spanish Fascist General whose Nationalist armies took control of Spain in 1939, with Italian and German aid, overthrowing the Popular Front government and the republic. This man ruled as a dictator until his death in 1975 (following the victory of the Spanish Civil War)

Balfour Declaration

Statement issued by Britain's Foreign Secretary, for whom the declaration is name, in 1917 favoring the establishment of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine

Warsaw

Staying on the right bank of the Vistula River across from this city, the Russians "regrouped" to prepare for their attack on the city in 1944. In actuality, the Russians were giving the Nazis time to violently put down a Polish liberation movement that had risen up with the oncoming Russian invasion. Poland would never be liberated in freedom, but would simply change totalitarian hands.

Mary II

Queen of England and Scotland and Ireland. she was the eldest daughter of James II and ruled jointly with her husband William III (originally of Orange) (1662-1694)

Jane Seymour

Queen of England as the third wife of Henry VIII and mother of Edward VI (1509-1537)

Neomercantilism

The re-emergence of policies which discourage imports, encourage exports, and gives more decisions about currency to the government during the age of Imperialism. Causes included the growth of economic nationalism, rivalries associated with imperial expansion, and the rise of large corporations

Individualism

This is a belief in the importance of the individual and the virtue of self-reliance and personal independence including independence from the harassment of the government. While rich in thought stemming from the enlightenment, the term only appeared in the English language during the 1840s

Economic Nationalism

This is a term used to describe policies which emphasize on domestic control of the economy, labor and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital. It is akin to neomercantilism

Parliament Act

This 1911 act of Parliament designed by Lloyd George took away the Lords' veto power in money matters, and essentially did so in all other matters (they could delay non-money matters by two years). At the same time as this bill, members of Parliament were given a salary for the first time so that non-wealthy members of Parliament could sit, completely changing the nature of legislature in England.

Discourse on the Arts and Sciences

This is an essay by Genevan philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau which argued that the arts and sciences corrupt human morality. It was Rousseau's first successful published philosophical work, and it was the first expression of his influential views about nature vs. society, to which he would dedicate the rest of his intellectual life. (1750)

Lomenie de Brienne

This Archbishop of Toulouse replaced Calonne as the Direction-General of Finance to Louis XVI. Agreeing whole-heartedly with Calonne, This man attempted to push his plan through the Parlement of Paris. The Parlement of Paris retorted that only the Estates General, which had not been called since 1614, could create new taxes, and so this man, along with Louis, attempt to destroy the parlements. In response all the parlements and provincial estates effectively shut down the government, including the tax collection that was necessary for the government to function. Louis caved, and the Estates General was called.

Radetsky

This Austrian general defeated King Charles Albert of Sardinia at the battle of Custozza on July 25, 1848, regaining Milan and Venice for the Austria Empire. The cities that just months before had led an Italian revolution were dealt with harshly.

Herbert Asquith

This Liberal Prime Minster of the UK ruled from 1906 to 1916 during the last years of Liberal power before the rise of the Labour party. During this time England threw away the Manchester School and entered into regulated laissez-faire with social welfare. Accident, old-age, unemployment, and sickness insurance were adopted. Employment bureaus were established and all restrictions on unions and the worker were abolished. For all he did, real wages dropped significantly during his term as prime minister.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

This Piedmontese man organized a band of 1,150 followers, known as his Red Shirts, and invaded Sicily. While not an army to any degree, the Sicilians welcomed him with open arms and they quickly marched on to Naples where the Bourbon king fell and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies joined the Kingdom of Sardinia

Battle of Passchendaele

This World War I battle was between English and German forces for the small Belgian towns of Ypres. During the three month British offensive between July and November of 1917, the British lost 400,000 men and gained five miles. At the end of the battle, the tank was used successfully for the first time by the British, but its gains were negated when their were no troops to hold the positions the tanks had gained.

Second Reform Bill

This act of parliament, passed in 1867, was passed as Conservatives and Liberals attempted to draw in the labour vote. Benjamin Disraeli, leader of the Conservatives, passed the bill which extended voting rights tot the workers in the cities, adding about 1 million more men to the voting populous. In an desperate move to attract voters, it was opposed philosophically by both parties.

Battle of Rossbach

This battle (November 5, 1757) took place during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) in the Electorate of Saxony. Frederick the Great defeated the allied armies of France and the Holy Roman/Austrian Empire. This battle is considered one of his greatest masterpieces due to his exploitation of rapid movement to achieve the element of complete surprise and destroying an enemy army with negligible casualties.

Battle of Tanneberg

This battle in East Prussia was an engagement between the Russian Empire and the German Empire in the first days of World War I. It was fought by the Russian First and Second Armies against the German Eighth Army between 26 August and 30 August 1914. The battle resulted in the almost complete destruction of the Russian Second Army

First Battle of Masurian Lakes

This battle was a German offensive in the Eastern Front during the early stages of World War I. It pushed the Russian First Army back across its entire front, eventually ejecting it from Germany in disarray. Further progress was hampered by the arrival of the Russian Tenth Army on the Germans' left flank. Although not as devastating as the Battle of Tannenberg that took place a week earlier, the battle nevertheless upset Russian plans into the spring of 1915

Battle of Malplaquet

This battle, fought on 11 September 1709, was one of the main battles of the War of the Spanish Succession, which opposed the Bourbons of France and Spain against an alliance whose major members were the Habsburg Monarchy, Great Britain, the United Provinces and the Kingdom of Prussia in the Spanish Netherlands (named for the city it is near). It was a pyrrhic victory, for it signaled that France could no longer be simply pushed around by the Great Alliance, and also the Duke of Marlborough himself was getting too entangled in English politics to conduct himself efficiently

Legislative Commission of 1767

This body, as designed, was summoned by Catherine the Great in order to recommend reforms that could improve Russia. She adopted all of them, including a modern and thorough codification of Russian law, tolerance of all religions (except non-believers were not allowed to built chapels), and restrictions on the use of torture. She also considered major changes on the status of surfs, but this position did not come to fruition due to Pugachev's rebellion

Provisional Government

This body, led by Prince Lvov, took effective rule over Russia after the Tsar abdicated in March of 1917 until November. It demanded reforms along the lines of the rest of Europe, beginning with the election of a Constituent Assembly which would be elected by universal male suffrage. It promised wholesale redistribution of land to peasants but never took action. It also kept up the war. These two decisions led to its decline

Wealth of Nations

This is the 18th century book written by Scottish economist Adam Smith in which he spells out the first modern account of free market economies.

Comintern

This is the common term used for the Third International dominated by Lenin and the Communist Party of the USSR. While the first meeting had 37 countries represented, this group slowly began to loose its history as the Third National, as socialists in Europe became scared of Stalin, and was primarily used to coordinate the spread of communism throughout Asia, especially China.

Inquisition

This long practice of the Spanish by which they removed, or killed non-catholics from the country was abolished by Napoleon

Chamber of Deputies

This lower house of the French national parlement, which was elected by the 100,000 richest Frenchmen in 1815, proved to be more counterrevolutionary than Louis XVIII himself

Austrian Empire

This major empire of Europe was extremely heterogeneous and was only united by the powerful main house to which the Empire held its name. It did not try to eliminate the cultures nor the religion of the people it conquered from the turks, even the Diets of Bohemia and Hungary remained and with some power

Count de Saint-Simon

This man was a French early socialist theorist whose thought influenced the foundations of various 19th century philosophies; perhaps most notably Marxism, positivism and the discipline of sociology. He was born an aristocrat; the political ideologies he adopted in later life, however, do not fall into the aristocratic category.

General Boulanger

This man was a French general and reactionary politician. At the apogee of his power in January 1889, it seemed he might attempt a coup d'état with a substantial backing of Bonapartists, monarchists, aristocrats, and bellicose republicans, threatening the very existence of the Republic with a military dictatorship. He lost faith in the coup, however, and fled into exile.

Joseph Goebbles

This man was a German politician and Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda during the National Socialist regime from 1933 to 1945. He was one of Adolf Hitler's closest associates and most devout followers, being one of four to here his last will and testament. A day after helping his Fuhrer commit suicide, he killed his six children and committed suicide with his wife, officially the Chancellor of Germany.

1453

Year Constantinople fell to the Turks

Gracchus Babeuf

a French politician and journalist during revolution who wanted to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise. While the leftist radicals against the Directory were generally not united, this man led the largest charge behind his Conspiracy of Equals. The society was suppressed, and this man was guillotined.

Utopia

a book by Sir Thomas More (1516) describing the perfect society on an imaginary island

Black Hole of Calcutta

a dungeon (20 feet square) in a fort in Calcutta where as many as 146 English prisoners were held overnight by Siraj-ud-daula. The next morning only 23 were still alive due to suffocation

Battle of Britain

an aerial battle fought in World War II in 1940 between the German Luftwaffe (air force), which carried out extensive bombing in Britain, and the British Royal Air Force, which offered successful resistance (albeit not at first)

Black Hundreds

fanatical Russian nationalists, instigated by Orthodox priests, who unleashed a wave of violence, including against Jews. Led by small traders and agricultural laborers who feared that economic change would cost them and by police who opposed political reform. This group refused to enter the powerless Duma and boycotted the elections

Michael Romanov

favored nobles in return for their support (they put him into power at 17 as a bid for peace between the nobles to end The Times of Troubles), expanded Russian empire to the Pacific Ocean in the Far East, fought several unsuccessful wars against Swede, Poland and the Ottoman Empire

Henry IV of France (Also known as the King of Navarre and Henry of Bourbon)

first Bourbon king-most important kings in French history-rise to power ended French Civil Wars-gradual course to absolutism-politique-converted to Catholicism to gain loyalty of Paris (and survive Catherine de' Medici's attempts to restore order-Coligny was killed by her)

Raymond Poincare

This man was the outstanding leader of the conservative right during the 1920s in France. His major issue was controlling inflation and the national debt while rebuilding the ruined areas in the east of France following WWI. These efforts depended on reparations from Germany, which ceased in 1923. This man sent forces into the Ruhr in order to ensure payment, but still the Germans had nothing to pay with. He was, however, at the height of the financial crisis in 1926 able to institute a modern taxation system, cut the government to a minuscule size to balance the budged, and stabilized the franc at 1/5th of its pre-war value, holding off devastating hyperinflation. He was, however, forced to repudiate most of the debt held domestically which would have been payed mostly by the loan payments to the Tsars, which were repudiated by Lenin.

Lloyd George

This man was the prime minister of Great Britain during World War I on the platform was to make the Germans pay for WWI (at the Paris Peace Conference) but didn't want to make them so weak that they became communist like the Russians. This man wanted them to weaken their Navy

Bank of England

founded in 1694 by William of Orange based on the very successful Bank of Amsterdam and endured (unlike the French bank) enabled the government to raise money at low interest for foreign wars, by 1740s government could borrow more than four times what it could in the 1690s. England was able to now pay off much of the continent during war, or raise enough money to fight a continental war

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

in 1572 this was a targeted group of assassinations, followed by a wave of Roman Catholic mob violence, both directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants), during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX. The massacre took place six days after the wedding of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). This marriage was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris.

Third Estate

This order was the estate of everyone else not in either of the first two estates. It contained the commoners, but since it was of medieval origins, it also contained the rich merchant and business class

First Estate

This order was the estate of the clergy in France. It owned approximately 10% of the land, but did not have that much power, about equal to the clergy in England during the same time period

Treaty of Rome

This treaty, created under the vision of Monnet of France, was singed in 1957 to establish the European Economic Community, better known as the common market, which would enlarge the free-trade zone of the Benelux countries to include West Germany, France, and Italy. Later they would also pull together their atomic research.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

This treaty, signed on March 3rd, 1918, took Russia out of the First World War. Following the October Revolution in which Lenin, who had only arrived in Russia in April with other Bolshevik leaders with German assistance from Switzerland, took power, the Bolsheviks had no desire to remain in a war they saw as promoting imperialism and capitalism. Since Russia had been very poor on the battlefield throughout the war, the treaty was harsh on the Russians and gave independence to Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, and Finland.

Deliveries

This was the term used by the Soviets for required food deliveries by peasants to the government in order to feed the populous when the peasants, in a situation akin to the French revolution in which the revolutionaries were acting in urban areas while demanding the rural areas to make food without any trustable currency, were hoarding their food. This caused somewhat of class warfare, but the Soviets controlled the army. These continued throughout the civil war.

Sheltered Market

This was what colonies were referred to as in neomercantism for it was theorized that they could be used as a market for goods from the home country sheltered from tariffs that were growing through Europe and the United States. In this way the model that England had been thriving on since the demise of Napoleon could continue even with the end of free trade in Europe. The colonies also could be a great source of raw materials necessary to continue industrialized and inner Europe's standard of living.

Reasonableness of Christianity

This was written by John Locke - this argued that Christianity is a reasonable form of religion. This softened the friction between religion and natural knowledge. This shut out supernatural and helped merge religious feeling into an unruffled common sense. (1695)

Electors

This were the men that were elected to the Legislative Assembly through the Constitution of 1791. Even though well over half of French men could now vote, this group was extremely small, for members of the Legislative Assembly earned no wages and so had be extremely wealthy to be elected and survive, about 500,000 of France's 26 million people

Congress of Poland

Though officially this was a state with considerable political autonomy guaranteed by a liberal constitution, its rulers, the Russian Emperors starting with Tsar Alexander I, generally disregarded any restrictions on their power. Thus effectively it was little more than a puppet state of the Russian Empire. Alexander, while liberal, did not like for people to disagree with him.

Robespierre

To eliminate those who wished to destroy the revolution and created a more radical and therefore more perfect revolution, the Hebertists, this man had them ousted from the government, but so not to have a reaction, this man also excluded the Mountain, now known as Dantonists, from the government as well. The bureaucracy was to only be run by supporters of this man and no one else: a modern dictatorship that Napoleon would prefect

Ems Dispatch

Tricked by Bismarck that Wilhelm I had allowed Prince Leopold to become King of Spain under the House of Hohenzollern, Benedetti, ambassador to Prussia of Napoleon III, went to Ems where the King was bathing demanding that the Hohenzollerns decline the invitation. Since it had been a lie in the first place, King Wilhelm I ensured Benedetti that he would not allow it. Wilhelm sent Bismarck this, a full report of what had happened at Ems. Bismarck butchered the telegraph to make it appear Benedetti had insulted Wilhelm which brought calls for war against France. Disgusted at the actions of Bismarck, Napoleon declared war on Prussia. Bismarck could not have been happier.

War of Jenkins's Ear

Triggered in 1739 when a British captain had his ear sliced off by Spanish authorities. Parliament then declared war on Spain as a retribution for general mistreatment of the English while in Spain. This was the first major war after the War of Spanish Succession and the first in a long line of wars in the 18th century (1739-1763, with peace between 1748-1756) over the power of Prussia and the control of overseas trade

Caliph

Trying to bring the major colonies into chaos, the Germans persuaded this man to declare a muslim holy war against the Triple Entente. It was completely unsuccessful.

Corvee

Unpaid labor (as for the maintenance of roads) required by a lord of his vassals in lieu of taxes, this system was used in France prior to the Revolution (it was one of the causes of the Revolution). In essence this was the system the French used in Africa to ensure a labour supply from the native African populous that hated the menial European labour and had no need more money. Occasionally treaties could be arrange to make chiefs very rich if they supplied the Europeans with men.

Admiral Doenitz

Was designated as Hitler's successor and went through the surrender process to the Allied forces (after Hitler's suicide in the bunker in Berlin) on May 8th, 1945. He led the Flensburg Government (named after the Capital of Germany following the seizer of Berlin) from the Death of Hitler to May 23rd when the allies took away all the power this man had, not allowing any government authorized by Hitler to exist, even if it was to be powerless. Its jurisdiction covered the areas still under Nazi control on May 23rd: Denmark, the Heligoland, Dodecanese, Bohemia and Moravia, some of eastern Austria, and the very north portion of the Po River Valley.

T B Macaulay

Whig politician who argued that British governance in India should include Indians, thus educating Indian subjects to adopt European forms of government for themselves at some unspecified point in the future. He also saw the multitude of "barbarous and unenlightened" languages across Indian as a block to effective management of the colony and so the British forced English into every Indian home, a fact that can be seen today.

Ireland

While Gladstone pushed for self-rule of this area in 1886, it only gained such home rule in 1914 with WWI approaching. It was during this process that Ulster separated from the rest of this area. This region was raised the status of dominion called Eire in 1922. It accepted this status until 1937 when it became the modern republic it is today, although it was not a republic but a monarchy in which the crown of Britain had no real power until that was severed in 1949.

Mir

With the Act of Emancipation by Tsar Alexander II in 1861, the aristocracy were paid by the serfs for the lands that they had to give up (about half) and were no longer obligated to support them, overall increasing the power of the aristocracy. One of the things that aided the aristocracy's hold to power were these. When the serfs were given about half of the arable lands in Russia, they did not go to individual surfs but these, which acted as villages. These villages could demand forced labor, refused to let serfs leave if they could not pay a hefty sum, and forbid capital investments to or from the village. In this way peasant society was continued; Russia could not in the future centralize, and any economic model close to those used in the West were unfeasible.

Corporate Liberties

liberties won by towns; rights owned by whole towns, not by individuals. Such rights included that no townsfolk would be serfs. Serfs that had been fugitives for a year were usually freed. However, liberties of free trade, especially for essential locally produced items like food, were almost never granted. No liberties were given that could harm commerce

Albany Plan of Union

plan proposed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 that aimed to unite the 13 colonies for trade, military, and other purposes; the plan was turned down by the colonies and the Crown. The Crown asked for this meeting in Albany to be made so that the colonies may take more responsibility for the coming global war. The plan that Franklin proposed did not do that.

Tories

supporters of king in parliament. - party of lesser aristocracy and gentry, those who were suspicious of moneyed interest of London and felt strong loyalty to church and king. (derogatory term derived from Celtic word for Irish outlaw)

Quattrocento

the 15th century in Italian art and literature, as used by the Italians. Synonym for Renaissance

Battle of Valmy

the French defeated the Austrian and Prussian troops in 1792 (with a famous cannonade from the French artillery). While practically the victory was laughable (the French were no better off) it proved to be such a moral booster that France, which had been destroyed up to that point in the war, began to win the War of the First Coalition allowing Robespierre and the National Convention to remain safely in power, despite the Reign of Terror

Great Fear of 1789

the French peasants feared the revolution would fail and they would have no freedom, so many stormed the manor houses of their lords, burning many feudal documents and killing a few of the nobles and their families

Karl Peters

the German explorer who secured an area of East Africa in the same manner as the International Congo Association preventing the British from acquiring an unbroken stretch of territory from the Cape to Cairo

Council of Constance

the council in 1414-1418 that succeeded in ending the Great Schism in the Roman Catholic Church. The Church moved back to Roman and an Italian, Martin V, was declared the only true pope. The other three finally resigned. The power of this Council gave many the hope that the Papacy's power would not lie solely with the Pope. Even so, the Pope was able to retain all of his power in the coming years

Issac Watts

the father of English hymns, this man worked during the first half 18th century during a time of religious fervor

Seigneurial Privileges

With the exception of a few isolated cases, serfdom had ceased to exist in France by the 15th century. In early modern France, nobles nevertheless maintained a great number of these over the free peasants that worked lands under their control. They could, for example, levy the cens tax, an annual tax on lands leased or held by vassals. Nobles could also charge banalités for the right to use the lord's mills, ovens, or wine presses. Alternatively, a noble could demand a portion of vassals' harvests in return for permission to farm land he owned. Nobles also maintained certain judicial rights over their vassals, although with the rise of the modern state many of these privileges had passed to state control, leaving rural nobility with only local police functions and judicial control over violation of their rights

Modern Carthage

the term French republicans called England for being a "ruthless mercantile and profit-seeking power"

Georges Danton

"Don't forget to show my head to the people. Its is a head worth seeing."

Frederick the Great

"A ruler is the first servant of the state."

Claude Monet

A French painter who used an impressionism called "super-realism," capture overall impression of the thing they were painting. He is the most famous impressionist and is best known for his water lillies

The Red Terror

A period of time in Russia in which Communist secret police executed thousands of counter-revolutionaries with little or no evidence. (Akin to the Reign of Terror in France)

Agnosticism

A philosophy, close to a religion, which acknowledges ignorance. It was popularized at the turn of the 20th century by Herbert Spencer and Ernst Haeckel.

Council of People's Commissars

Government council composed of representatives from soviets across Russia and headed by Lenin; form of government initially established after November 1917

Bloody Sunday

In Russia 1905 Russian soldiers inadvertently opened fire on 200,00 petitioners at the Winter Palace, turning them against the tsar. It was the start of the 1905 Revolution

League of Nations

An international organization formed in 1920 to promote cooperation and peace among nations. although suggested by Woodrow Wilson, the United States never joined and it remained powerless; it was dissolved in 1946 after the United Nations was formed

Communist Information Bureau

An international organization of communist parties, founded and controlled by the Soviet Union in 1947 and dissolved in 1956. Known as Cominform, this organization published propaganda touting international communist solidarity, but was soon manipulated by Moscow as primarily a tool of Soviet foreign policy. It was used in 1948 to topple the democratic Czech government in favour of the Czech communist party, which was going to loose the 1948 elections to a coalition looking to connect east and west.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

An international trade organization with more than 130 members, including the United States and the People's Republic of China, that seeks to encourage free trade by lowering tariffs and other trade restrictions. It was initially a 23 country agreement that any trade concessions given to one country were given to all, lowering tariffs around the world

Johannes Kepler

Assistant to Brahe; used Brahe's data to prove that the earth moved in an elliptical, not circular, orbit; Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe; Demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy

Religion of Humanity

August Comte religion which desired to to preserve the rites of passage that current religions accomplish while ridding humanity of theology and metaphysical concerns. It would be a religion based in sociology that would no longer make assumptions nor generalizations in a movement that would encompass a transition in human nature in all walks of life.

Falloux Law (1850)

Catholics were put in charge of education in France by Louis Napoleon through this law. The middle class viewed religion as a protector against socialism.

Roman Republic

After the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, the spread of French, especially Napoleonic, influence in Italy could not be stopped. Affirming its anti-vactican stance, the French established this republic, removing any temporal power the Pope still had

Council for Mutual Economic Aid

An economic alliance founded in 1949 to coordinate the economic affairs of the soviet union and its satellite countries

Dada Movement

Based out of Zurich, Switzerland, this anti-art movement in which society didn't deserve art after creation of WWI was meant to provoke, spontaneous performances. It was led by the poet Trinstan Tzara

Democratic Revolution

Began in about 1750. It suggested that people are responsible for organizing society and that human intervention can therefore solve social problems.It condemned absolutism, religious intolerance, feudalism, and inherited rights, save property, and favoured a democratic republic (the first to formed in America). This has also been known as a "Bourgeois Revolution" for it was championed by the middle class. It was a demand for liberty and quality, usually in explicit constitutions

Thomas Newcomen

By 1700 England was running out of timber and so iron producers were looking to coal to produce their iron. The issue with coal was that mines could not be so deep as the mines would flood. This man in 1702 developed the first economically viable steam engine for coal mines, but it was only viable for the gold that was coal during the 18th century.

Great Leap Forward

China's second mass economic improvement plan plan, like its five-year plan early under the leadership of the impatient Mao, it aimed to speen up economic development while simultaneously developing a completely socialitst society. This plan focused on agriculture, but failed and more than 20 million people starved between 1958 and 1960

Frans Hals

Created portraits of everyday life, embodied the spirit of the Dutch people, famous work : The Laughing Cavalier

Benjamin Disraeli

During this man's second ministry, regulations were put in place for mine factory, and ship conditions and building codes, especially for private homes, were established.

Solemn League and Covenant

During war, as price of support from Scottish army, Parliament adopted this, 1642, which prescribed that religion in England, Scotland, and Ireland should be made uniform "according to the word of God and the example of the best reformed churches." Thus "Presbyterianism" became the established legal religion of the three kingdoms as long as the Long Parliament ruled

Japan

Ending its isolation, Great Britain entered into a military treaty in 1902 with this country against Russia, a common enemy

Corneille

French tragic dramatist whose plays treat grand moral themes in elegant verse (1606-1684). He wrote Le Cid

Dialogue on Two World Systems

Galileo's most famous work; widely available because it was written in Italian versus Latin. It was a defense of the Copernican system of the heavens against the incorrect Ptolemaic system of the heaves. This book caused Galileo to be placed on house arrest (written in 1632)

Pope Nicholas II

In 1059 this Pope declared popes would only be chosen by cardinals. This practice is still in use, although Cardinals have been swayed by outside influence many times since then

War of the Second Coalition

In 1798 a union was formed between Great Britain, Austria, and Russia to contain the French. In the summer of 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led an expedition to Egypt. Meanwhile, during his absence from Europe, the outbreak of violence in Switzerland drew French support against the old Swiss Confederation. When revolutionaries overthrew the Canton governments in Bern, a French army moved into Switzerland, ostensibly to support the Swiss Republicans. In northern Italy, Russian general Aleksandr Suvorov won a string of victories, driving the French under Moreau out of the Po Valley, and forcing them back on the French Alps and the coast around Genoa. However, the Russian armies in the Helvetic Republic were defeated by French commander André Masséna, and Suvorov eventually withdrew; ultimately the Russians left the Coalition when Great Britain insisted on the right to search all vessels it stopped at sea. In Germany, Archduke Charles of Austria drove the French under Jean-Baptiste Jourdan back across the Rhine and won several victories in Switzerland. Jourdan was replaced by Massena, who then combined the Armies of the Danube and Helvetia.

Vatican Council (1870)

In 1870 Pope Pius IX called a general church council, the first since the Council of Trent, in order to assert Catholic faith and authority in an age of attack and skepticism. This council proclaimed papal infallibility when speaking ex cathedra on matter of faith and morals that no Catholic may question or reject. Ultramontanism, the unconditional acceptance of papal jurisdiction, prevailed.

Anti-Comintern Pact

In 1936 Japan signed this with Germany and it was later ratified by Italy. It was in opposition to Communism but actually proved to be the foundation for diplomatic alliance between these three powers. Each now had allies and pushed their demands for individual success

Non-Juring Clergy

In French history, these were clergy members who refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the state under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; also known as refractory clergy, priests, and bishops

Berlin Assembly

In an odd move, Frederick William IV called off the powerful Prussian military as rioting in March of 1848 swallowed Berlin and called for this, the first Prussia legislative body. It was totally controlled by the Polish elements that had entered Prussia through the Partition of Poland which demanded the return of Polish autonomy. The self-governing region of Posen they established greatly upset the Germans and Slavs that had lived together peacefully for centuries and so they revolted against the Polish. To calm the entire situation, Frederick William IV sent the army to disband this congress and bring Prussia back to the state that it had been before this assembly.

Nothing

In response to the National Assembly drafting a new constitution, in effect the first phase of the French Revolution, William Pitt, Catherine the Great, Frederick William II, and Leopold II (despite the fact he was brother to the French Queen and his emigres demanded war) did this

Guild

In medieval Europe, an association of men (rarely women), such as merchants, artisans, or professors, who worked in a particular trade and banded together to promote their economic and political interests, like setting prices. It usually promoted masters to take in apprentices that would become journeymen. By the end of their lives, journeymen would finally become masters. This system eventually was corrupted because masters refused to increase the number of masters with the population growth, so the industry slowly evolved outside of this originally universal society

Culture System

In this system in Indonesia, the Dutch tried not to impose their culture on the locals but did demand a certain portion of a farmer's cash crop, but did not require interactions with the Dutch to be in the dutch language, but did suggest that education be conducted in dutch.

Act of Settlement of 1662

It amended the Poor Law making each parish responsible for its own paupers. The poor could no longer freely move about the country; they were trapped within their parish

Janissaries

Infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the fifteenth century until the corps was abolished in 1826. It consisted of christian boys taken from families, converted to Islam, and then rigorously trained to serve the sultan

Thomas Newcomen

Invented the first popular steam engine in 1705 which burned coal to produce steam, which was then used to operate a pump usually for a mine. By earl 1770s, many of the engines were operating successfully in English and Scottish mines.

Edward VI

King of England and Ireland from 1547 to 1553. son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour; died of tuberculosis (1537-1553)

Philip II

King of Spain (and Portugal eventually) and husband of Mary I. he was the Counter Reformation and sent the Spanish Armada to invade England (1527-1598). He also possessed the 17 provinces of the Netherlands, the Free Country of Burgundy as well as Milan, Sicily, and Tunis

Island Hoping

Method of warfare used by the U.S. navy of attacking and seizing strategic islands held by the Japanese. In this matter they could easily resupply lines, even in the pacific, and could always ensure air support.

Belzec

Nazi killing center located in eastern Poland. It opened in March 1942 and closed in December 1942. More than 600,000 persons, overwhelmingly Jews, were murdered there, initially in gas vans and later in gas chambers

Tsar Nicholas I

Of all the revolutions of 1849, none had the potential to be truly long lasting, especially after the French took out Mazzini in Rome after the assassination of members of Pope Pius IX's court. Sardinia could not take and hold Lombardy from Austria. Hungary, however, declared itself independent and threatened to remain that way with Austria distracted in Italy. Francis Joseph responded by calling upon the Holy Alliance and this returned the call by destroying Hungary, which he did with army 100,000 men.

Realpolitik

Political theory, advocated by Bismarck, that national success justifies any means possible. There are no "natural" enemies or allies, nor should any country be kept in an alliance longer than is prosperous just simply out of custom. All international relations, including war, should be used in the most productive method to ensure the advancement of the country.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route around Cape Horn, finding established Arab traders against which he would fight wars over the right to the trade along Malabar Coast

Star Chamber

Reign of Henry VII 1485-1509 used this royal council as a new court to deal with property disputes and infractions of the public peace. Operated without a jury. Popular at first - restored law and order - later denounced as an instrument of despotism.

Hellenistic

Relating to or characteristic of the classical Greek civilization

Cape to Cairo

Rhode's idea of a trans-African railroad from South Africa to Egypt to bring British culture to all of Africa. While a railroad was never completed across the entire route, much of it was transversed after German possession in Africa came under British domain after World War I

Sergei Eisenstein

Russian film maker who pioneered the use of montage and is considered among the most influential film makers in the history of motion pictures (1898-1948)

Estates General, Cortes, and Diet

The "parliaments" of France, Spain, and Germany (in order) that were founded during the 13th century. Only in France (and Scandinavia) did the peasants have representation. Originally in England, only the great Lords were represented (by themselves)

Dawes Plan

The American plan to loan money to Germany, who would pay their reparations to France and Britain, who would pay back their debt to America. It was a cycle that in design was doomed to failure (money was just being thrown in a circle), but it would give Germany time to rebuild and then she could pay off her debts by her own economic might

Jesuits

The Suppression of this group in Portuguese Empire, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was a result of a series of political moves in accordance with the philosophy of the enlightenment demanding the end of powerful religious organizations, and organization that were intolerant, giving countries the opportunity to take the great wealth of this society. By the brief Dominus ac Redemptor (21 July 1773) Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Society of Jesus. The scholarly Jesuit Society of Bollandists moved from Antwerp to Brussels, where they continued their work in the monastery of the Coudenberg; in 1788, the Bollandist Society was suppressed by the Austrian government of the Low Countries. Once the enlightenment was outcasted, with all French thought, after the French Revolution, this group reemerged with power in 1815 after the fall of Napoleon

Francois-Marie Arouet

The birth name of Voltaire (21 November 1694 - 30 May 1778)

Boney

The less than complimentary name the British used to refer to Napoleon. It is thought that Napoleon actually aided England through its worst social crisis until the Battle of Britain. Because of constant war with France, England united to destroy him instead of heading into revolution over industrialization as all other nations would, except for the United States. Once the French threat was removed, the industrial revolution had cemented itself in England and there were some outcries for reform, which slowly were adopted, but nothing close to a revolution occurred

Papal Index of Prohibited Books

The list of books that contained knowledge of heretics. Only with special permission could a catholic read books on this list and only for scholarly purposes. It was done away with after the Second Vatican Council in the 1960's

Don Quixote

The main character in Miguel de Cervantes' book about the changing times in the early 1600's. He was a man who did not like how the Middle Ages were ending and people were becoming more materialistic, so he set of to become a knight and bring back chivalry to Spain

Battle of Zenta

The sultan, Mustafa II wanted to regain all the Hungarian territories and led the campaign personally. When the Ottoman army tried to cross the Tisza at this city which gives it name to this battle, Eugene of Savoy beat the the divided armies on the two sides of the bridge. This battle proved to be the bloodiest battle of the century, twenty-five thousand Turks with the Grand Vizier died. (1697)

Cartesian Coordinate Geometry

The use of algebra to study geometric properties. Operates on symbols defined in a coordinate system. It was created by Descartes who was the first to see the relationship between geometry and algebra

Newton and Leibniz

These men co-discovered Calculus separately (England and Germany respective)

Sebastopol

This Crimean city, home of the USSR's Black Sea Fleet, was the first major victory for the Germans against the Russians. When this city fell, Stalingrad could be sole focus of the southern offensive in 1942.

Philippine Islands

This archipelago, in the Portuguese region of the Treaty of Tordesillas, was claimed by Magellan for Spain and played a key role in the "Manilla Galleons" trade

Spanish

This ethnic group mainly migrated during the second half of the nineteenth century to Latin America.

Guomindang

This group, supported by the Americans and better known as the nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek, began fighting the communists and Mao again for control of China soon after the Japanese defeat in WWII. This group lost ground steadily, abandoning the mainland for Taiwan in 1949.

Wanderer Above the Mist

This is an oil painting composed in 1818 by the German Romantic artist Caspar David Friedrich. It is the most identifiable painting of the romantic movement. It currently resides in the Kunsthalle Hamburg in Hamburg, Germany.

Filippo Marinetti

This man (December 22, 1876 - December 2, 1944) was an Italian ideologue, poet, editor, and main founder of the futurist movement of the early 20th century. Futurism was a nihilist movement, symbolizing the lack of interest in the democratic system in Italy especially in the agrarian south. Even expanding the suffrage to nearly all men in 1912 did not seem to satisfy a populous unengaged in their anticlerical government

Secret Police

To maintain peace at home, Napoleon used this

Bosnia

While present in all the Balkan territories, muslims made up a large proportion of this country prior to World War I.

Handel

a prolific German baroque composer remembered best for his oratorio Messiah (1685-1759)

Alchemy

a pseudoscientific forerunner of chemistry in medieval times. Exemplifying the tendency for major scientific developments to have not effects on the average man during the 17th and 18th centuries, this practice was still extremely popular to average people during that time period. It was not affected at all by the true science occur in the upper classes (although over time these actual scientists would end the popularity of this practice)

Medici

aristocratic Italian family of powerful merchants and bankers who ruled Florence in the 15th century. They gained power after Goivanni gained power as a Merchant and banker in Florence. His son Cosimo de' eventually took the unofficial rule of the city.

Peace of Karlowitz

signed in 1699; freed Austrians from Turkish threat, enabled them to focus on affairs in Western Europe. In this treaty the turks yielded hungary, croatia, and transylvania

Cottage Industry

small-scale industry that can be carried on at home by family members using their own equipment. This was an expansion of the Putting Out System into all industries, as well as the tools of production often were owned by the poor farmers

Whigs

supported Geroge I, religious tolerance, commercial interests, but said that Parliament should have the final authority

Cardinal Richelieu

the chief minister of Louis XIII who ran the French government from 1624 to 1642. he was a political genius who wanted to make the king supreme in France and France supreme in Europe. he set out to destroy the power of the nobles and the Huguenots who were protected by the Edict of Nantes. He strengthened France economically and appointed intendants, a system he created which worked wonders for the absolute monarchs that would follow him. He bared dueling

Leo X

the pope who excommunicated Martin Luther and who in 1521 bestowed on Henry VIII the title of Defender of the Faith (1475-1521)

Louis XVI

"I am innocent tand shall die without fear. i would that my death bring happiness to the French and ward of the dangers I foresee."

Edmund Burke

"The Jacobin Revolution is carried on by men or no rank, of no consideration, of wild, savage minds, full of levity, arrogance, and presumption without morals."

Voltarie

"The star of the north...benefactress of Europe...the first person of the universe" was said to Catherine by this man."

Duke of Alva

(1508-1582) Military leader sent by Phillip in 1567 to pacify the Low Countries.

Fourth Coalition

1806-1807. The Kingdom of Prussia, the Russian Empire, United Kingdom, Saxony (joined Napoleon once conquered), Sweden, and the Kingdom of Sicily against the French Empire, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Polish Legions, the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Naples, Etruria, Holland, and the Swiss Confederation. Ended on the continent by the Peace of Tilsit

Fifth Coalition

1809. The Austrian Empire, Tyrol (in rebellion against Bavaria), United Kingdom, Spain (although officially ruled by Napoleon, the Spanish were at war against him with the British), the Kingdom Sicily, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Black Brunswickers against the French Empire, the Duchy of Warsaw, the Confederation of the Rhine, the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Naples, the Confederation of Switzerland, and Holland. Ended on the continent by the Treaty of Schönbrunn

George Stephenson

1814, a Brit who built the first successful steam locomotive. By 1829 his Rocket travelled on the world's first railroad line from Manchester to Liverpool at average speed of 16mph. By the 1840s the era of railroad construction had begun in Europe and the US.

Seventh Coalition

1815. United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Hanover, Nassau, the Duchy of Brunswick, Sweden, the United Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of Sicily, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Swiss Confederation, and the French Royalists against the French Empire and the Kingdom of Naples. Ended everywhere through the Treaty of Paris. This was the last Coalition

Battle of Leyte Gulf

1944 World War II naval battle betweeen the United States and Japan. Largest naval engagement in history in which Japaneze navy was effectively neutralized for the rest of the war, especially in regards to its navy's air power

Warren Hastings

1st German general of British East India Company, in India from 1774-1784, sets up Indian Civil Service, brings-English culture, law and justice, taxes, takes opium to China, goes to England-involved in government, accused of misconduct to innocent and poor. He replaced Clive as the source of British expansion in India, which led to British supremacy there, but this man was much more successful for, unlike Clive, this man was backed by Westminster

Pablo Picasso

A Spanish artist, one of the founders of Cubism which focused on geometric shapes and overlapping planes and its leading painter

Oligarchy

A political system governed by a few people. It was employed in some Greek city-states

Napoleon Bonaparte

After the Fructidor, this man was asked to train an army designed to invade England. Seeing the foolishness of this mission, he decided to invade Egypt to weaken British interests in India

The National Assembly

As it had done since its creation, the Estates General sat in three different chambers and each chamber had one voted. The lawyers of the third estate rejected this and the Estates General just sat for six weeks in stalemate. Finally, a few members of the clergy on June 13th came into the chamber of the third estates, symbolizing that they supported all three estates meeting in a single chamber in which every man had a vote (the third estates had as many delegates as the other two combined). To give a name to this new mixed assembly, the third estate, and the few clergymen who met with them, was declared this

Engelbert Dollfuss

As part of a coup, mainly made up of Nazi agents, that tried to force Austria into Anschluss, which was supported by many in Austria, this man, the chancellor of Austria, was killed in 1934 as his government refused to consider Anschluss. As Germany prepared to annex Austria, Mussolini put a large force at the Brenner Pass and persuaded Hitler from taking Austria, at least not yet. Austria would remain independent for four more years.

Radicals

Championed by Thomas Paine and Dr. Richard Price, these men of England desired an overhaul of Parliament and the church. They also were those who corresponded with the National Assembly of France

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

Congressional compromise serving special interest, this protective tariff raised duties on agricultural and manufactured imports in order to protect US business from foreign competitors. Many other countries copied, but most not to the extreme levels set by congress. It contributed to the spread of the international depression by discouraging international trade.

South America

During the existence of the Continental system, in which England could not trade effectively with America or the continent, this became Great Britain's major trading parter, exploding by 2100% between 1805 and 1809

Battle of Poltava

During this battle in 1709 Charles XII of Sweden was decimated by Peter and his Russian Army after being severely weakened by the one of the harshest Russian winters ever recorded, very much in the fashion of Napoleon and Hitler. Sweden would not put up another fighting force again in the Great Northern War and watched (safely in Sweden) while all over seas territories were conquered

Sahib

Formerly a term of respect for important white Europeans in colonial India. Such a term, which was expected by Indians when speaking of Europeans, is in sharp contrast to the constant use of "boy" when referring to any male Indian, no matter how aged and wise. Racism was alive and well in India during the colonial era.

La Rochefoucauld

French writer of moralistic maxims (1613-1680)

Holbein

German painter of religious works (1465-1524). He was commissioned by Henry VIII to provide portraits of the English king's prospective brides (1497-1543)

Ferdinand II

Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia, Hungary, and Archduke of Austria who waged war against Protestant forces during the Thirty Years' War (1578-1637)

Combined Chiefs of Staff

In 1942 the US and GB pooled their resources. This was the first time two sovereign states had formed so intimate a coalition. In contrast with WW I an overal strategy was in effect from an early date. Decided to focus on Germany first. Australia became the base of operations against the Japanese. US was still rather slow in mobilization, but this was irrelevant as the US still, at relatively low levels, could by itself produce more than all of Germany

Five Year Plan (1953)

In 1953, with a great amount of aid from the Soviets, Mao launched this to built up heavy industry on the Stalin model. It was moderately successful, although not to the standards mandated by Mao.

Cultural Revolution

In 1966, seemingly out of oblivion, Mao instigated this. He demanded that the bureaucracy he had built to be purged, especially at the highest levels, and that anyone lacking zeal for China to be removed. Millions of teenagers were organized into Red Guards and were sent into cities attacking bourgeois and western ways. All Chinese were forced to rural areas to understand living on the land. Intellectuals suffered the most. These "reforms", destroying the entire Chinese economy and educational system, were put to an end in 1969 when mobs that numbered in the millions threatened to bring down Mao and his China.

Holy Roman Empire

In 962 this Empire was proclaimed in Germany, eventually taking hold of parts of Italy. The Emperor was an elected position intended to spread Latin Christendom, but the empire was never recognized by the other major countries of Europe as religiously mightier, and the Emperor tried to control the Pope as the ever more corrupted Church as he grew in power

Albania

In April of 1939, following the occupation of Prague by Hitler, Mussolini took this country for his own (it was promised the Italians by Bismarck many years before).

Hereditary Subjects

In Prussia under the peasants were this of the lords. They held patches of land on precarious terms, in return for obligations to labor on estates of the lords, they were not free to leave the lord's estate, to marry, or to learn a trade without his permission.

Creoles

In colonial Spanish America, term used to describe someone of European descent born in the New World. Elsewhere in the Americas, the term is used to describe all nonnative peoples. (p. 482)

Ptolemaic

In this system of planetary motion the earth is fixed as the center of the universe with the sun and moon and planets revolving around it. It was never questioned because until the 17th century it utilized the most complex mathematics known to man as proof of its legitimacy. It was the basis for all known about trans-terrestrial bodies until Copernicus

1517

In this year Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Thesis on the door of The Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany

Francis II

Insulted at the fact that the French would dare refers to themselves as an Empire and to symbolize the centralization of the Danubian Monarchy around the Habsburg house, this man declared in 1804 that his Habsburg lands now comprised the Austrian Empire

Louis Philippe

Introduced to the world by Lafayette on the balcony of the Paris Hotel de Ville, this Duke of Orleans was given the throne of France by the Chamber of Deputies, hoping to maintain the constitution of 1814. While France was internally at peace, the internationally community was frightened at the new King of the French (not King of France) who flew the Tricolour (and not the Bourbon Lily) at Versailles.

Leonardo da Vinci

Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist. The most versatile genius of the Renaissance, he filled notebooks with engineering and scientific observations that were in some cases centuries ahead of their time. As a painter he is best known for The Last Supper (c. 1495) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503). He is the quintessential Renaissance Man

Savonarola

Italian religious and political reformer. a Dominican friar in Florence who preached against sin and corruption and gained a large following; he expelled the Medici from Florence but was later excommunicated and executed for criticizing the Pope (1452-1498)

Marat

Jacobin French revolutionary leader (born in Switzerland) who was a leader in overthrowing the Girondists and was stabbed to death in his bath by Charlotte Corday (1743-1793). He called for the most death of anyone during the French Revolution

Zimmermann Telegram

January 1917 the British intercepted a telegram from the German government to the Mexican government offering German support if Mexico declared war against the US; offered to return land Mexico lost the US. This action enraged the United States and made it clear that the US would join the British if they did finally enter the war. Such an allegiance was not guaranteed three years earlier.

Robert Walpole

King George II's chief minister until 1742 who worked for peace and isolation from the continent's issues (In 1739 he got involved in the War of Jenkins's Ear). He strengthened the role of the cabinet to the Prime Minister (he created it) and stabilized the political landscape, earning him the label as the first english "Prime Minister". He was the first one to note that during Peacetime trade with Europe increased faster then the trade with the colonies, but this was overcome by the momentous increases in trade with the colonies while Europe went to war

Hugh Capet

King of France elected in 987, founding the Capetian dynasty. He was elected to be king by the great Lords of France. Eventually this position, which held no power of the Lords, began to gain in influence. In France this took over 200 years. The Germans did the same in 911, but their king in 961 was crowned Emperor, founding the HRE

Gustavus Adolphus

King of Sweden, a pseudo empire with less than a million people, whose victories in battle made Sweden a European power. his domestic reforms made Sweden a modern state; in 1630 he intervened on the Protestant side of the Thirty Years' War and was killed in the battle of Lutzen (1594-1632) He was the first Swedish King to benefit from the transition of the Swedish King to a hereditary position, instead of an elected one like the HRE which it had been previously. Because of his conquests in the HRE, Sweden gained Pomerania

Prince Henry

Known as the Navigator, he gathered experts in science, mapmaking, and shipbuilding whose work led to a fleet of ships that explored the coast of west Africa. His school was located in Sagres

Battle of Wheat

Land reclamation projects that helped make more land available for agriculture in Italy as the depression it. Marshlands were drained, especially in central Italy, Italy continued to import food and the peasant structure that induced constant poverty, especially in the southern half of the country, when uncorrected. However much Mussolini did not fix Italy's problems, all of his plans did proved to be somewhat successful which increased national fervor for Mussolini and Fascism, result in Italy's militarism during the 30s.

Zaibatsu

Large conglomerate corporations that exerted a great deal of political and economic power in Imperial Japan. By WWII, the four family trusts, collectively known as this, controlled most of the economy of Japan

Pope Urban II

Leader of the Roman Catholic Church who asked European Christians to take up arms against Muslims, starting the Crusades

September Massacres (1792)

Louis's imprisonment was followed by this. Wild stories seized the city that imprisoned counter-revolutionary aristocrats/priests were plotting with the allied invaders. As a results, angry crowds invaded the prisons of Paris and summarily slaughtered half the men and women they found.

Corvee

Main in France, unpaid labor (as for the maintenance of roads) required by a lord of his vassals in lieu of taxes. It was still common in France before the revolution, but only for a few days, a week at the most, a years

Russo-Turkish War

Major war in the Balkans conducted between 1877 and 1878 with Serbia and Russia fighting against the Ottoman Empire

Cardinal Fleury

Most important advisor of Louis XV during which he tried to help stablize France by trying to isolate France so he could work on economy (failed when he entered the War of Polish Succession in 1733), but debt increased because nobles were not paying taxes, and his greatest failure was getting France involved in the War of Austrian Succession (1743). (Was in power from age 73 in 1726 to age 90 in 1743)

Auschwitz

Nazi extermination camp in Poland, this was largest center of mass murder during the Holocaust. Reported by the Nazis at the Nuremberg Trials at 3 million, it is now believed that about 1.3 million Jews, Gypsies, Communists, and others were killed here

Escorial

New royal palace built in shape of grill to commemorate the martyrdom of St. Lawrence-symbolized Philip's power and commitment to Catholic crusade

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

Newton's 1686 work in which he offers mathematical explanations of the laws that govern the physical world including universal gravitation: pull of gravity between 2 bodies is proportional to the masses of the bodies, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; heavy bodies attract more strongly

Kristallnacht

Night of Broken Glass, on the night of Nov 9 1938, the Nazis killed or injured many jews destroyed jewish property in response to the killing of a German official at the Paris Embassy by a young Pole girl, who was a Jew. She was tried and sentenced to death, and Hitler levied a 1 billion mark fine on the Jewish community. It would be collected through the insurance claims from destroyed Jewish property.

Iran

Occupied by the British, Americans, and Soviets during WWII to ensure a land connect to the Russian heartland, Stalin refused to leave this country after the war in order to enjoy the oil concessions that always had been denied to the Russians, but given to the British. This country continued to suffer from divisive spheres of influence until 1949 when the Russians willingly left the country, seeing that communist expansion outside of East Asia was not coming anytime soon.

Bohemia

Of the 2,000 sovereign states of the HRE, this was the only one with a king

Twenty-One Points

Program put forth by Lenin and endorsed by the International included that each national party must call itself Communist, repudiate "reformist" socialism, propagandize labor unions and get Communists into the important union offices, infiltrate the army, impose an iron discipline, require submission to the orders of the international Executive, use both legal channels and secret underground methods, and expel promptly any member not hewing to the party lines

Factory Act (1802)

Pushed by powerfully industrialist Robert Peel, this 1802 Act of parliament created factory workday for children between 9-13 to 8 hours a day. Not applicable to home. Outlawed child labor under 9-factory. While nice in principal, the enforcement of such a law would have required a governmental bureaucracy which the England avoided because it reeked of French and continental influence.

(House of Valois) King Charles VIII, King Louis XII, King Francis I, King Henry II, King Francis II, King Charles IX, King Henry III, (Bourbon) King Henry IV, King Louis XIII, King Louis XIV, King Louis XV, King Louis XVI, (Revolutionary Leaders between 1792 and 1814), King Louis XIII

Put in order the Kings of France from 1483 to 1824

Mary Queen of Scots

Queen of Scotland from 1542 to 1567. as a Catholic she was forced to abdicate in favor of her son and fled to England where she was imprisoned by Elizabeth I; when Catholic supporters plotted to put her on the English throne she was tried and executed to avoid any possibility of a Catholic taking the throne of England.

Henrik Ibsen

Realistic Norwegian author who wrote plays on social and political themes (1828-1906)

Iron Law of Wages

Ricardo's proposed principle of economics that asserts that real wages always tend, in the long run, toward the minimum wage necessary to sustain the life of the worker.

Cult of the Supreme Being

Robespierre's attempt in June of 1794 to an alternative to Christianity with this deistic cult. It proclaimed that the French were to recognize the existence of God and the immorality of the soul, but not a church, especially the Catholic Church, although the Catholics were to tolerated. All of this was done to not alienate the religious, which, while not an enlightened though, encompassed most of the French population at this time

Louis Duke of Burgundy

Ruled as Phillip V of Spain from 1700 to 1746 (he abdicated for his son in 1724 who only reigned for 9 months before he died), given the throne after the War of Spanish Succession

Boyars

Russian landholding aristocrats; possessed less political power than their western European counterparts leading to autocratic ruling Tzars and eventually the revolution by the proletariat

Count Witte

Russian minister of finance from 1892-1903; economic modernizer responsible for high tariffs, improved banking system and forced Russia to adopt the Gold Standard, making investment easier; encouraged western investors, especially the French, to build factories in Russia.

People's Will

Russian movement that tried to use violence and intimidation to bring about reform. It was ruled by Bakunin and was able to assassinated Tsar Alexander II in 1881

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936). He speculated that the same could have been done to humans, adding more evidence that humanity was nothing more than cognitive beasts

Social Revolutionary Party

Russian political party founded in 1902. Democratic, it tried to achieve it goals by convincing people through the weak Duma. They were peaceful agrarian socialists led by former populists Plekhanov and Axelrod from Switzerland.

Leon Trotsky

Russian revolutionary and Communist theorist who helped Lenin and built up the army. He was ousted from the Communist Party by Stalin in his rise to power and was eventually assassinated in Mexico assumably by an agent of Stalin (1879-1940)

John Knox

Scottish theologian who founded Presbyterianism in Scotland based off of the works of Calvin and wrote a history of the Reformation in Scotland (1514-1572)

Marie Louise

Seeing that his wife Josephine was not producing an heir, due to the fact he rather not touch her, Napoleon sought a better wife that could also be used to strengthen his empire. Won over by Clemens von Metternich, who saw Russia as the real enemy to Austria, Napoleon picked this 18-year-old daughter of Francis II of Austria, niece to Marie Antoinette, as his second wife instead of sister of Alexander I (Alexander politely refused on all grounds). In a year Napoleon had his son, and the babe was immediately entitled King of Rome

Jose de San Martin

South American general and statesman, born in Argentina: leader in winning independence for Argentina, Peru, and Chile; protector of Peru.

Lope de Vega

Spaniard. Standard of playwrights set by him in the 1580s. He wrote an extraordinary number of plays, perhaps 1,500, almost 500 of them survive. They have been characterized as witty,charming, action-packed, and realistic.

Trade Disputes Act of 1927

Stemming from unemployment insurance that had been enacted in 1911, over 2 million Brits in 1921 were on the dole even as the rest of the world entered a period of relative economic boom. The weakness of Britain's post-war economy was most clear in the fights between management and labour, who had given up large concessions during the war to ensure a British victory. In 1926 the coal mining industry went on strike which developed into a general strike of 3 million, or half of the union workers in England. Due to the efforts of Parliament, using the army, the navy, and a network of volunteers, the strike failed and this act followed to ensure that such a sympathy strike would never occur again. Unions were also unable to raise money for political reasons because of this act as well.

Louisburg

Strategic French fortress at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River conquered by New England settlers in 1758 at the request of the English as a result of King George's War, but it was handed back to the French as a result of the Treaty of Aix-la-chapele

Charles XII

Swedish king who organized the Swedish forces during the Great Northern War. His subsequent march on Moscow ended with the dismemberment of the Swedish army at Poltava and Perevolochna, and he spent the following years in exile in the Ottoman Empire before returning to lead an assault on Norway, trying to evict the Danish king from the war once more in order to aim all his forces at the Russians. Two failed campaigns concluded with his death at the Siege of Fredriksten in 1718. At the time, most of the Swedish Empire was under foreign military occupation, though Sweden itself was still free. This situation was later formalized, albeit moderated in the subsequent Treaty of Nystad. The close would see not only the end of the Swedish Empire but also of its effectively ended the absolute monarchy and war machine, commencing a parliamentarian government unique for continental Europe, which would last for half a century until royal autocracy was restored by Gustav III.

Dixieme

Tenth in French, this tax of Louis XIV was designed to tax a 10th of the income of all French people, but it was widely evaded.

Volksgeist

Term originally used by Johan Gottfried von Herder in 1784 which says that all true culture or civilization must arise from the native common people of a country. In other words each country needs its own unique national character. While Herder's ideas passed to other countries, this term and Herder's direct concepts remained in Germany and became extremely pro-German; not gaining a base in other countries.

Great Britain, France, Holland, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Belgium

The 10 remaining democracies, out of 27 countries, in Europe in 1938

Festival of the Federation

The Fête de la Fédération of the 14 July 1790 was a huge feast and official event to celebrate the establishment of the short-lived constitutional monarchy in France and what people of the time considered to be the happy conclusion of the French Revolution the outcome hoped for by the monarchies. The Fête de la Fédération in Paris was the most prominent event of a series of spontaneous celebrations all over France: from August 1789, Fédérations appeared in towns and countryside; on 5 June 1790, with lots of individual feasts to celebrate the new state of France, a constitutional monarchy. The National Assembly approved the suggestion by the Commune de Paris to organise a "general Federation". Organised late, it was largely an improvisation. The idea was not to contest the legitimacy of the king Louis XVI, but to show the general will for stable institutions and a national reconciliation and unity. It exemplified the changing culture of France and the firm end of the Old Regime's culture

Old Regime

The Political and Social system that existed in France before the French Revolution. It was characterized by being the quintessential absolute government supporting mercantilistic principals.

Lateran Treaty

The agreement signed in the Lateran Palace in 1929 by Italy and the Holy See which recognized the Vatican City as a sovereign and independent papal state. The Vatican finally recognized Italy, which it had not done since the Italians took Rome in 1870, and ended the self-imprisonment of the Popes during this periods in the Vatican.

Tripple Alliance

The alliance between the Dutch, England, and Sweden that kept Louis XIV out of the Spanish Netherlands (Holland's defensive buffer from France) until 1672 in which Louis even took three of the seven United Provinces

Revolutionary Calendar

The calendar adopted by the first French Republic in 1793 and abandoned in 1805. Dates were calculated from Sept. 22, 1792 (the Establishment of the Republic) and all religious holidays were eliminated for one national holiday which became Bastille Day

Ironsides

The nickname for Cromwell's troops based on their military discipline and their faith.

Hegelian Dialectic

The process whereby opposite views or forces come into conflict, which eventually leads to the overcoming or reconciliation of the opposition in a new and presumably higher form. This, usually presented in a threefold manner, was stated by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus as comprising three dialectical stages of development: a thesis, giving rise to its reaction, an antithesis, which contradicts or negates the thesis, and the tension between the two being resolved by means of a synthesis. Although this model is often named after Hegel, he himself never used that specific formulation. Hegel ascribed that terminology to Kant. Carrying on Kant's work, Fichte greatly elaborated on the synthesis model, and popularized it. The impact of this ideas was that the true significance of the world could be found through the study of history.

Cartesian Dualism

The teaching of René Descartes that the mind or spirit constitutes one reality while the body is something completely different, separate and apart from mind.

Guilds

These were opposed by the Revolutionary movement in France due to their economic monopolies and the fact that in practice they were not merit based and quite feudalistic. Therefore, the Constituent Assembly took strides to abolish these, having little practical success as they easily survived underground with no one outside knowing the skills they held to replace therm

Metayers

These were peasant sharecroppers in France. They did not own land but were tenant farmers often on lands belonging to the aristocracy. They were provided with the material for farming and were allowed to keep a percentage of the crop. The rest went to the landowners.

Hussites

These were the followers of John Hus, critized the pope and the Catholic Church. He was invited to the Council of Constance where he was burned at the stake, which Martin Luther later condemned as proof of the corrupt of the Church. This group was very much a religious cause against the church much like the followers of John Wycliffe, but Hus focused more on social issues like the suppression of the Serbs and Czechs by the Germans in the HRE and Austria

Inner Europe

This "zone" of Europe, as coined by a Frenchman in the 1920s, was the area inside of a boundary drawn between Trieste, Florence, Barcelona, Glasgow, Stockholm, and Danzig. It was the most industrialized area in the world with the densest railway networks. The people inside this zone had the highest standard of living, highest levels of capital, the highest life expectancy, and a 100% literacy rate. Here lay constitutional and parliamentary governments and liberal, humanitarian, and socialist reform movements. After the civil war the United States could be considered in this zone.

Outer Europe

This "zone" of Europe, as coined by a Frenchman in the 1920s, was the area outside of a boundary drawn between Trieste, Florence, Barcelona, Glasgow, Stockholm, and Danzig. This zone relied on selling grain, livestock, wool, or lumber to the inner zone of Europe but was generally too poor to buy in the inner zone's industrial products. Its infrastructure, while less in volume, rivaled the inner zone, but was constructed by engineers from the inner zone. South America, not truly third world, could be considered in this zone.

Treaty of Paris

This 1783 treaty ended the America civil war between Britain and America. It is one of the most generous peace treaties in history

Regnier de Graff

This 17th century Dutchman was the first ever to publish a work concerning female ovaries, rejecting Galen's theories that women did not contribute to reproductive

Battle of Mukden

This 1905 battle was the largest in the Russo-Japanese War and the largest pre-WWI battle in terms of numbers in human history. This battle was the decisive battle of the war, fought over the major Manchurian city for which it is name, and was easily won by Japan. All European powers and the US were in attendance to watch the first full-scale war between evenly-matched industrialized nations. The defeat for Russia was humiliated.

Consortium of Industrialists

This French government agency that existed during WWI allocated raw materials and government orders within each industry.

Panther

This Germany gunboat entered the Moroccan port of Agadir in 1911 to demand Moroccan independence. It became clear that Germany simply wanted French territories in Africa. The French gave in and gave Germany some minuscule territories in the French Congo.

Russian Social Democratic Party

This Marxist party was founded at the 1875 Gotha Conference by Russian intelligentsia exiles Plekhanov and Axelrod in Switzerland. It, including Lenin from the beginning, would eventually grow into the Communist movement in Russia.

Pope Innocent XI

This Pope financed the international defense of Vienna from the Turks in 1683

Marshal Alexander Suvorov

This Russian general, the only won during the French Revolutionary Wars able to say he never lost a battle, decimated the French in Italy and the Helvetic Republic. He was called back to Russia before entering France when Russia withdrew from the Second Coalition because of England's announcement it would enter a total blockade during which they would search all ships, even allied ships such as Russia's

Populists

This Russian group had a general mystic faith in the vast Russian peoples under the Romanov Empire and therefore supported the interests of the majority-the peasants. They hoped that Marxism community would rise out of the mirs and that Russia could skip capitalism on its way to Marx's sociality pseudo-utopia. It was a popular group after the fall of the People's Will and the decline of the popularity of terrorism and anarchy by the intelligentsia.

First Reform Bill of 1832

This act was designed to reform parliament in order to represent all of England, and not just those in power due to their statuses from their inherited medieval estates. The Act granted seats in the House of Commons to large cities that had sprung up during the Industrial Revolution, and took away seats from the "rotten boroughs"—those with very small populations. The Act also increased the number of individuals entitled to vote, increasing the size of the electorate from about 400,000 to 650,000, and allowing a total of one out of six adult males to vote, in a population of some 14 million.

Little Entente

This alliance joined Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia as an eastern block that theoretically could have held its own against Germany or the USSR until French support could arrive. It fell apart when the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia was sacrificed for the attempts of appeasement.

Battle of Gallipoli

This battle took place at the peninsula of Gallipoli in the Ottoman Empire between 25 April 1915 and 9 January 1916, during the First World War. A joint British and French operation was mounted to capture the Ottoman capital of Istanbul and secure a sea route to Russia. The attempt failed, with heavy casualties on both sides. The campaign was considered one of the greatest victories of the Turks and was reflected on as a major failure by the Allies

Battle of the Somme

This battle took place during the First World War between 1 July and 18 November 1916 in the Somme department, on either side of the River Somme. The battle consisted of an offensive by the British and French armies against the German Army, which, since invading France in August 1914, had occupied large areas of the country. Even though Petain used most of his troops in this battle, the French and British lost more men than the Germans and gained nothing. The british deployed a tank, but it did nothing to end trench warfare

Battle of Caporetto

This battle took place from 24 October to 19 November 1917, near the town of Kobarid (now in Slovenia), on the Austro-Italian front of World War I. The battle was named after the Italian name of the town of Kobarid (known as Karfreit in German). Austro-Hungarian forces, reinforced by German units, were able to break into the Italian front line and rout the Italian army, which had practically no mobile reserves. The Italians through this battle were proved to be more of a liability than an asset to the French and British

Reparations Commission

This body in 1921 reported their findings on what would be a fair number for the amount of reparations forced upon Germany. It amounted to $35 billion dollars, an amount Keynes said Germany could pay off by 1989. Since the Soviets were not part of the Versailles Treaty, and therefore claimed no reparations, this outrageous number pushed Germany into a close economic relationship with the Russians as both tried to recover from WWI and the following economic depression, and in the case of the USSR a civil war.

The True Law of a Free Monarchy

This book, written by James I of England, was a thesis on how a proper government is a monarchy that operates free from the control of parliament or a such as that as well as the clergy, laws in general, and customs of the past. He described the quintessential monarchy inspired by the divine right of kings. Kings were responsible to God alone

Extinction of Poverty

This book, written by Louis Bonaparte in 1844, was a general anti-capitalistic work common of that period.

The Peninsular War

This conflict is regarded by some historians as one of the first national wars and is also significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare (guerrilla means "little war" in Spanish). The French occupation destroyed the Spanish administration, which fragmented into quarrelling provincial juntas. In 1810, a reconstituted national government fortified itself in Cádiz and proved unable to recruit, train, or equip effective armies due to being under siege. British and Portuguese forces secured Portugal, using it as a secure position from which to launch campaigns against the French army while Spanish guerrilleros bled the occupiers. Combined, the regular and irregular allied forces prevented Napoleon's marshals from subduing the rebellious Spanish provinces. To the Spanish the war is known as the Guerra de la Independencia Española, or Spanish War of Independence, but this name is not often used in English, as Spain had been independent for a long time before the French invasion. Once Napoleon took to Russia in 1812 and was soundly defeated, England's Duke of Wellington took the initiative and took back Spain for the Spanish, although the campaign was not totally complete until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814

Afghanistan

This country, if it can be called that, served as the buffer between Russian interested in central Asia and British India. The British had fought two wars in this country to exemplify its control over it, although it never claimed it as it only produced opium. Once the Russians took Tashkent in Turkestan in 1664, the British and Russians Empires touched, but only for a moment as an Anglo-Russian treaty gave this country a 20 mile wide "tongue" which was essentially barren of life to separate the Empires. This moronic tongue still exists today.

Milan Decree of 1807

This decree of Napoleon stated that any neutral vessel that had stopped at a british port or been searched by a British warship would be confiscated at a continental harbor. It further enforced the already failing continental system.

Monarchism

This doctrine was in essence reactionary conservative in which enlightened despotism was to be abandoned and "the throne and that alter" were to be protected at all costs

Magna Carta

This document (truly not that uncommon for its day), signed by King John of Endland in 1215, is the cornerstone of English justice and law. It declared that the king and government were bound by the same laws as other citizens of England. It contained concept by which the ideas of due process and the right to a fair and speedy trial were forced which are included in the protection offered by the U.S. Bill of Rights.

Syllabus of Errors

This document by the pope Pius IX in 1863 denounced rationalism, socialism, religious liberty, and separation of the church and state. While Pius XI was hailed as the liberal Pope, the assassinations of Mazzini's men against the Papacy and the attempted Roman Republic, liberal movements, had proved to be too violent for his likings and his opinion shifted right.

Declaration of the Rights of the German People

This document, the only tangible evidence that the Frankfurt Assembly ever existed, declared many unalienable individual rights and civil liberties as well as constitutional guarantees (copying similar American and French documents, except these were not human rights, but rights of the German people).

Toleration Act of 1689

This extended a degree of freedom of worship to all Christians except Catholics and Unitarians in England, although dissenters from the established church still had few political rights.

King's Friends

This faction, one of many in the only party (the Whigs), rose as the party of power during the ministry of Lord North (1770-1782) as those in parliament, particularly the House of Commons, that had been bought to the side of the patriot king, George II

Wittelsbach

This family ruled Bavaria and was consistently elected to ecclesiastic positions along the Rhine including the archbishop of Cologne who ruled powerful Cologne

Guelph

This family ruled Hanover and slowly built their positions by very rarely getting a family member elected as Emperor of the HRE who subsequently gave Hanover the position of an electorate. They also produced King George I who inherited the throne of Greta Britain in 1692

Habsburgs

This family was consistently elected Emperor of the HRE from 1438 onward, but they enjoyed none of the privileges of heredity leaders for every time one was trying to be elected, they essentially had to give up any strengthening of the position made by the predecessors to keep in power. After 1648, the French (allied with Cologne and Bavaria) put up candidates for Emperor finally getting elected in 1742. The position was now just a game between France and Austria and had less power than previously (if at all possible)

French Academy of Science

This is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research in Paris. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is one of the earliest academies of sciences.

Sicily

This island fell in August of 1943 to allied forces.

Manchester

This major industrial city in Lancashire grew from an oversized market town of 25,00 in 1772 to the greatest testament to the power of industry in 1851 with a population of 455,000. Despite this growth, it was still under the authority of the local manor until the last lord was bought out by the town in 1845. Without the powers of a town, including ample representation in Parliament, this city lacked city planning or any city powers at all, including taxation, police, water, and sewers. Urbanization posed a serious problem for new cities in England.

Lazare Nicolas Carnot

This man (13 May 1753 - 2 August 1823) was the Organizer of Victory in the French Revolutionary Wars (his most vital contribution), a French politician, engineer, and mathematician. He created the science of thermodynamics.

Mustapha Kemal

This man (19 May 1881-10 November 1938) was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey. This man was a military officer during World War I. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, he led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence. Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. This man then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state. The language was transformed into the Latin alphabet, the fez was made a crime, and the wetern calendar was adopted. With a high tariff, Turkey looked inward for the next few decades in an attempt to create its own industrial revolution without outside it. The Turks would not participate in WWII. The principles of this man's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.

St. Ignatius of Loyola

This man founded Jesuit Order in 1534 (approved by pope in 1540), Militant arm of Catholic Church to convert people to Catholicism, Went to the New World to preach, Established Jesuit Schools which were originally seminary schools.

Poussin

This man is generally considered the finest examples of French classicist painting. He spent all but eighteen months of his creative life in Rome because he found the atmosphere in Paris uncongenial. Deeply attached to classical antiquity, he believed that the highest aim of painting was to represent noble actions in a logical and orderly, but not a realistic, way.

Peter Paul Rubens

This man is the most famous Baroque artist who studied Michelangelo in Italy and took that Renaissance style to the next level of drama, motion, color, religion and animation, which is portrayed in his paintings. Flemish Painter

General Benard Montgomery

This man led the British troops, for the last year along side Americans under General Eisenhower, against Rommel in North Africa. While initially in a constant retreat to the Nile, he eventually turned the tide and took African for the allies. The Afrika Korps was surrendered, with Rommel being relieved of his duties a few months yearly in Africa for a position in France, in Tunisia in May of 1943. Sicily was clear for invasion if desired, as well as the whole Mediterranean.

Louis XIV

This man made war an activity of the state, so that all armies in France fought solely for him and the state and not some rich dukes or bishops. He modernized the army and increased it operating capacity by restructuring the hierarchy which led to discipline becoming the main facet of army training (so officers would keep their jobs). He also organized a common uniform and common artillery. He also simply quadrupled its total size to 400,000

Baron Stein

This man reformed Prussia during the period of French Dominance in Europe along with general peace. He was able to tweak the caste system to allow property to become exchangeable between classes and now all classes could rise to an officer in the army. A bourgeois class could now rise in Prussia. The cities, which Stein saw created the commerce that was the lifeblood of a nation, became largely autonomous and very productive for the first time in Prussian history. Most importantly, he officially abolished serfdom and hereditary subjection to avoid an uprising of serfs, even though their position in society remained largely unchanged. Frightened by the reforms, Napoleon exiled this man in 1808, but the reforms stuck

Paul Brousse

This man took part in the French Workers' Party (POF) in 1880 and then, after a session, the Federation of the Socialist Workers of France (FTSF), which became known as the "possibilists". He voted at the August 1886 international congress in London along with Jules Guesde for the expulsion of the "anti-authoritarian socialists", as were known the anarchists. The possibilists then joined Jean Jaurès's French Socialist Party in 1902, which fused with others movements in 1905 to create the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO). He was very open to getting socialist reform through parliamentary methods

Joseph Fouché, First Duke of Otranto

This man was installed as the minister of Police by Napoleon under the Consulate. He had been an active Hebertist during the Terror and was most influential in the guillotining of Robespierre. He was one of the many emigres who came back to France at Napoleon's request, which greatly improved the wealth of France

Lloyd George

This man, chancellor of the exchequer during Herbert Asquith's time as prime minister, introduced in 1909 the first progressive income tax. He called it a "war budget" as it was intended to wage a war on poverty primarily through wealth distribution. It was heavily opposed in the House of Lords, leading to the decline of that house's influence in parliament.

Emperor Charles I

This man, ruler of the Austrian Empire from 1916 to 1918, was the last emperor of Austria. He abdicated on November 12th, the day after the armistice. The Republic of Austria was proclaimed a day later

Kaiser Wilhelm II (Ruled 1888-1918)

This man, the grandson of Wilhelm I, took the German throne at age 29 and forced Bismarck, aged at 75, to retire in 1890 to open a new age for Germany. This man also wanted to rule, and the next four German Chancellors, unlike Bismarck, allowed him to do that. He would expand many of Bismarck programs, but refused to reform or expand the electorate. It was a government that rested on his word.

Chinese Communist Party

This party, founded in 1921 by some of the leaders of the May Fourth Movement, allied with the Guomindang in 1923 and accepted many Soviet advisers, particularly Borodin who was a friend of Sun Yat-sen from their time in America. This Soviet-Chinese coalition pushed Great Britain to give up some of their minor interests in the treaty system.

Schlieffen Plan

This plan, first proposed by the general for it is named after the Franco-Prussia War, was a general war plan for Germany against the proposition of a two-front war. It was designed to used the rail network of France and Belgium to its advantage and so attack France first through Belgium, to avoid France's defenses on the Rhine. After taking Paris, German troops would be railed to the Eastern front. It failed because the right flank was slower than expect, but much more importantly was the speed that Russia was able to mobilize. Even a perfect execution of this plan would've failed because of Russia's unexpected mobilization abilities.

Eugene O'Neil

This playwright was known for his pessimism and tradgedy. He won a nobel prize for literature for his collection of works in 1936.

Camillo di Cavour

This prime minister (1852-1861) of King Victor Emmanuel of the Kingdom of Sardinia organized and developed the unification of Italy through the use of Realpolitik. Acting much like a liberal of western Europe, he used the government to the advantage of the country, supporting railroads, docks, agricultural improvements, and free trade. He also separated church and state in Italy, where they had been attached at the hip since Constantine. He was able to bate Austria into war in 1859 who was easily defeated through the Franco-Sardinian alliance, gaining Lombardy and the necessary momentum to take the peninsula under Victor Emmanuel.

Tibet

This region in 1950 was forcibly annexed by Mao's China, adopting a radical foreign policy, to save the locals from clerical despotism, the supposed despotism of the Dalai Lama who was forced to flee his native region, and still lives in exile today

Alsace

This region was the last in France to have feudalism, remaining at the demand of the German Lords that had been forced to enter the Kingdom of France after the Peace of Westphalia. The Constituent Assembly abolished this feudalism in 1791, offering compensation in return.

Amalgamated Society of Engineers

This union, founded in 1851, introduced a new union model that was to abandon the work of the Chartists and Robert Owen, take unions out of politics, and concentrate on advancing the interests of individual trades. They did this by accumulating funds that could be used as insurance for their members or attracting new members while avoiding strikes. Such hospitable and reasonable actions by the working class inspired Disraeli to give them the right to vote in 1867.

Polish-Soviet War of 1920

This war pushed Poland's border father east than even the allies, or Germany for that matter, had intended to give them. The offensive allowed Poland to control lands east of the line created by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Lidice

This was a Czech mining village (population 700). In reprisal for the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, the Nazis "liquidated" the village in 1942. They shot the men and older boys, deported the women and children to concentration camps, razed the village to the ground, and struck its name from the map. After World War II, a new village was built near the site of the old village, which is now a national park and memorial

Donation of Constantine

This was a fraudulent Roman imperial edict which was supposedly written by Emperor Constantine. In this edict, the Pope was given the power of civil authority. Later on during the Renaissance period, this edict was proven to be fabricated by Lorenzo Valla because the Latin language, which had changed from Rome to the Renaissance, used in the edict did not match the Latin of Constantine's time

Conservative Senate

This was a parliament under the Consulate of Napoleon in which it could appoint notables to office (patronage). In practice it was where Napoleon kept the regicides out of true power

Phony War

This was a phase in early World War II marked by few military operations in Western Europe, in the months following the German invasion of Poland and preceding the Battle of France. Although the great powers of Europe had declared war on one another, neither side had yet committed to launching a significant attack, and there was relatively little fighting on the ground. This ended on May 10th as the Nazis began their assault on Benelux and the Ardennes Forest

The Mountain

This was a political party within the National Convention named because the people that made up this party sat on the highest benches in the assembly hall. These people were the activists within the Convention. This party, which quickly became the most radical in the National Convention, worried that the Girondists would become conservative because of their already moderate beliefs. Although they were in competition with each other, this party eventually won due to their alliance with the Sans-Culottes, resulting in a more radical group of people. The mountains believed in equal outcome.

European Defense Community

This was a proposal by Rene Plevan, French President of the Council (essentially Prime Minister) after Eisenhower called for the rearmament of West Germany. The plan was unite the militaries of West German, Italy, France, and the Benelux Countries into a "European Army" in which Germans could serve. It failed to pass the French legislature in 1954, and so West Germany was allowed to rearm under NATO leadership and watch. A year later FRG became a full member of NATO.

Sinn Fein

This was an Irish republican political movement founded in 1905 to promote independence from England and unification of Ireland. This group initiated a small war of independence late in WWI to separate Ireland from the British and were successful following the 1922 recognition of the Irish Free State within the Commonwealth by Parliament. However successful, most of Ulster chose to remain within the United Kingdom. In 1949, dropping the name Eire and adopting the name Republic of Ireland, the south half of the continent dropped all ties with the United Kingdom.

Young Hegelians

This was anti-Hegelian group in that they expected that the course of history would lead to a free and democratic society instead of just the existing Prussian State as Hegel had maintained. It was the first group Marx had a large impact in as a student.

October Manifesto

This was issued by Tsar Nicholas II in 1905, after the disastrous conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War, in response to the general strike administered by the Mensheviks and the general chaos that had charactered the Revolution of 1905. It gave the Duma, a legislative body, to the Constitutional Democrats as well as a written constitution that would included the protection of civil liberties to all classes. This actually enraged the liberals, landowners, and industrialists who feared the power of the proletariate. It also enraged the peasants who saw it as a bot of lies and deception by the Tsar to keep power. They were right.

Cisalpine Republic

This was the first nation led by Napoleon, which he had created after conquering Milan, Venice, and Bologna (even though he would soon cede the port of Venice to Austria) on the Po Valley. By refusing to cede Milan so that Austria would recognize that France dominated Belgium, Napoleon quite easily asserted himself against the Directory believing that Austria's recognition of Belgium was irrelevant; it was fully French.

The Bohemian War

This was the first phase of the Thirty Years' War (1618-25) which began with the defrenestratiofn of Prague and the killing of Emperor Matthias. So to be protected from a fierce Catholic response, the Czechs selected Fredrick V, Elector of Palatine and the Head of the Protestant Union, to be their king and defend them from Bavaria and Spain. This culminated in the battle of White Mountain where Frederick was humiliated in defeat

Patriots

This was the first recognizable political group as the French Revolution began in the National Assembly. These legislators desired a delaying veto power of the king, where he could delay a bill but not stop it, and a one house legislature. After The Women's March on Versailles, they won out fully

Physiocrats

This was the group of economists, mainly in France during the reign of Louis XV led by Quesnay, Turgot, and Dupont de Nemours, who believed that the wealth of a nation was derived solely from the value of its land. They were the first people to be called economists, a term that was meant to be insulting

Stadholder

This was the name given to the person appointed by the States General to carry out ceremonial functions in a province in the Netherlands. Usually it was occupied by a member of the House of Orange

Council of State

This was the power center of the government under the Consulate in France. It mimicked the Old Regime in that it was the only source of legislation and power. It was the tool by which Napoleon became the dictator of France

Diet

This was the representative body of the HRE that held all the power of a united government. However, a majority was required to do anything and this body literally never agreed on anything for fear the HRE as a union would weaken the liberties of its member states. It was absolutely powerless, like the union it represented.

Third Reich

This was the term Hitler used to refer to his Germany. The first was the Holy Roman Empire, the second was Bismarck's Germany that collapsed at the end of WWI. He prophesied that this would last a thousands years and that Europe would look back on the great days of his empire, instead of the Romans.

Napoleonic Legend

This was the term given to the idealistic picture that became Napoleon during the 19th century in France, especially with the peasant populations. They desired to go back to time where the glory of France was feared by the world, and this mood was materialized i the completion of the Arch de Triumphe in 1838, the entombing of Napoleon at Invalids in 1840, and finally the election of Louis Bonaparte in 1848.

Council of Ministers

This, sometimes abbreviated to Sovmin or referred to as the Soviet of Ministers), was the de jure government comprising the highest executive and administrative body of the Soviet Union from 1946 until 1991. It comprised of 95 members headed by the Premier

Viceroy's Council

This, the cabinet of the British government in India headed by the Viceroy of India, admitted an Indian in 1909 to appease the Indians. Fear of imperial powers increased after the Russo-Japanese War as other Asian countries considered copying the Japanese industrial efforts.

Legislative Body

This, the legislative branch of the Second French Republic, was maintained and elected by universal male suffrage during the Second French Empire, as was the Senate, but it lost its power to make laws, set the budget, or control the army. Those privileges fell to the autocrat Napoleon III.

Nagasaki

Trading port, after Jesuit disputes, only the Dutch were allowed to reside here, and only for 2-3 months at a time

Warsaw Pact

Treaty signed in 1955 that formed an alliance of the Eastern European countries behind the Iron Curtain; USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. It was to counter NATO's formation six years earlier

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, 1st Prince of Bénévent (Known Simply as Talleyrand)

Under Napoleon, this disgraced former Archbishop who had hidden in America during the Terror became France's famous foreign minister. He was one of the many emigres who came back to France at Napoleon's request, which greatly improved the wealth of France

Old Laws

Under the Tory Regime of the 1820s, these laws dating from the seventeenth century that did not law protestants to hold public office except through legal fiction by which they pretended to be Anglicans were repealed.

Corvee

Unpaid labor (as for the maintenance of roads) required by a lord of his vassals in lieu of taxes in France. These were abolished by Louis XVI

Crush the Infamous thing

Voltaire "Ecrasez I'infame" refers to the abuses the church. Voltaire condemned the whole tradition Christian view of the world as well

Sir Francis Bacon

Was one of the leading supporters of all scientific research in England and one of the strongest crusaders against Aristotelian methods. He wrote The Advancement of Learning in 1605, which talks, about the scientific method and the ways of empirical experimentation. His inductive method of research quickly removed all legitimacy t deductive research He really preached the impact of scientific discovery and wrote a utopian work of how science was the savior of humanity. His two greatest weakness was the fact that he was Lord Chancellor of England (he was not a full time scientist) and rejected most of mathematics for axioms and theorems of mathematics are not empirical or inductive as Bacon required

Catherine de' Medici

Was the wife of Henry II. She acted as regent during the reign of her three weak and ineffective sons - Francis II (1559-60) Charles IX (1560-74) Henry III (1574-89).

Willy Brandt

West German chancellor who took lead of the détente. He signed a treaty of reconciliation with Poland, and he laid a wreath at the Polish tomb of the unknown soldier. He aimed at nothing less than a comprehensive peace settlement for central Europe and the two German states established after 1945. He negotiated treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, accepting the reduced German border

Pan-Slav Assembly

When the Frankfurt Assembly met in May of 1848, the Germans invited the Bohemians because many Germans lived in Bohemia and Bohemia was part of the 1815 confederation and of the HRE that came before it. However, the Czechs did not want to belong to a German national state, so they instead called their own assembly in June 1848 in Prague. It was anti-German, but not anti-Austrian/Habsburg and attracted many slavs in Austria, Poland, and the Balkans.

Mexico

While South America's Creoles took power from those in Spain, this colony tried to do the same. However, its very large mestizo and indian population revolted against the Creoles, preferring Spanish rule that was more evenly biased against all parties instead of a state that would have benefited the creoles at the expense of the common man.

Lib-Labs

With 2,000,000 union members in England in 1900, compared to only 850,000 in Germany and 250,000 in France, England did not develop a union or labour political party nearly as quickly as those on the continent because unions were so accepted and strikes were so successful. The few labour men that were elected on the liberal ticket, whom all had a great fondness for the labour parties on the continent, were known as this.

Fifth French Republic

With Indochina lost and Algeria in an open revolt, the National Assembly and France called upon Charles de Gaulle to fix the situation, giving him authoritarian powers fro six months in which he was expected to prepare a new constitution. What emerged was this government, the current French government, in which de Gaulle gave himself, the President, an extraordinary amount of power over the National Assembly, which he could dissolve, and the nation. In a surprise move, de Gaulle opened the Algeria question to a referendum, which granted independence, and granted independence to all of France's sub-Saharan colonies, without a referendum. France was to move on without an Empire.

Samuel Pufendorf

Writer of The Law of Nature and Nations( 1672) which was similar to the Law of War and Peace by Hugo Grotius (1625)

New Amsterdam

a settlement established by the Dutch near the mouth of Hudson River and the southern end of Manhattan Island. Annexed by the English in 1664 and renamed New York in honor of the Duke of York

Faust

an alchemist of German legend who sold his soul to Mephistopheles (aka Satin) in exchange for knowledge

The Black Death

by 1348, this disease ravaged from Italy, Spain, and France to the rest of Europe; transmitted by fleas on rats; considered an epidemic; one in three people died; spread from Asia to middle east; people turned to witchcraft for cures; some beat themselves because they considered the disease God's punishment; Christians blamed Jews; production declined; higher wages and inflation were produced. Since the plague was erratic, nothing could be planned or expected with a great deal of accuracy. Trade and agriculture suffered tremendously

Conquista

destruction of an indiginous civilization by the spanish

Battle of Blenheim

the First Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy defeated the French in 1704 at this battle in Bavaria during the War of the Spanish Succession

Vanishing Point

the appearance of a point on the horizon at which parallel lines converge

Democracy

A political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them. Founded in Athens Greece

Blitzkrieg

"Lighting war", a pioneering type of warfare that was born out of the quick warfare Bismarck had used against the French and Austrians, this fast-moving warfare used by German forces against Poland and others in 1939 used modern technology, mainly tanks and aircraft, to take entire countries in days

Teresa of Avila

(1515-1582) Spanish Carmelite nun and one of the principal saints of the Roman Catholic Church; she reformed the Carmelite order. Her fervor for the Catholic Church proved inspiring for many people during the Reformation period to stay Catholic.

Ivan the Terrible

(1533-1584) earned his nickname for his great acts of cruelty directed toward all those with whom he disagreed. He became the first ruler to assume the title Tzar of all Russia.

Descartes

(1596-1650) French philosopher, discovered analytical geometry while fighting in a ditch during a war. Saw Algebra and Geometry have a direct relationship and using this he developed the Cartesian Coordinate System. He reduced everything to spiritual or physical.

Anna Maria van Schurman

(1607-1678), A German-Dutch painter, engraver, poet and scholar. She was a highly educated woman by the seventeeth century standards. She argued for the education of women in The Learned Maid or Whether a Maid May Be a Scholar (1638)

Lorenzo Valla

(1406-1457) This man was the author of On Pleasure, and On the False Donation of Constantine, which challenged the authority of the papacy. Father of modern historical criticism through the study of language (mainly Latin) and ancient texts

Erasmus

(1466?-1536) Dutch Humanist and friend of Sir Thomas More. Perhaps the most intellectual man in Europe and widely respected. Believed the problems in the Catholic Church could be fixed; did not suport the idea of a Reformation. Wrote Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, and On Civility in Children. although his criticisms of the Church led to the Reformation, he opposed violence and condemned Martin Luther (1466-1536)

Ferdinand Lassalle

(1825-1864) Leader of the revisionist socialists, who hoped to achieve socialism through the ballot rather than the bullet. They agreed to work within the framework of the existing government. Their first successes were found in Germany under Bismarck who kept them very happy in order to ensure their cooperation. Bismarck viewed the socialists and revolutionaries that brought about the revolutions of 1848 as the most dangerous force against Prussia and so conceited many things to them that did not weaken his position of power.

Taiping Rebellion

(1854-1868) This is the most destructive civil war before the twentieth century in China. A Christian-inspired rural rebellion threatened to topple the Qing Empire. They did very well militarily in the south until Europeans aided the Qing

Ultramontanism

(Roman Catholic Church) the policy that the absolute authority of the church should be vested in the pope

Universal History

(French: Essai sur les moeurs) This book written by Voltaire was the first historical work done by a European that was not in a Judeo-Chistrian context. He believed that religion was based on the sociological framework of the people who believed in it, which really meant he felt that religion was mere human invention. Therefore, his history was without religion, nor western, bias

Leonardo Bruni

1. First to use the term "humanism" 2. Among the most important of the civic humanists 3. Served as a chancellor in Florence 4. Wrote a history of Florence, perhaps the first modern history, and wrote a narrative using primary source 5. He pioneered the concept that authentic sources were necessary in research. He also documents and the division of historical periods. He wrote "New Cicero" which has the idea that humanists believe that their studies of humanism should be put to the service of the state. (c. 1370 - March 9, 1444)

Concordat of Bologna

1516 - Treaty under which the French Crown recognized the supremacy of the pope over a council, but the King of France obtained the right to appoint all French bishops and abbots. This is the main reason that France had no united interest for the reformation- they already ruled the church

Peace of Augsburg

1555 agreement declaring that the religion of each German state would be decided by its ruler and all in that state must align with the decision of the ruling Prince. It ended the war between the German Habsburg states and France which had allied with the League of Schmalkald

Edict of Nantes

1598, this decree made by King Henry IV was to restore internal peace in France, which had been torn by the Wars of Religion; the edict defined the rights of the French Protestants which included requiring any town that had a majority of protestants to hold protestant worship, except within a vale surround Catholic Paris. It made both protestants and catholics in all aspects under the law, and granted protestants 100 fortified towns

New Atlantis

1623 Sir Francis Bacon expressed his aspirations and ideals; utopian novel was his creation of an ideal land where "generosity and enlightenment, dignity and splendour, piety and public spirit" were the commonly held qualities of the inhabitants of Bensalem

Peace of Prague

1635, German Protestant states, led by Saxony, reached a compromise agreement with Ferdinand. It repealed the Edict of Restitution and guaranteed amnesty for all who fought against the Habsburgs. The Swedes were not allowed to be a part of this treaty and they essentially lost all support once they had so soundly defeated the Habsburgs, reaching the Danube with their armies. The Germans resented all foreign parties on their soil, even if the Swedes were defending them

Treaty of Nimwegen

1678 ended Dutch War. France gave up ambitions against Holland for the time being but took Franche Comte from the Spanish crown and brought France's. power to borders of Switzerland

Battle of Ramillies

1706 allies victory in the War of Spanish Succession in the Spanish Netherlands

Treaty of Amiens

1802 treaty between France and Great Britain (Second Coalition had already ended at the Treaty of Luneville, 1801). This treaty settled peace with Great Britain. For short period then, 1802 to 1803, there was peace - the only period of peace between 1792 and 1814, when no European power was at war with another. However, in 1803 England returned to war with France

Third Coalition

1803-1806. The Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire, Great Britain, Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of Sicily, Kingdom of Portugal, and Sweden against the French Empire, the Batavian Republic, The Italy Republic, Etruria, Spain, the Kingdom of Bavaria, and the Kingdom of Württemberg. Ended on the continent by the Treaty of Pressburg

Joseph Mazzini

1805-1872, Italian. Member of Carbonari and went on to found the Young Italy movement in 1831. Known as the spirit/soul of Italian Unification. Edited publications which spread Italian nationalism. Wrote The Duties of Man in which he emphasized family, nation and God.

David Friedrich Strauss

1808-74 A German, critical scholar of Bible and theologian. Wrote Life of Jesus in which he examined the miracles of Christ. Many episodes he explained away, reverently but firmly, as myths

Gothic Revival

1830s movement in architecture when buildings in the Gothic (high medieval) style became popular. It was in this period that the British Parliament building was built. This was the architectural manifestation of Romanticism. Where the Enlightenment had looked down on the Middle Ages as a "dark" period of ignorance, the Romantics celebrated the Medieval period for its spiritualism, depth, and sense of adventure.

Anti-Corn Law League

1838, established by liberal Whig manufacturers Richard Cobden and John Bright; formed to help workers by lowering bread prices.

Russo-Japanese War

A conflict that grew out of the rival imperialist ambitions of the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over Manchuria and Korea (1904-1905)

Edmund Burke

A conservative leader who was deeply troubled by the aroused spirit of reform. He was one of George III's "friends" in parliament. In 1790, he published Reforms on The Revolution in France, one of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism. He defended inherited priveledges in general and those of the English monarchy and aristocracy. Glorified unrepresentitive Parliament and predicted that reform would lead to chaos and tyranny.

Price Revolution

A dramatic rise in prices (actually VERY slowly compared to modern inflation). A major problem in Europe in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, causes economic collapse in Spain. It was caused by the increasing population of Europe, mainly centered in rural areas, leading to the rapid rise of agricultural prices. The constant rebasing of the currency by european Monarchies (which had every-increasing power) exacerbated the situations.

Hatt-i Humayun

A far reaching reform decree issued by Sultan Abdul-Mejid I in 1856. The decree created a national citizenship by taking away the political authority of the empire's religious leaders. It tried to remove cultural divisions by making people from all cultures and religions eligible to serve in the government. In this way the Ottomans tried to create a European nation that did not have internal divisions so that Europe would be willing to support the integrity of the disintegrating empire

Despotism (similar to Tyranny)

A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.). It was employed in some Greek city-states

Carolingian Miniscule

A form of handwriting devised by monks at the monasteries of Corbie and Tours in the year 800. It was new type of formal literacy writing using lowercase letters. Its standards of capitalizing the first letters of sentences is the basis of our modern printing.

Maginot Line

A fortification built before World War II, in essentially the same area as Louis XIV's defenses centuries earlier, to protect France's eastern border. It was considered impregnable. In WWII the Germans did initially attack north of the line through the Ardennes Forest, which was also felt to be impregnable, and Belgium to avoid this fortification, but quickly attacked the line itself from behind, seeing that it was much weaker than previously anticipated.

Emile Zola

A giant of the Realism movement in literature, articulated the key themes. This man depicted life as it was, everyday life, rejected romantic search for exotic and sublime. This man wrote about typical and commonplace, focused on middle class and then working class. This man was a determinist who believe that human action were casued by unalterable natural laws, heredity and environment determined human behavior

Benvenuto Cellini

A goldsmith and sculptor who wrote an autobiography, famous for its arrogance and immodest self-praise (3 November 1500 - 13 February 1571)

Encomienda

A grant of authority over a population of American Indians in the Spanish colonies. It provided the grant holder with a supply of cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the Amerindians. It obliged the grant holder to Christianize the Amerindians.

Roundheads

A group consisting of puritans, country land owners, and town based manufacturers, led by Oliver Cromwell; fought against the Cavaliers during the English civil war

Power Loom

A loom operated mechanically, originally by water but this was quickly replaced by steam, that allowed weavers to keep pace with the water frame. Patented in 1787 by Edward Cartwright, it became economic viable in the early 19th century. By 1842 this had become totally automatic under the design of James Bullough and William Kenworthy

Battle of Trafalgar

A naval battle in 1805 off the southwest coast of Spain. The French and Spanish fleets were defeated by the English under Lord Nelson (who was mortally wounded). Never again would France have any naval potential against Britain

Edouard Manet

A nineteenth-century French painter, this man was the father of Impressionism. His Luncheon on the Grass, showing two clothes men and a naked woman picnicking, shocked the public of his day. Olympia, depicting a nude prostitute with an authoritative look, was damned by much of Paris

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich

A novel written by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, first published in November 1962 in the Soviet literary magazine. The story is set in a Soviet labor camp in the 1950s, and describes a single day of an ordinary prisoner. Its publication was an extraordinary event in Soviet literary history—never before had an account of Stalinist repression been openly distributed. It was not censored by the Kremlin

Scholasticism

A philosophical and theological system, associated with Thomas Aquinas, devised to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Roman Catholic theology in the thirteenth century.

Rape of Nanjing

A six-week period following the Japanese capture of the Chinese city of Nanjing. During this period, hundreds of thousands of civilians were murdered and 20,000-80,000 women were raped by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army. The Japanese government as always denied these claims.

Malta, the Ionian Islands, and Heligoland

Adding to Gibraltar, Great Britain received these territories as through the Napoleonic Wars in the Mediterranean

Count of Olivares

Administrator who was compared to Richelieu; Spanish; devised new sources of revenue and tried to limit the influence of the Church which he viewed as an economic drain on the nation; thought the Spanish should return to imperial tradition. While effective, his efforts were opposed, climaxing with Portugal leaving the Kingdom of Spain in 1640

Secret Police

After the third failed attempted on his life in 1880, Tsar Alexander II eliminated this remnant from his father's regime.

Departments

All of the internal territorial changes that were made in France by the National Assembly, the creation of these, 83 equally represented areas (like states), was the most radical compared to the state of the internal affairs of the Old Regime. By dividing the country so evenly, the National Assembly eliminated old towns and their magistrates to created a fair and uniform municipal organization in which all had the same government. In this plan, no one outside of Paris acted for the central government, but these could decide to enforce the acts of the National Assembly if they chose to, but they quickly became pawns of Paris

National American Woman Suffrage Association

American militant suffragist organization founded by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. The movement for women's suffrage was much more supported in America, Australia, and New Zealand than in the inner zone of Europe.

Boer War

Also known as the South African War, this war began in 1899 between the Transvaal and Orange Free State against Britain lasted until 1902 and included the use of Concentration Camps by the British to hold in captivity citizens of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State in which about 20,000 women and children died. These British Concentration Camps were used as a guide for the Nazis in World War II. With the British victory, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State were allowed to keep autonomy in the British Empire until 1910 when they were combined with the Cape Colony to form the Union of South Africa based on the model of the Dominion of Canada.

Brownshirts

Also known as the storm troopers, this group was akin to the Blackshirts in Italy. This group preformed violent acts against communists and minorities that were enemies of Nazism. Unlike the Blackshirts they were not officially condemned by Hitler and the party but publicly used to protect the Nazis against their enemies which entailed acts of violence.

Nouvelle Heloise

Although Rousseau wrote this as a novel, a philosophical theory about authenticity permeates through it, as he explores autonomy and authenticity as moral values. A common interpretation is that Rousseau valued the ethics of authenticity over rational moral principles, as he illlustrates the principle that one should do what is imposed upon him by society only insofar as it would seem congruent with one's "secret principles" and feelings, being constituent of one's core identity. Thus unauthentic behavior would pave the way to self-destruction. This novel is also known as Julie

Christopher Wren

An English Baroque architect famous for his Saint Paul's Cathedral in London, England. Appointed the King's Surveyor of Works after the great fire of 1666, he not only built Saint Paul's (the first cathedral for the Protestant Church of England) but redesigned and built numerous other churches that had burned down. He took French and Italian Baroque architecture and combined it with the Renaissance and Gothic styles to create the staple English Baroque style of the 17th century.

Sepoy

An Indian soldier serving under British command. With most of the British regular forced to the Crimean in 1857, as well as China, these became very popular to keep the peace in Indian. It is not coincidence that the Indian Mutiny occurred in the years following.

Viscount Castlereagh

An Irish foreign minister for England at the Congress of Vienna. He was a dominant figure in Europe and was a Tory. He pushed the general British demands which were to remove Napoleon from power, return France to her borders of 1792, and take as much overseas land as possible. The first part of the negotiations with the Six Coalition went with this man in control, for Napoleon was still in the field and the Six Coalition was paid for solely by Great Britain

1930

An act in this year established insurance programs against sickness, accident, and old age in France. This legislation, radical before the war, was adopted in many forms throughout Europe. The 8-hour work day almost became universal.

Taille

An annual direct tax, usually on land or property, that provided a regular source of income for the French monarchy. It was usually only paid by peasants as nobles maneuvered their way around the tax by a multitude of means and the church, which held nearly 15% of the land, was exempt from all taxes as long as they gave their periodic "free gift" to the French crown which covered a lot, but not all, of the taxes they refused to pay

General Ferdinand Foch

Another French army commander holding views opposite those of Pétain. He was commander of offensive forces at the Battle of Marne, and in 1918 became commander of all allied armed forces

Constituent Assembly

Another name for the National Assembly based on the fact it was preparing a constitution.

March Laws

Aroused by Kossuth's National Party, Hungarian Diet enacted these laws. Hungary was to maintain complete constitutional separatism within the Austrian Empire while still recognizing the Habsburgs. Harassed, Emperor Ferdinand approved these laws and he later granted the same laws to Bohemia.

Jan Vermeer

Artist facinated with the effects of light and dark. Chose domestic indoor settings for his portraits. Chose women doing familiar activites as pouring milk or reading a letter.

Albert Speer

As Hitler's favorite architect, Speer was in charge of building cities and structures for Hitler and designing new cities envisioned after victory in WWII. He also pioneered work in bomb-proofing civilian structures, albeit he was only marginally successful and the Nazis were never able to devote enough resources to employ his technology throughout Germany.

Diderot

Aside from occasional visits by Voltaire, this enlightened thinker was the main force behind the reign of Catherine. She even allowed his library to be housed in Russia at her expense

Sic et Non

Assembled by Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, this Latin work was a collections of statements made by the founders of the Roman Catholic Church, especially St. Augustine, that showed where the truth of Christian doctrine lay so that people could have reason behind the practices of the Church

Diet of Worms

Assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire, called by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1521. Luther was ordered to recant but he refused. Charles V declared Luther an outlaw.

Gustav Stresemann

Assumed leadership of Germany in August 1923. He called off passive resistance in the Ruhr and in October agreed in principle to pay preparations but ask for a re-examination of Germany's ability to pay. He led Germany during the Spirit of Locarno

Father Gapon

Attempting to organize the factory workers of St. Petersburg so to prove that they opposed the anarchist and revolutionaries, this man, who truly cared for the workers, was able to created a petition that asked from the Tsar an eight hour work day, a daily wage of a ruble, and a Constituent Assembly. It was even signed "God save the Tsar", a symbol of its peaceful intensions. The Tsar was not in St. Petersburg when it was presented to the Winter Palace from a crowd of 200,000. Scared, the Tsar's officials fired into the crowd. This event is known to history as Bloody Sunday

Night of August 4

August day reforms, this combative all-night meeting, in which nobles, in a session that purposely included very few members of the whole assembly, in the National Assembly voted to end their own privileges. They agreed to give up their old manorial dues, exclusive hunting rights, special legal status, and exemption from taxes. The manorial owners would be compensated, but this was removed in 1793 by the radicals

Gregor Mendel

Augustinian monk and botanist whose experiments in breeding garden peas led to his eventual recognition as founder of the science of genetics (1822-1884). His work was generally ignored prior to Darwin's Origin of Species

Battle of Plassey

Battle in 1757 between troops of the British East India Company and an Indian army under Sirud-daula ruler of Bengal; British victory resulted in control of northern India

Kingdom of Sweden

Because Denmark had been so loyal to Napoleon, this Kingdom, a constant ally to Great Britain, received Norway from Denmark

United States

Beginning in the 1920s, this major destination for immigrants, receiving mainly Eastern Europeans by this time, instituted quotas for immigrants which were very low compared to the immigrants who wanted to come to this country. The quotas were lowest for the Eastern Europeans countries.

Assembly of Notables

Calonne attempted to win approval of his ideas, behind the back of the Parlement of Paris, by assembling this group of extremely powerful nobles in 1787. It failed as the nobles demanded even more power if they were to be taxed and Louis XVI would give them none

The Elect

Calvin's term for those who have been predestine, but the term becomes for those who run Geneva with Calvin instead of the whole of those who are predestine for heaven

Potemkin Villages

Catherine was trying to induce Joseph II to help in her plans for Turkey - Greek Project and so took him on tour of newly won Black Sea provinces. One of her aides, Potemkin, constructed facades to villages and had "happy" peasants line the route to give illusion of prosperity which Joseph II easily saw through. Even with the fake villages, and the fact that Joseph II had no interest with the Ottomans and desired Silesia, he went to war with the Ottomans with Catherine. This war was halted due to the French Revolution (everyone felt safer watching then being exposed while fighting a war)

Napoleon III

Coming all the way from being outlawed under the Le Chapelier Act of 1791, union were recognized by this man in 1864 as legitimate societies, but lost this right after the actions of the Paris Commune. They were given full legal status in 1884.

Ferdinand VII

Conservative leader, he declared Mexico independent of Spain, became its emperor in response to the liberal reforms. He became the King of Spain (1812) after the Bourbon restoration and restored the nobility church and monarchy to previous status before Napoleon

Wilhelm Wundt

Considered the Father of modern psychology; study of mental processes, introspection, and self-exam; established the first psychology laboratory in Germany

Positive Philosophy

Cours de Philosophie Positive was a series of texts written by the French philosopher of science and founding sociologist, Auguste Comte, between 1830 and 1842. Within these work he unveiled the epistemological perspective of positivism. The first three volumes of these works dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in existence (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science. It is in observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and classifying the sciences in this way, that Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term. For him, the physical sciences had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. His A General View of Positivism (published in English in 1865) would therefore set-out to define, in more detail, the empirical goals of sociology

Jeremy Bentham

Creator of Utilitarianism. Used the Pain-Pleasure litmus test, rather than ideology. He believed that public problems should dealt with on a rational scientific basis. Believed in the idea of the greatest good for the greatest number. Wrote Principles of Morals and Legislation (17890

Trans-Siberan Railway

Desiring to unite St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Vladivostok by this railroad, the Russians refused to allow any great power to dominate Manchuria, for they desired Port Arthur and the most direct railroad route to Vladivostok, which went through Manchuria. All the European powers joined into pressuring Japan, who caved.

Turkey

Despite financial distress at home, the UK ensured this country's survival when the Soviets tried to forcibly open the Dardanelles. The British invested heavily in this country's defensives to ensure the Soviets could not walk across the Caucuses and take the only stable middle-eastern democracy.

Swammerdam

Dutch naturalist and microscopist who proposed a classification of insects and who was among the first to recognize cells in animals and was the first to see red blood cells (1637-1680)

Prince Schwarzenberg

Emperor Francis Joseph's (succeeded Ferdinand) chief minister, the heir to Metternich. Opposed all forms of popular self-expression more so than Metternich. Achieved repression of these movement with candid reliance on army. Constitutionalism and nationalism were to be rooted out under his rule. He supported the Bach system.

Treaty of Frankfurt

Ending the Franco-Prussian War, officially inking the agreements made at Versailles in January of 1871, this treaty established the German Empire, which was to be governed by a constitution nearly identical to that which ruled the North German Confederation, which was to be ruled by the King of Prussia and to include all German states (save Austria). It also demanded that Alsace and Lorraine, German speaking territories that had been taken by Louis XVI, were to be incorporated in the German Empire. It an odd turn, it also dictated that the French established a National Assembly by universal suffrage to established a new French State in whatever form the French saw fit. This new government was to pay the German Empire 5 Billion Francs (practically an un-payable sum).

Wat Tyler's Rebellion

England faced this large scale uprising in 1381. Spokesman for theses movements asked "Why some should be rich and others poor." Government and the upper classes replied to this menace with ferocious repression. The peasants returned to their usual labors.

John Stuart Mill

English Philosopher, Benthamite, wrote "On Liberty", Essay that talked about problem of how to prortect the rights of individuals and minorities in the emerging age of mass electoral paricipation. Advocated right of workers to organize, equality for women, and universal suffrage

William Pitt

English Prime Minister, son of Pitt the Elder (this man is the younger) who led Great Britain through the Seven Years' War (1708-1778)

Lord Ernest Rutherford

English Scientist (New Zealand); pioneer of subatomic work; found atom is mostly empty space and has a nucleus using the Gold Foil Experiment

Virginia Woolf

English author whose work used such techniques as stream of consciousness and the interior monologue, this woman , English author whose work used such techniques as stream of consciousness and the interior monologue was a prominent member of the Bloomsbury Group (1882-1941). She wrote Mrs. Dalloway, Night and Day, The Voyage Out, and Jacob's Room

40,000

Even though Louis XIV fielded a total army of 400,000, this number was the cap for his, as well as all other leaders', field armies. This limiting factor, due to a combination of poor roads, poor supply, poor communication, and the lack of efficient administrations, of armies allowed small powers to have power not in proportion to their size (Sweden/Prussia)

Stalin

Even though he had allowed the Germans, without much of a fight, to begin a siege Leningrad, Sebastopol, and reach within 25 miles of Moscow, this man eventually recovered from his shock of the Nazis invasion on June 22th of 1941 and, after clearing out most of his military commanders, began the defense of the Russian motherland.

Jacques Necker

Financial expert of Louis XVI (1777-1781), he advised Louis to reduce court spending, reform his government, abolish tarriffs on internal trade, but the First and Second Estates convinced Louis to have him fired because he attempted to efficiently tax the nobles

Admiral Horthy

Former Habsburg naval officer who seized power in 1920 after the fall of Bela Kun and the Hungary Soviet Republic and encouraged attacks against Jews. He was backed by Hungarian upper classes; the old aristocracy. Declared his determination to see Hungary regain its previous borders

H M Stanley

Found Dr. David Livingston who people thought was dead. His newspaper reports spurred interest in Africa. In 1879 King Leopold II hired him to make treaties with African chiefs in the Belgian Congo, giving control of the Congo to Leopold. He famously uttered the line "Dr. Livingstone, I presume" when finding David Livingstone

Social Democratic Party

Founded by Russian Marxists in 1898; held the belief that revolution would begin first in western Europe, following classical Marxist principles; distrusted the peasant class. They admired the German Social Democratic for its size and adherence to Marxist principals. The party members included Lenin, his future wife Krupskaya, Stalin, and Trotsky

Prussian Constitution of 1850

Frederick William IV dissolved the Prussian Constitutional Assembly in December 1848 and in 1850 he issued his own constitution. Lasted to 1918. Provided for 2 house parliament. Upper house seated the Junker nobility. Lower house was elected by universal suffrage but the three class voting law enabled the wealthiest 20% (the top 20% of tax payers) to elect 2/3 of the members. King retained absolute veto over legislation and authority to suspend civil liberties. The constitution did guarantee the end of serfdom in Prussia. Fairly progressive for the times but didn't change when other did so landowners and wealthy industrialists kept special positions of privilege and power into the 20th century

Madame de Geoffrin

French hostess of salon society. 1750 - 1775. Entertained artists and writers at dinner, sometimes helped them financially and introduced them to persons of influence in high society or in government. Also welcomed foreigners such as Horace Walpole and David Hume from England and Poniatowski from Poland.

Bonnes Villes

French king's "good towns" - each had stubbornly defended corporate rights and were nearly equal to the free cities of Germany in the HRE. These gave united France a very fragmented economic feel

Emigres

French nobles who fled from France during the peasant uprisings. They were very conservative and hoped to restore the king to power. They also took almost all of the wealth of the country out of the country, making the governments of the National Constituent Assembly and Legislative Assembly very poor

League of Armed Neutrality

Group of nations who united together in 1780 in order to maintain neutrality through the American Revolutionary War. Started by Russia, joined by Italy, the Sicilian countries, and the Holy Roman Empire (modern Germany). If any members of the league broke the treaty, then the other remaining nations would attack the violator. If any outside party attacked any countries within the league, then the entire league would attack the outside party. It was was intended to protect neutral shipping against the British Royal Navy's wartime policy of unlimited search of neutral shipping for French contraband.

Duke of Guise

He had led the french to victory over Germany at Metz in 1552. He captured Calais from the English. He was one of the leaders of the French Wars of Religion, and massacred the Huguenots (he was the head of the Catholics with the Cardinal of Lorraine). He was shot, then succeeded by his brother.

Anne Boleyn

Henry VIII mistress during the time of the English Reformation, she gave birth to Elizabeth, future queen of England. One of the reasons Henry VIII wanted to get his marriage to Catherine annulled is so that he could marry her. Henry beheaded her for not producing a male heir

Defense of the Seven Sacraments

Henry VIII, a devout member of the Roman church, attacked Luther's doctrines in 1520 in this book. In Honor of his work, Pope Leo X declared Henry VIII "Defender of the Faith"

Don Juan

Hero of Lepanto and half brother to Philip II and governor of Netherlands in 1576. He plotted to put Mary Queen of Scots on the English throne and was the most hostile threat to England between William the Conquerer and Napoleon. Used the Netherlands as staging ground for invasion of Engl. His plotting causes Elizabeth to make alliance with the Stadholder of the Netherlands and their patriots. He died in 1578. Succeeded by Duke of Parma.

Dumouriez

Heroic general of the French revolutionary army - victorious in Austrian Netherlands which lead to their annexation, but, in April of 1793, he defected to Austria. Allied armies then drove French out of Belgium and again threatened to invade France. Counterrevolutionaries rejoiced. Revolutionaries shouted - "We are betrayed!" This man's betrayal caused the Girondins to loose all power which led to their mass execution in the Reign of Terror by Robespierre and his mountain

Cavaliers

In the English Civil War (1642-1647), these were the troops loyal to Charles II. Their opponents were the Roundheads, loyal to Parliament and Oliver Cromwell.

John Napier

In 1614 this Scot invented logarithms

Marco Polo Bridge

In 1937, Japan militarists reportedly touched off an explosion here that was blamed on the Chinese that led to an all-out invasion of China, adding much of China to Japan's territories on the mainland (Manchuria)

Le Chapelier Law

In June of 1791 this law made guilds, compagnonnages, and all trade union illegal in France. This law would remain in effect throughout the revolution and well into the 19th century,

The Napoleonic Codes

Made up of the Civil Code (Code Napoleon), the codes of civil and of criminal procedure, and the commercial and penal codes, this was system of French laws formulated by Napoleon that became the foundation of western legal systems. They completely revolutionized law in France, creating uniform laws across the state. Schools were created around these ideals to replace those destroyed when the First Estate lost theirs lands. These made modern laws concern contracts, LLCs, debt, leases, and stocks. They banned all organizations of labor. They were the first laws to step towards "innocent before proven guilty". They also gave more liberties to women, but the codes were still paternalistic. Above all, they codified the lifestyle of France which was, and has been since, socially bourgeois, legally egalitarian, and administratively extremely bureaucratic

Diplomatic Revolution

Major reversal of diplomatic alliances in 1756 which ultimately led to the Seven Years War that began later the same year. Great Britain reversed its alliance with Austria and forged a relationship with Prussia, causing France to join with Austria and Russia to check Prussian power. These new alliances, particularly on the southern end, were not welcome by the general population, especially in France.

House of Commons

Members of this house of the British Parliament are made up of "knights and burgesses" (the gentry) and had no equivalent on the continent. Since it was made up of nearly all of the townsfolk, it had more power then just the middle class alone, giving Britain its characteristic mixing of classes not found anywhere on the continent. This, as well as the power of the representatives to commit their districts to the laws of parliament, avoided many revolutions in England that surged the continent later in modern history. By the 18th century, only the wealthy, mainly merchants or industrialists, were housed in it and therefore it no longer represented most of England. It was also powerless on major issues as the House of Lords could always ask the King to add more members to the this house, destroying any opposition majority they did not agree with. Even with its limitations, there were enough people represented that any interest, with enough money, could get its way through Parliament (East India Company)

Treaty of Sevres (1920)

Most severe of the treaties with Germany's wartime allies, this treaty Dismembered the Turkish Ottoman empire. Gave Smyrna and Thrace to Greece, the island of Rhodes to Italy, Syria to France, Iraq and Palestine to Britain, and Saudi Arabia to Britain as protectorate. The Saudis would soon become independent

Moriscos

Muslims in Spain who had converted to Christianity - 1501. Their conversion was often questioned. They were persecuted and often came before the Inquisition. Finally, these people were expelled from Spain in 1609, wounding the economy of Spain.

Bloody June Days

On May 15th of 1848 some of the members of the National Workshops of France, where a revolution of socialism had be brewing since it was created, attacked the Constituent Assembly and declared it dissolved. The National Guard restored the Constituent Assembly which closed the National Workshops and declared martial law under General Cavaignac and the army. What followed is known as this, and it was strikingly similar to the February Revolution. The narrow streets of Paris once again became barricaded as more than 20,000 armed workingmen took to the streets armed. While the military technology made it difficult, the army took back the city in three days. 10,000 were dead or wounded and 11,000 were to be deported.

Intendant

Official appointed by French King Louis XIV to govern the provinces, collect taxes, and recruit soldiers. It was a very effective way, if not the most effective way, to manage a kingdom during the 17th century.

Second Partition of Poland

On 23 January 1793 Prussia signed a treaty with Russia, agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked and both countries would receive chunks of Commonwealth territory. Russian and Prussian military took control of the territories they claimed soon afterward, with Russian troops already present, and Prussian troops meeting only nominal resistance. Russia received the Minsk Voivodeship, Kiev Voivodeship, Bracław Voivodeship, Podole Voivodeship and parts of the Vilnius Voivodeship, Nowogródek Voivodeship, Brest Litovsk Voivodeship and the Volhynian Voivodeship (in total, 250 000 km²). This was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 22 July. Russia reorganized its newly acquired territories into Minsk Governorate, Podolia Governorate and Volhynian Governorate. Prussia received the cities of Gdańsk (Danzig) and Toruń (Thorn), and Gniezno Voivodeship, Poznań Voivodeship, Sieradz Voivodeship, Kalisz Voivodeship, Płock Voivodeship, Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship, Inowrocław Voivodeship, Dobrzyń Land, and parts of the Kraków Voivodeship, Rawa Voivodeship and Masovian Voivodeship (in total, 58 000 km²). This was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 25 September. Prussia organized it's newly acquired territories into South Prussia. After this partition, the Commonwealth lost about 308 000 km², being reduced to 217 000 km². It lost about 2 million people; only about 3.4 million people remained in Poland, an estimated fourth of the pre-First Partition (1772), estimated at over 14 million.

110,000

Out of the 611,000 men, of all nations who entered Russia with Napoleon in 1812, only this many men, all speaking different languages, made it back to Poland alive even though only 30,000 had been wounded or killed in the sole battle. The Grand Army was gone. Amazingly, while it took weeks for his troops to make it to Poland and months to make it back home, Napoleon made it from Moscow to Paris in 13 days, a feet that has never been outdone by horse-drawn-carriage

Non-Jurors

Outside the official church - a group of Anglican clergy who refused to take the oath of loyalty after 1688. Kept a "shadow" church alive until 1805. Some tories, these, and Scots constituted a group after 1688 in which there was potential for a counterrevolution to develop which developed as the supporters support for the Pretenders.

Spanish Flu

Pandemic that spread around the world in 1918, killing more than 50 million people, including 675,00 in the United States (easily more then double the death total for the US because of WWI)

July Revolution (1830)

Parisian revolution that broke out concurrently with the July Ordinances, this sparked revolts throughout Europe, and ended with the crowning of Louis Phillipe and the creation of what became known as the July Monarchy. For three days Paris was a blockaded battleground during which the majority of the army refused to fire against their fellow Frenchmen.

Long Parliament

Parliament convened by Charles I in 1640; lasted on and off for 20 years; it was the parliament in power during Cromwell's rule; passed laws that limited power of monarchy

Test Act

Parliament passed this in 1673 in response to Charles II's declaration of indulgences; required all military members to swear an oath against transubstantiation. It was finally repealed by the Tory Regime in 1828 as England moved towards a secular state.

Notables

Part of a make-believe parliamentary institution set up under Consulate. Through universal male suffrage a list of these was elected and from this list government could choose ministers. But in reality, power was with the First Consul (Napoleon) alone

Albert Einstein

Physicist born in Germany who formulated the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity. This man also proposed that light consists of discrete quantized bundles of energy (later called photons) which is actually what he was awarded his only Nobel Prize for (1879-1955)

Magellan

Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain. He commanded an expedition that was the first to circumnavigate the world, even though he died in the Philippines. His crew after that had to cope with many batters against the Portuguese as well as the local natives (1480-1521)

Vuk Karajich

Published Popular Songs and Epics of the Serbs as well as the first Serbian grammar books, wast the first to attempt to collect the Serbian alphabet and translated the new testament into Serbian using this alphabet

Two Treatises of Government

Published anonymously by John Locke in 1689. First treatise attacks patriarchalism, and the second treatise outlines the theory of civil society based on natural rights and social contract, both based on the idea of Natural Law being the ultimate law. Locke placed heavy emphasis on the right to property as the foundation for a strong nation. Overall, Locke took a more genial view of human nature than Hobbes

Transvaal

Region of Southern Africa originally founded by Afrikaners after the establishment of the Cape Colony by the British; became a source of interest for the British following the discovery of gold and diamonds leading to the Boer War, or South Africa War, after a wave of Brits entered the country

Insurrection of the Prairial

Sans-culottes rising of May 1795 after the Thermidorian Reaction to announce their general dissatisfaction with the execution of Robespierre and the end to the Terror

Kronstadt

Site of a Soviet Baltic fleet mutiny in 1921 that was brutally crushed by the Red Army as a part of the Red Terror

Wars of the Roses

Struggle for the English throne (1450-1485) between the house of York (white rose) and the house of Lancaster (red rose) ending with the accession of the Tudor monarch Henry VII

Metric System

The Cartesian decimal system of weights and measures based on the meter, the kilogram, and the second installed by during the French Revolution (1795), and the rest of Europe through the actions of Napoleon, to replace antiquated medieval system, like the Anglo-American system that is still in use today

King George's War

The North America portion of the War of Pragmatic Sanction. It took place primarily in the British provinces of New York, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, and Nova Scotia. Its only successful large-scale action was a major expedition organized by Massachusetts Governor William Shirley that successfully besieged the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that ended the war in 1748 restored Louisbourg to France, and failed to resolve any outstanding territorial issues.

Apparatchiki

The Soviet party bureaucrats who sought to oust Khrushchev when some of his reforms threatened their privileged status.

Babylonian Captivity

The period when all popes were French and resided in Avignon, France, starting with Clement V. This angered Italians and led to the Great Schism and two Popes both claiming to hold the keys of Peter. In this divide, the Papacy lost its overwhelming power-never to really regain it

Battle of Waterloo

The battle on 18 June 1815 in which Napoleon met his final defeat. Prussian and British forces under Blucher and the Duke of Wellington routed the French forces under Napoleon. As a result, France was to be occupied until it was assured the revolutionary activity was over, and France would owe 700,000,000 Francs (a payable sum)

Battle of Borodino

The bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic era, fought in the city it is named for outside of Moscow in September of 1812; both sides had terrible losses, but the Russian army was not defeated when it retreated; Napoleon gained nothing substantial and when Moscow was burned by the retreating Russians, the French forces were left completely cut off. Napoleon regarded this battle as a loss.

Das Capital

The book is a critical analysis of capitalism and its practical economic application and also, in part, a critique of other related theories by Karl Max. For all of its errors and biases, it is a massive work compiling one of the largest, if not the largest, collection of economic knowledge in the 19th century in one written body.

Nationalism

The doctrine that nations should act independently (rather than collectively) to attain their goals, this term arose in English along with Communism from Germany in the 1840s. Because this doctrine's beliefs could only be fufilled with the overthrow of essentially every country on the continent, whether by combining the small of destroying the large, the doctrine was quite revolutionary and therefore vehemently opposed by the standing governments and the conservatives. To exist in a time where this was akin to treason so supporters of this stayed alive through secret societies. The Carbonari in Italy were the oldest, organized to oppose Napoleon, and the most powerful, but there were also the Veri Italiani, the Apophasimenes, and the Sublime and Perfect Masters. Mason lodges, which were not new to Europe, occasionally would also harbor the activities of the supporters of this doctrine. With so many of its leaders trapped in secret societies, this doctrine failed to have defining leadership. Joseph Mazzini, a revolutionary who founded Young Italy out of the Carbonari, was the most famous writing The Duties of a Man. Less revolutionary support of this doctrine was found in Germany through Grimm's Fairy Tales

Institutes of the Christian Religion

The doctrine written by John Calvin in Latin as a book for the whole world, giving his new religion an international identity in contrast to the German and Baltic Lutherans

Marxism

The economic and political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that hold that human actions and institutions are economically determined and that class struggle is needed to create historical change and that capitalism will untimately be superseded. The term only came into use in absurdity late in the 19th century and only into common use during and after the Russian Revolution.

Duma

The elected parliament of Russia. Though through establishing this is seemed like the Czar was giving his people power, in reality he could easily get rid of this if they made any laws or such that he didn't like. It was much akin to the imperial Diet of the HRE

Entente Cordiale

The series of understandings, or agreements, between France and Britian that led to their alliance in World War I, forgetting their century of hostility climaxing with the Fashoda incident.

Six Articles

The seven sacraments were upheld, Catholic theology was maintained against the tenets of both Lutheranism and Calvinism, and the authority of the monarch replaced the authority of the Pope. This act of Parliament simply ensured that the only change in the Church of English would be that the king would replace the Pope

Peace, Land, and Bread

The slogan used by Lenin to win the support of the people against Kerensky

Australia, New Zealand, Finland, Norway, and the United States (Western States Only)

These countries, the Baltic or the most advanced colonies, were the only to allow women's suffrage before World War One.

Real Wages

These decreased from 1900 to 1914 for the first time since before 1848 to the glee of orthodox Marxists who felt vindicated.

Six Acts (1819)

These acts aimed to prevent radical meetings, like the one that sparked the Peterloo Massacre. They called such meetings 'overt acts of treasonable activity'. They also outlawed seditious and blasphemous literature (as viewed by the government) and taxed newspapers to the point where only the largest (the most conservative) could survived. The laws passed, despite opposition from the Whigs.

Lateran Accord

This settled an argument between the Italian Government and the Pope that had been going on for nearly sixty years. In 1929 The Pope agreed to accept the Fascists and Mussolini agreed that the Catholic religion would be taught in every Italian school. He also promised to pay the salaries of Catholic priests and set up the Vatican City in Rome. This convinced many Italians that they should support Mussolini. Mussolini gave the lands of the Vatican back to the church, but kept Rome for himself and Italy

Charles II

This sickly king defined his sickly kingdom of Spain. He was unable to produce an heir, resulting in the war of Spanish Succession between

Napoleon II

This son of Napoleon was declared King of Rome at birth by his father (who truly ran Rome). When Pope Pius VII protested, Napoleon threw him into a French jail. This man died of tuberculosis at 21

Palatinate

This state in 1608 formed a Protestant union with all protestant states in the HRE as well as England, Holland, and France (its king at this time, Henry IV, was Protestant). This was important because this state crossed the Rhine, a very crucial attribute in war and the exchange of ideas (religion)

Hut Tax

This tax was levied on all home owners in Africa, only on native Africans of course, in order to make the native Africans need money. In this manner there would be demand for jobs that Europeans desperately need to fill in Africa and at first the native would not do because they had no need for money.

James Watt

This technician at the University of Glasgow began experimenting with more efficient steam engine designs in 1763. By the mid 1780s this man, with the financing of Boulton, had creating the first steam engines that were economically viable for industrial production.

Exploding

This term is used to describe the famous "liberum veto" in the Polish diet where if one single lord wished to end the diet for the year, the entire diet was forced to disband. Of the 55 diets from 1652 (the first year this occurred) to 1764, 48 ended by "liberum veto"

Class Conflict

Totalitarianism proved to be so alluring in the decades following WWI because it appeared to be the most effective way to end this, an issue democracy admitted it has no cure to. In this way Marxism appeared, for a time, to be correct: society tries to eliminate this and bring its nation to a state of inner peace. Once completed, a united nation could look to solve international conflict through violence. The woes of the country for dictators is always the fault of foreign pressures, especially foreign democracies.

Grundgesetz

Translated as Basic Law, this was FRG's (West Germany) constitution, but specifically not named as such as a constitution was only to be made after Germany was united. However this did serve as the direct basis for the 1990 constitution for united Germany. It had an extensive bill of rights and decentralized power under a Federalist model.

Treaty of Rastadt

Treaty that confirmed Philip V as king of Spain. Gave Gibraltar and Minorca to England, making it a Mediterranean power. Won Louis's recognition of the right of the House of Hanover to accede to the English throne.

Isaac Taylor

Ultimate Civilization, published in 1860, was written by this man and attempted to clarify how western society was moral, free of the "relics of barbarism" which included polygamy, infanticide, prostitution (although this was found in every culture in the world-incuding Europe), capricious divorce, sanguinary and immoral games, infliction of torture, caste and slavery.

Free Trade

Unable to create a tariff union with Belgium to get Belgian coal, for this was too close to a Franco-Belgium pseudo-state for England and Prussia's liking, Napoleon III negotiate this treaty with England in 1860 and later nearly ever single country in Europe.

Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria

Wanting to change Vienna before Count Jellachich could reach Vienna, the revolutionaries forced this man to flee in October of 1848. While Windischgratz quickly exterminated this revoltution, the counterrevolutionaries still did not desire this man to return as emperor. He officially abdicated and his son, Francis Joseph, took the throne in December of 1848. He would be the last Emperor of Austria, ruling through WWI

Opium War (1839-1841)

War between Britain and the Qing Empire that was, in the British view, caused by the Qing government's refusal to permit the importation of opium into its territories (opium was the only thing other than silver that the Chinese had any demand for). The victorious British imposed the one-sided Treaty of Nanking on China.

Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji

War between Turks and Russians in 1772 ended by this treaty named after the final battle which was an overwhelming victory of Catherine on the Danube. Catherine the Great secured by this a Black Sea (warm water) port for Russia. (Peter the Great had been unable to secure for effective use the port of Azov.) Russia's success in this was an additional prompt to Frederick the Great of Prussia to practice diplomacy in partitioning Poland. Russia's expansive tendancies were alarming and it seemed preferable to arrange a deal rather than a war in which Russia would take all of Poland. Also by this point Catherine and Russia were keenly aware of the fact that the closer geographically Russia became to Europe, the more fearful and less trustworthy the major power of Europe became toward the Russians

Conditions of the Working Classes in England

Written in 1844 by Engels and revealed the depressed conditions of labor in Manchester (site of first industrialized town). Pointed out low wages for labor and most of profits being reinvested or retained by owning classes. Wealth was in the hands of a very few. And these few controlled the government. Religion was seen as keeping the working classes in order and really of very little real help to them. Noted that families were disintegrating under these appalling conditions - leading to social disorder

Surplus Capital

With as money pouring into the new colonies of imperialism and the aging empires of the Ottomans and Persia in the latter half of the nineteenth century, Europeans slowly began to shift their investments away from America, Canada, or inner European for parts of Asia and Africa under "civilized governments". With ample evidence to prove that this was causing the horrors of imperialism, many socialists and labour members condemned this and demanded that this be used to support the poorer in inner Europe, leading to the end of Classical Liberalism in Europe. Marx's ideas of class warfare seemed to coming true as the wealthy in Europe seemingly abused this without regard for the worker.

Cur Deus Homo?

Written by Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, this Latin work gave a reasoned explanation to show why God had taken human from to save sinful human beings; Jesus

Montagnards

members of the radical faction within the Jacobin party who advocated the centralization of state power during the French Revolution and instituted the Reign of Terror

Fifth Monarchy Men

millenial group who thought end of world at hand. Took name from Bible readings which they interpreted to say there have been four empires - Assyria, Persian, Alexander, and Caesar's - thought Fifth at hand - Christ's, in which justice would rule. This group exemplified the differentiating ideas in England during the time of the Common Wealth- England was not united under one idea going forward

Joseph II

"One must work to the people's happiness even despite them, in a monarchy, a despotism of principles must reign."

Peter the Great

(1672-1725) Russian tsar (r. 1689-1725). He enthusiastically introduced Western languages, changed the Russian language to make it more agreeable to westerners, introduced technologies to the Russian elite, and moved the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg. For all he did culturally, he was at war for every year of his reign save two. Also, unsatisfied with his son who opposed him, he superseded the precedent of position of the Tsar and disinherited his son Alexis, whom he executed. Aligning with this view, he rarely kept families in government, avoiding sons taking the places of their fathers. Hereditary positions, the norm in Europe, were opposed. Russia under the Romanovs, in sole control of everything in a state with an extremely suppressed common class and lacking a nobility, has been called a state without a people. He was proclaimed "The Great" during his lifetime by the senate he singlehandedly controlled. After his death, his reforms were not undone

Bulletin des loix

(Bulletin of the laws) was a publication created during the French Revolution, as an "official anthology of the laws, orders and regulations that govern" the people. It was created by the decree of 14 Frimaire year II (December 4, 1793). In the horrible and bloody disorder of the Terror, the National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety, concerned to channel and to coordinate their actions, felt it necessary to create an organ by which to get news of votes in Paris to various scattered parts of the administration, notably those in the provinces. It was for this purpose that the Bulletin was created. A commission was specially created to supervise the sending-out of this publication to all the towns. The first issue of the Bulletin of the laws appeared in May 1794.

Instauratio Magna

(Great Renewal) written by Sir Francis Bacon in the early 17th century. It was to contain several volumes in which Bacon called for a new start in science and civilization. He only actually completed two full volumes but it's title and intent is significant because he was anticipating a complete new start - a revolution - a fresh page for all knowledge on which everything would be examined again.

Sixth Coalition

(It can be said that this was just Great Britain and Russia against France in 1812, before Napoleon's horrific retreat) 1812 to 1814. The Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sweden, Spain, the Kingdom of Portugal, the Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Sardinia (After Battle of Leipzig: the Kingdom of Saxony, the Kingdom of Bavaria, and the Kingdom of Württemberg) against the French Empire, the Kingdom of Italy, and Duchy of Warsaw (Until January 1814: the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Denmark-Norway, the Swiss Confederation, and the Confederation of the Rhine (Many member states defected after Battle of Leipzig)). Ended everywhere through the Treaty of Kiel and the Peace of Fontainebleau

Paul III

1534-49 Roman aristocrat, humanist and astrologer. First of reforming popes (called Council of Trent). Appointed several reform-minded cardinals. Believed in Papal primacy but took office v. seriously - moral & religious force. Authorised Ursuline order of nuns so that girls would be education as well as the Jesuits.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs

1543; work by Copernicus (published posthumously so that he would not be damned as a heretic), a Pole, that speculated that the heavenly bodies known to man at that time (6 planets, the sun, and the stars) rotated around the sun in perfect concentric spheres

Battle of Boyne River

1688 Revolution - final battle of James II in Ireland. Because the Catholic King had fled to Ireland to be safe, England enacted a new harsh "penal code" for the Irish which included that no catholics could teach, sit for office, go to college, inherit land from a Protestant, lease land for more than 31 years, or own a horse valued over 5 pounds (wth). Also, all imports and exports from Ireland had to occur to and from Britain, so Irish manufacturing never existed as the cheaper British goods simply flooded the island. The Catholic Irish were oppressed, but were not in a position to revolt

First Coalition

1792-1797. Kingdom Austria, Great Britain, Kingdom of Prussia, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, the Dutch Republic, Spain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia against France, its satellite states, and the Polish Legion. Ended by the Treaty of Camp Formo on the Continent

White Terror

1795 royalist rebellion in Paris, trying to overthrow the revolutionaries. Napoleon, the general in Paris at the time, makes his first appearance, demolishing the rebellion with a "width of a grape shot". The directory would be dependent on the army for its entire existence

Second Coalition

1798-1802. Kingdom of Austria, Great Britain, Russia, French Royalists, the Kingdom of Portugal, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the Ottoman Empire against the First French Republic, Spain, the Polish Legions, Kingdom of Denmark-Norway, the Batavian Republic, the Helvetic Republic, the Cisalpine Republic, the Roman Republic, and the Parthenopaean Republic. Ended by the Treaty of Lunéville on the continent and the Treaty of Amiens between Great Britain and France

Dachau

A concentration camp for Jews created by the Nazis near Munich in southern Germany

Sphere of Influence

A foreign region in which a nation has control over trade and other economic activities. These would be established during the era of imperialism in large empires like Persia, China, or the Ottoman Empire after the Shah or Sultan became extremely indebted to the Europeans. This was one manner that the Europeans accepted slower payments.

League of Schmalkald

A group of Lutheran princes and free cities joined the league against the HRE, The king of France allied with the league because he did not want Germany to be unified. This was half of France's alliances against the Habsburg, the other being an alliance with the Ottomans

Holocaust

A methodical plan orchestrated by Hitler to ensure German supremacy. It called for the elimination of Jews, non-conformists, homosexuals, non-Aryans, and mentally and physically disabled, all in an attempt to glorify Germans and built a better Deutschland

Romanticism

A movement in literature and art during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that celebrated nature rather than civilization, yet the English term was only coined in the late 1840s. It was a reaction to Napoleon's and France's abandonment of any emotion through France's tough bureaucratic machine, including the Napoleonic Codes. Appealing to those that opposed Napoleon and lacked a country, the movement was centered in Europe around the German States. It was led by Wordsworth in America, Lord Byron and the Shelleys in England, Victor Hugo, Rene Chateaubriand, and George Sand in France, and Friedrich von Schiller and Friedrich Schlegel in Germany. Its defining theoretical belief is that love is unclassifiable and intangible

Battle of Midway

A naval battle of World War II (June 1942) in which land and carrier-based American planes decisively defeated a Japanese fleet on its way to invade the Midway Islands. It is regarded as the turning point in the war in the Pacific

Anti-Intellectualism

A philosophical doctrine that questions or denies the ability of the intellect to comprehend the true nature of things. It was common in political arguments between opposing nations by the end of the 19th century and continued well into the 20th

Lamartine

A poet and leader of the political republicans in the 10-man provisional government that was established after Louis Philippe abdicated. Political republicans were represented by 7 of the 10-man panel while the other three were social republicans led by Louis Blanc. He was also one of 4 candidates for president after a new constitution was drafted. He stood for vaguely moral and idealistic republican principles. It was his eloquent speech to rioting workers outside the Hotel de Ville that kept the tricolor, and not the red flag of the socialists, as the flag of France.

Girondins

A political party that emerged in revolutionary France after the fall of the monarchy in 1792 when the jacobins split into two factions. Named for the region in southwestern France where many of their leaders were from. They were members of the professional class (lawyers and merchants) who wanted a constitutional governemnt, opposed the growing influence of Parisian miltants, and championed the smaller provinces bewond the city of Paris. They agreed the king was guilty of treason but were reluctant to execute him, arguing for exile or a referendum on his fate. They were first to be targeted as the beginning of the Terror. They became the party of international revolution and felt hat the revolution in France would never be secure until it spread to the world. This propelled a group of this party, led by Lafayette, to support a war with Europe

Feudalism

A political system in which nobles (Lords) are granted the use of lands that legally belong to their king, in exchange for their loyalty, military service, and protection of the people who live on the land. The serfs then work the Lords' lands in an agreement that was very similar to the one between the Lords and the King. It developed in the late 8th century, died out in Western Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries, but remained in a few East European regions well into the 18th century

Paul Gaugin

A post-Impressionist artist (1848-1903), this man, who was susceptible to depression, thought that European art lacked deep symbolism, and he was therefore drawn to the art forms in different lands such as South America, Japan, and Africa. Some of his paintings include "Where Do We Come From?" and "The Yellow Christ"

Natural Law

A rule or body of rules of conduct inherent in human nature and essential to or binding upon human society. This was the system by which law was conducted in the Roman empire due to the differing in customs between many people, especially merchants. The Romans mainly drew this from Greek philosophy, but their rulings always favoured the state or the majority. This connected the cultures of the Roman Empire on a fundamental judicial level

Anglo-Ameican War of 1812

Abandoning the Jeffersonian strategy of trading with no one, America under Madison soon went to war with England after struggling with the fact that trading with France was to go to war with England while trading with England was to go to war with France. The expansionist faction in America also greatly desired Canada. The war was extremely inconclusive, except that the fledging republic's military was extremely inefficient and weak. It is also known as the War of 1812

Gold Standard

Adopting this in 1821, Britain led the way for a new global economic market in which currencies would be completely exchangeable. All other European powers and the US adopted this system by 1870. While it weakened the debtor with longer term deflation, it proved too profitable for bankers and the proletariat to be removed. Pressure was finally removed from the industrialized, debtor nations, and other groups with large debts as by 1900 new gold discoveries in Alaska, Australia, and South Africa brought an end to deflation, although inflation was certainly not an issue.

Payment

After 1688, as it had been custom for the last century, it became law that members of the House of Commons did not receive this, and an Act in 1710 actually stipulated how much of this a member of the House of Commons must already have to run for the office, and nearly all people could not. Parliament became a function of the aristocracy and England lost all of its democratic traditions from the 17th century to the late 20th century. However, after experimenting without a monarchy in the 17th century, the idea never tempted the British as it did the for the nations on the continent (Cromwell was not a fun experience)

Elizabeth of Russia

After Peter's death in 1725, no successor came to the throne, since he had not named one, and subsequently the country was once again plunged into chaos and civil war between a Russian faction and a German faction. This was only put to an end by this woman, Peter's daughter, taking the throne in 1741 and ending the civil war

Politburo

After Stalin cemented his power following the first pive-year plan, Stalin went about eliminating the power of the group, the executive committee of the Communist party, because they held the same fears that Lenin did about Stalin and his techniques. This group of seven was slowly assassinated, probably by men of Stalin. Such treatment was extended to all members of the communist party who knew Lenin.

Odessa

After World War I, France occupied this Russian city in order to aid the Czech Legion who had allied with Denikin and the Whites.

Helmut Schmidt

After a scandal took down Willy Brandt's Social Democratic government in 1974, this man, his hand-pciked successor, picked up where he left off, keeping the Chancellorship until 1982 when he lost to the Christian Democrats.

National Government

After attempting to reduce the dole in response to the exponentially growing unemployment that came with the depression, Ramsay MacDonald, appointed Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1929, was ousted from the Labour Party. He followed this by running on all party ticket, which won overwhelmingly in 1931 elections. The government he would run, whose parliament was controlled a majority of Conservatives, would be referred as this. This government attempted to cope with the depression by retrenchment, balancing the government, and encouraging investment with low interest loans. While being very passive compared to the FDRs plans in the United States, it was only marginally more effective than the outrageous American spending. Regular employment only returned with WWII and conscription.

Twelve Years' Truce

After battle lines were just moving back and forth in Netherlands, a truce was established in 1609 for the number of years stated in the name of the treaty. The people in north were Dutch and people in south were subjects to the Spanish Netherlands which ended up including Antwerp

Cominform

After disbanding the Third International in 1943 as a symbol of goodwill towards its capitalistic allies, it reestablished it in 1947 under a new name (officially known as the Communist Information Bureau but commonly known as this). This never had any power or influence and was disbanded forever in 1956

Constitutional Charter

After gaining back power, Louis XVIII issued this to appease Tsar Alexander I. While France's government would be run in the same manner as the Old Regime, the efficiencies of the Revolutionary governments would be adopted and all the changes that had been cemented under Napoleon remained. Feudalism, and everything like it would not return to France

Reichstag

After gaining the Chancellorship, Hitler called for new elections to ensure the German people that they were being well represented by his new government. A week before the elections were to take place in March of 1933, this building burned. The Nazis immediately blamed the communists and set loose the Brownshirts to create widespread fear through violence. A red scare fell upon Germany. The new elections gave Hitler a majority, along with the support of the Nationalists, and, trumpeting a national emergency, took dictatorial powers which he would never relinquish. The Weimar Republic had fallen via its own mechanism.

1685

After making slow advances against non-Catholics, Louis XIV evicted the Edict of Nantes in this year, once Richelieu was dead for he abhorred the idea. By doing so, most Protestants left France for Holland, Germany, and America, and it was a great blow to France's economy, before which the greatest in all of Europe. After this occurred, while it was downplayed at the end of his reign, Protestants in France lived lives equal to those of Catholics in Ireland: utterly suppressed and treated as subhuman

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern

After overthrowing Queen Isabella II (a Bourbon), the Spanish in 1868, still very much a pro-monarchy nation, desired a new house to rule their country free of French influence (even though the Spanish Bourbons after Napoleon had been). They picked this man of the House of Hohenzollern, brother to King Wilhelm I of Prussia. Being the head of the house, King Wilhelm chose whether his brother would accept or not, and he declined three times. Bated by Bismarck to asked a fourth time in 1870, the cries of Spain to be ruled by a Hohenzollern sparked the Franco-Prussian War. This man never ruled Spain which collapsed into an unstable republic in 1873.

Second French Empire

After repealing universal male suffrage in 1850, Bonaparte saw universal suffrage as the method by which he could take power. On December 2nd of 1851, the anniversary of Austerlitz, Bonaparte pronounced that the Legislative Assembly was to be dissolved and that universal male suffrage was to be reinstated. The military, under his command, refused to let the Assembly reconvene. On December 20th Napoleon term as President was extended to 1860. by 1851, as a formality as Napoleon had operated as dictator since the coup d'etat that began in December, this was declared. Louis Bonaparte became Napoleon III.

King Leopold I

After the Belgian National Assembly could not get Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours to be their king, Talleyrand and the British intervened and offered this man. This man, a German Prince of Saxe-Coburg which was under Austria influence, had been a Grand General against Napoleon under Tsar Alexander I and married into the British Royal family (he was Queen Victory's uncle). Appeasing all major powers with his lineage (and Louis Philippe because this kept the British out of and happy with France) he was the easy choice for the first king of the new Belgium Kingdom that was forced by the major powers to be neutral in all international affairs. Any invasion into Belgium would be opposed by a united forced of the five great powers, and so the Belgians were content with their protected second-class status.

Meiji Constitution

After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, this 1889 document provided for a form of constitutional monarchy based on the Prussian model, in which the Emperor of Japan was an active ruler and wielded considerable political power (over foreign policy and diplomacy) which was shared with an elected Diet. The Diet primarily dictated domestic policy matters. This document, however, was a facade. War and navy ministers had to be active generals, a rule not found in the West, and all ministers had to swear to the supreme and sacred authority of the emperor. The nation, which in 1925 gave universal male suffrage to its people, was not democratic as it appeared. It was a industrial Asian empire, governing as the Asians naturally would, not democratically, but behind a facade of democracy to please the West.

Bastilles

After the Poor Law of 1834, the new working houses that were purposely worse than those under the old law were referred to by those in them as these. The term symbolized the revolutionary tendency rising in the powerless classes in England.

Liberal Party

After the Reform Bill of 1832, new political alliances formed in England as the industrialists joined the aristocracy in Parliament. The Whigs, almost always the smaller party compare to the Tories, joined the radical industrialists to form this party, once of the two major parties that would exist in England between 1832 and 1914.

Constitution of the Year III

After the Thermidorean Reaction members of the Convention wrote a new constitution. Went into effect at end of 1795. Set up a Directory and a Bicameral legislature which allowed for the rise of Napoleon

Tories

After the Treaty of Utrecht, the parties of England began to dissolve, the forces uniting the parties passed, however their names remained. This group became defined by their suspicion of the government in power and their general desire to see Scotland return to power. Being the original home of the Stuarts, this group tended to desire the restoration of the House of Stuart, even though that would mean a Catholic on the throne

Reform Bill of 1832

After the conservative Duke of Wellington had made a fool of himself outlandishly defending the current election system for Parliament in 1830, the Whigs, the party of Parliamentary reform, took power. After introducing a reform bill that was rejected by Parliament, the Whigs resigned forcing the unpopular Tories to create a government. When they refused, the Whigs once again introduced their reform bill that was accepted by the House of Commons, but rejected firmly by the House of Lords. After rioters took many major cities in the Midlands, the Whigs under Earl Grey were able to convince King William IV that reform was necessary or the country would rebel. William threatened to flood the House of Lords, as is his privilege, so that the majority would favour the Whigs' bill. Not wanting to lose their power, the House of Lords passed this act instead of being flooded by William. The act was not based on liberalism from the Continent, but just reformed the medieval system to represent more people. Electoral districts were not equal in population, but fifty-six of the smallest districts were abolished and thirty others lost their privilege to sent two burgesses to parliament for now they could only sent one. These 143 open seats went to creating new boroughs in the Industrial midlands.

Soviet Republics

After the establishment of the Bolsheviks as the sole party and rulers of old Russia, they established the new government as a union of these, characterizing the USSR more as a confederation of states that in practice were dominated by the Russian one of these. These highlighted the attempt of the Russians to bring out and glorify the many ethnic groups that had lived in Asian Russia after the mass migrations of old. Over 50 languages were written for the first time during the Soviet era and locals were newly allowed to wear whatever dress they pleased.

King of Denmark (Duke of Holstein)

After the fall of Fredrick V, this man took up ruling the Protestant league, which was falling apart at the seams. His only real ally was Richelieu and his kingdom was still easily destroyed by Albert of Wallenstein. His participation signifies the Danish War of the Thirty Years' War (1625-9)

White Terror

After the fall of napoleon during the reign of Louis XVIII, this occurred. For nearly 10 years counterrevolutionaries terrorized the rebels and the regicides, who were pardoned by Louis when he took the throne. Upper-class youths murdered Bonapartists and republics while Catholic mobs killed masses of Protestants in the south of the country.

Count Jellachich

After the success of the March Laws, the Hungarians under Louis Kossuth tried to assert their Magyar heritage. They moved the capital away from Vienna in Pressburg to Budapest. They also changed the language of Hungary from Latin to Magyar. While the Magyars were the most populous ethnic group in Hungary, they only totaled about half of the population. The other ethic groups did not accept the changes of Louis Kossuth. This Ban, provincial governor of Croatia of the Austria Empire, led the charge against the Magyars, and the Magyar nationalism crumbled.

Provisional Government

After the troops defending St. Petersburg mutinied against the Tsar, Nicholas abdicated on March 15, 1917 and this government took over. It would only hold power for eight months, but it was run by a group of liberals who believed in the parliamentary process. They had substantial backing but believed that the war must be won which led to their downfall.

White Terror

Again, in 1815, following the return of King Louis XVIII of France to power, people suspected of having ties with the governments of the French Revolution or of Napoleon suffered arrest and execution. Marshal Brune was killed in Avignon, and General Jean-Pierre Ramel was assassinated in Toulouse. These actions struck fear in the population, dissuading Jacobin and Bonapartist electors (48,000 on 72,000 total permitted by the census suffrage) to vote for the ultras. Of 402 members, the first Chamber of the Restoration was composed of 350 ultra-royalists; the king himself thus named it the Chambre introuvable ("the Unobtainable Chamber"). The Chamber voted oppressive laws, sentencing to death Marshal Ney and general la Bédoyère, while 250 people were given prison sentences and some others exiled (Joseph Fouché, Lazare Carnot, Cambacérès). This contributed to the warm welcome of Napoleon during his Hundred Days

Tax Farmers

Agents who purchased from the crown the rights to collect taxes in a particular district. This middleman in the process of taxation took a lot of the funds that were designed to go to the King, and only the poor classes paid taxes (including the bourgeois). This system failed Louis in getting the funds necessary to run his empire as desired and was a fundamental cause of the French Revolution.

Treaty of Rapallo

Agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union in 1922 that normalized diplomatic relations and ensured economic cooperation between the two nations

Peace of Tilsit

Agreement between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I in which Russia became an ally of France and Napoleon took over the lands of Prussia west of the Elbe as well as the Polish provinces to create the Grand of Warsaw. Russia would enter the Continental System

Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Treaty

Agreement that Russia and Germany would not go to war and Germany promised Stalin a part of Poland and domination over the Balkans

Zemstvos

Alexander II created this by the Edict of 1864 - a system of provincial and district councils which were elected by various groups including peasants. It was to deal with education, medical relief, public welfare, food supply, and roads in their areas. It did help develop civic sentiment and gave some administrative experience

George Sand

Amandine Aurore Lucie Dupin (1804-1876), strong-willed and gifted woman generally known by her pen name which is this. She defied the narrow conventions of her time in an unending search for fulfillment. She endured eight years of an unhappy marriage until finally abandoning her husband and taking her two children to pursue a career as a writer. There she soon achieved fame and wealth, eventually writing over eighty novels on a variety of romantic and social themes. All were shot through with a typically romantic love of nature and moral idealism. Her striking individualism went far beyond her flamboyant preference for men's clothing and cigars and her notorious affairs with poet Alfred de Musset and composer Frédéric Chopin, among others. Her semi-autobiographical novel Lélia was shockingly modern, delving deeply into her tortuous quest for sexual and personal freedom.

Frankfurt Assembly

An Assembly of German Peoples from May 1848 to May 1849 that sat in Frankfurt on Main. It tried to bring about a unified Germany with liberal constitution, civil rights, free elections, parliamentary debate, etc. It had potential because the collapse of existing governments during the March Days of 1848. The problem was that surrendering sovereignty of individual parts was not welcome and it was in question whether Austria or Prussia would rule the new nation. This was the essential dualism of Germany, i.e. the Berlin - Vienna tug of influence and power. There really wasn't an issue of radical versus middle class elements. The goal was liberal, self-governing and federally unified Germany that would be democratic but not equalitarian/socialist. The assembly failed because of these pressures. Since Vienna did not attend, the assembly, now united under the Little Germans, did offer the Crown of the new German Republic to Fredrick William IV, but the East Prussian dominated Junkers and military officers forced him to decline.

Statue of Westminster

An act passed in 1931 by Britain allowing Canada,m Australia, Union of South Africa, and New Zealand the right to pass laws without Britain approval and subject to British laws, and make agreements with other nations. Essentially this act made these colonies nations, or equal to Great Britain, although they would still be very economically united through the commonwealth. During the great depression the commonwealth never imposed tariffs against its own members, even at the height of economic nationalism. The commonwealth still exists today.

Boxer Uprising

An antiwestern uprising, this revolts members seige to the foreign quarters in Pekking, they murdered foreigners and Christian Chinese, Cixi sided with this group and declaired war on the eight nations that oposed it, the eight nations put down the uprising. Finally after this the Qing demanded that their country be modernized

War Socialism

An extreme form of a planned economy, used by Germany who was the most food and supply starved of the powers during WWI, this was pioneered by Jewish Industrialist Walter Rathenau. Everything would be produced need for the war effort, no matter what the need. Before the Germans invented the process by which nitrogen for explosives could be extracted from the air, manure was collected in mass quantities like any other natural resource necessary for the war effort.

Conservatism

Appearing in the English language in 1835, this political philosophy was the result of Napoleon's defeat, and in suit the defeat of the ideals of the French Revolution. Edmund Burke's idea that people must change their institutions by gradual adaptation and that people could not suddenly realize in the present any freedoms not already well prepared in the past was the bedrock for this doctrine throughout the 19th century

Berlin Blockade

April 1, 1948 - Russia under Stalin blockaded Berlin in response to the revoking of the old worthless German mark and establishing a new currency at a 10 to 1 ratio to the old: the Deusche mark by the French, British, and Americans. The USSR had not been informed of this decision or consulted and felt the action to be a breech in the agreement to treaty Germany as one economic unit (which it clearly was). To bring in food and supplies, the U.S. and Great Britain mounted air lifts which became so intense that, at their height, an airplane was landing in West Berlin every few minutes. The USSR, seeing their blockade a failure, lifted it by May of 1949.

Joseph II of Austria

Arguably the most enlightened of all the despots in Europe based on his actions, this man abolished serfdom, decreed absolute equality of taxation, curtailed torture, granted complete liberty of the press, and granted equal rights to all, including the Jews, save some outlandish sects. These changes made Jews liable to serve in the army as well as allowed them to become nobles, shocking many around Europe. He also gained power over the Church, gaining the right to appoint and supervise bishops, and took and sold many monasteries which funded the public, secular hospitals of Vienna (ruled 1780-1790)

Friedrich List

Argued against laissez-faire and advocated a program of protective tariffs for developing German industries. One of the few nationalists who did not wholeheartedly support liberalism. This man was a dedicated nationalist who believed that an agricultural nation was not only poor but also weak; advocated railroad building and the tariff; supported the formation of a customs union among the separate German states.

Feminism

Arriving from France during the 1830s as some French women finally started calling themselves Feminists, this doctrine desired more rights for women. Supporters fought furiously for women rights following Mary Wollstonecraft, the Condorcets, and Olympe de Gouges. The new generation of the 1830s tended to be egalitarian and so focused on upper class issues of woman rights instead of the growing influence of women in the lower classes. They also highlighted the differences between men and women and women's place in society, admitting, which previous supporters of this doctrine did not, that men did some things women should not. Overall, this doctrine in the 19th century focused on the social, cultural, and legal rights of women and not on suffrage. Its leaders, often radicals and socialists, included Anne Wheeler and William Thompson (wrote Appeal on the Behalf of Women in 1825), Robert Owen, Frances Wright, Harriet Taylor, John Stuart Mill (wrote The Subjection of Women in 1869), and Elizabeth Cady Station (wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women for the 1848 Seneca Falls convention). The Free Woman and The new Woman were very influential Parisian journals.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790

As a shock to the clergy, the body who had sided with the third estates against the second estate, this undid all of their efforts in France. Through his all church property became the property of the nation, and this caused the Catholic Church in France to become very poor. All the schools in France that had once been free were closed. The clergy were elected by the same 50,000 electors who chose the other important officials. The dioceses of the church were redrawn to conform to the new departments. This also mandated that the clergy would be paid, and not well, by the state and also forbid taking any religious vows. This also dissolved of monastic houses. The Legislative Assembly did not concern anything about separation of church and state for the church remained as a symbol of feudalism, and therefore it had to be destroyed. Because this undermined the old Gallican Liberties, the Pope condemned it and went further to condemn the whole revolution which he saw as atheist. This put him at odds with France for the rest of the revolution. Only seven Bishops, including Talleyrand, took the required oath of loyalty to the French constitution. A long term effect of this was that the Vatican became extremely centralized in Rome as it is today

Flight from the Pound

As the depression lengthened, all currencies eventually went off the gold standard and fell in value. The first were the agricultural countries in the South Pacific and South America immediately in 1929 and 1930. Industrial countries attempted to stay on the gold standard, but too much gold was leaving the country, as exports of industry were too, that could be sustained. In Great Britain this was the result, as many investers went gold itself or the dollar as a currency instead of the pound. Finally, late in 1931, Great Britain left the gold standard. To protect their own industries, the rest of Europe followed, so the relative strength of all European currencies remained the same. The US was the last of the major countries in the depression to leave the gold standard, finally protecting their huge, but slowly shrinking, reserves in 1934. With currencies off the gold standard, governments began to manipulate the markets like never before to prop of ailing, or simply dead, export businesses. From this process the quota system developed, in which a value food would be traded, essentially in a barter matter, for a value of industrial equipment.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do). Wrote The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)

Ausgleich

Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 that established the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. It was signed by Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria and a Hungarian delegation

Bach System

Centralized control of Austria following revolutions of 1848 and Francis Joseph coming to the throne named after Alexander Bach, the minister of the interior. It established a tight control of Austria following the period of revolutions around 1848. Shut down Hungarian nationalism by ending the rights it had before 1848 but paved the road for Dual Monarchy to come. This system did keep the emancipation of the peasants and created a free trading area that comprised the whole Empire. The idea was designed to make people forget liberty by demonstrating administrative efficiency and the tangible progress that could be found during the 19th century via the industrial revolution.

Pedro Cabral

Claimed Brazil for Portugal in 1500. He had intended to follow Da Gama but was blown off course.

General Douglas MacArthur

Commander of the US forces in the Pacific during WWII, the liberator of Manila, this man was the head of UN forces at the beginning of the Korean War. He successfully invaded Inchon from the sea and was able to secure the entire peninsula in a matter of months, which had been lost in about the same time period by the South Koreans alone. President Harry Truman removed him from his command after MacArthur expressed a desire to bomb Chinese bases in Manchuria, to encourage the nationalists in Taiwan to attack China, and to cut China off from Korea by a radioactive zone of nuclear waist.

Persia

Completing the first British-Indian telegraph line through this country in 1864, this British took a great interest ensuring that it did not fall into the hands of the Russians. In 1890 the British took control of all sea customs, including all profits, in exchange for loans to keep the ruler of this country in power, especially to keep oil flowing to Great Britain. In 1900 the Russians made the same deal with this country, taking control of all non-sea customs. Sick of foreign imperialism, their was a 1905 revolution leading to a parliament, but it did not stop the Russians and the British. To settle the issue, the British acknowledged a Russians Sphere of Influence in the north in 1907, while the Russians acknowledged a British Sphere of Influence in the south.

Treaty of Lausanne

Conference and treaty in 1923 between Turkey and the World War I Allies, replacing the Treaty of Sevres. It resulted in an Independent Republican Turkey that did not pay reparations, had no debt, and gave no capitulations. The Bosporus was, however, to be demilitarized and internationalized

The Fashoda Crisis

Conflict between Britain and the French over the Sudan. France ended up recognizing Britain's presence in Egypt and told Captain Marchand to retreat instead of fight what would have been a full battle between industrialized country, something neither desired in the Sudan. In return Britain recognized France's presence in Morocco

Manchester School

Created more by its opponents and then its supporters, this economic school was headed by the ideas of Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo. Their doctrine was best described, again by its opponents, as laissez-faire and is now known as classical economics. It believed that free markets are self-regulating and cyclical. It is best that everyone works for their own interests, without government regulation, because individuals known what is best for their own self interests. The government should be confined to preserving the security life, liberty, property, and obligations of contracts and debts.

Lord Protector

Cromwell disbanded parliament and took this title when parliament moved to quit funding the New Model Army. Making himself a dictator, Cromwell lost all support and was unable to succeed a lasting commonwealth. His song was disposed of two years after Cromwell's death and Charles II was reluctantly put back on the throne in 1660

Pride's Purge

Cromwell felt king should be executed to prevent counterrevolution. Parliament hesitated so Cromwaell used army to break up Parliament which had started at 500 in 1640 and already sunk to 150. Used Colonel Pride to remove dissenters (100 of them) and left only about 50 who would do his bidding, but even they slowly began to distrust Cromwell and vote against him. Charles I was beheaded in 1549

Second War of Italian Unification

Decided through the decisive French victories at Magenta and Solferino, this war, only conducted during 1859, gave Lombardy to Piedmont. Not satisfied by the Franco-Austrian treated that was decided without consulting Piedmont, many small Italian states (including Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna) revolted and, through plebiscites, joined into the Kingdom of Sardinia. In exchange for the French support for the large Italian Empire around Turin, France was given Nice and Savoy as plebiscites disclosed their desire to join Napoleon III.

Act of Supremacy

Declaration by Parliament that the king (Henry VIII) of England was to be the supreme head of the Church of England in 1534.

Battle of Navarino Bay (1827)

Desiring a christian republic under Russian control unlike his father, Tsar Nicholas I quickly entered Greece with an army and a small navy in an attempt to foster Greek support. This battle, a naval battle with considerable aid from England, was a major victory for Nicholas, allowing for Greek independence in 1829 and making the Turkish create autonomous states inside their territory in Wallachia, Moldavia, and Serbia. These losses inspired Egyptian revolts which forced Istanbul to created an autonomous region there under Mehemet Ali as well.

National Convention

During the French Revolution, this comprised the constitutional and legislative assembly which sat from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795 (the 4th of Brumaire of the year IV under the French Republican Calendar adopted by the Convention). It held executive power in France during the first years of the French First Republic. It was succeeded by the Directory, commencing 2 November 1795. Prominent members of the original Convention included Maximilien Robespierre of the Jacobin Club, Jean-Paul Marat (affiliated with the Jacobins, though never a formal member), and Georges Danton of the Cordeliers. From 1793 to 1794, executive power was de facto exercised by the Convention's Committee of Public Safety. While a republic had been claimed earlier in the revolution, this was the first government to hold officially all the power, completely separate of the monarchy which had been destroyed during its rise. This body would rule during France's military advancement during the War of the First Coalition and the Reign of Terror

Franco-Prussian War

During this 1870 war, Prussia, the North German Confederation, and the southern German States (not including Austria) allied against France. Italy did not enter the contest as France needed its troops in Rome, leaving the Eternal City undefended. Rome was incorporated into the Italian Empire in 1870. Russia did not enter the war as with the French distracted their ships could return to the Black Sea (forbidden by the 1856 Congress of Paris), and England just simply felt France to be in the wrong attacking Germany. Without allies, France was destroyed. The main army, including Napoleon III, was captured after the Battle of Sedan in September. After hearing the news, the Third French Republic was declared in Paris, which held out besieged for the next four months.

War of the Fourth Coalition

During this Napoleon's French Empire defeated mainly Prussia in a war spanning 1806-1807. Coalition partners included Prussia, Russia (although extremely weak after the Battle of Austerlitz), Saxony, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Many members of the coalition had previously been fighting France as part of the Third Coalition, and there was no intervening period of general peace. In 1806, Prussia joined a renewed coalition, fearing the rise in French power after the defeat of Austria and establishment of the French-sponsored Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia and Russia mobilized for a fresh campaign, and Prussian troops massed in Saxony. Napoleon decisively defeated the Prussians in a lightning campaign that culminated at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on 14 October 1806. French forces under Napoleon occupied Prussia, pursued the remnants of the shattered Prussian Army, and captured Berlin on October 25, 1806. They then advanced all the way to East Prussia, Poland and the Russian frontier, where they fought an inconclusive battle against the Russians at Eylau on 7-8 February 1807. Napoleon's advance on the Russian frontier was briefly checked during the spring as he revitalized his army. Russian forces were finally crushed by the French at Friedland on June 14, 1807, and three days later Russia asked for a truce. By the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, France made peace with Russia, which agreed to join the Continental System. The treaty however, was particularly harsh on Prussia as Napoleon demanded much of Prussia's territory along the lower Rhine west of the Elbe, and in what was part of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Respectively, these acquisitions were incorporated into his brother Jérôme Bonaparte's new Kingdom of Westphalia, and established the Duchy of Warsaw (ruled by his new ally the king of Saxony). The end of the war saw Napoleon master of almost all of western and central continental Europe, except for Spain, Portugal, Austria and several smaller states.

Rembrandt

Dutch painter, who painted portraits of wealthy middle-class merchants and used sharp contrasts of light and shadow to draw attention to his focus. He painted Masters of the Cloth Guild

Leeuwenhoek

Dutch pioneer microscopist who was among the first to recognize cells in animals and who gave the first accurate descriptions of microbes and spermatozoa and blood corpuscles (1632-1723)

Vincent van Gogh

Dutch postimpressionist painter noted for his use of color (1853-1890). He was truly insane, and is best known for his Starry Night. He committed suicide at age 37.

Christian Huyghens

Dutch scientist, 1629-1695, worked mainly in physics and math. Improved telescope (Dutch Invention), made clocks with pendulums, discovered Saturn's rings, and launched wave theory of light.

Asiento

Duty given from Spain to Britain to send enslaved Africans to colonies and control the slave trade as a part of the Treaty of Rastadt

George Fox

English religious leader who founded the Society of Friends (Quakers) during the time of the Commonwealth (1624-1691)

"New" Liberalism

Evolving out of the classical liberalism of Locke, Mill, and Burke, from which this gets its name, this new type of political philosophy tried to apply the fundamental principals of liberty in liberalism while broadening the power and role of the central government, and voting populous through suffrage. In this new philosophy states assumed social and economic welfare programs pioneered by Bismarck and gained some control over the economy by regulating and destroying monopolies and trusts. It turned into a movement much approved by the general working class.

Censorship

Exemplified best by the closure of all departments in the National Institute that questions the policies of the Consulate and the exiling of Germaine de Stael, who publicly criticized Napoleon, this was in full effect under the rule of the First Consul

Yalta

Finally meeting on Soviet soil, only recently reconquered from the Nazis, this was the final conference between Stalin, FDR, and Churchill which occurred in February of 1945. With it clear that the Soviets would control all of eastern Europe, save Greece and perhaps Yugoslavia, FDR and Churchill attempted to ensure, as best they could, that these countries would be independent democracies and simply under the Soviet's sphere of influence. Stalin agreed to free elections that would not be under international supervision, yet none would ever happen. The boundaries of eastern Europe were also drawn, with the Curzon line finally appearing on a map acting as Poland eastern border. The Poles would get most of Prussia in return and the Germans living in Prussia would be forced to migrate, as would many following WWII. While initially talks began to dismember Germany to its original pre-Bismarck parts, such discussion were scratched in favour for four occupation zones as Churchill demanded that France be represented as a great power. Reparations also were discussed, but it was only agreed that the USSR would get half. The United Nations, initially consisting just of the allied nations, was also agreed upon to replace the League of Nations. It would be headquartered in the US to ensure the Americans would ratify the treaty and abandon isolationism once and for all.

Kingdom of Sardinia

Finding no one truly powerful enough to defend the Rhone and Po rivers from future French invasions, The Congress of Vienna gave this kingdom Genoa and its Piedmont region. Austria was also installed all along the Po. This nation would grow from this humble beginning to unite all of Italy later in the century

Lollards

Followers of John Wycliffe, they were suppressed in England under Henry V. They followed an idea that the extravagances of the church were not necessary for salvation. In fact, Wycliffe thought that salvation may just be found through the Bible, which he translated into English. Wycliffe was deemed an heretic

First Balkan War (1912)

Following Italy's dismantling of the Ottomans in Libya, Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia joined forces in this war against Istanbul. They easily defeated the aging empire, taking Macedonia.

Treaty of Pressburg

Following the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon took Venetia from Austrians (who'd received it in 1797) and he annexed it to his new Kingdom of Italy via this treaty with the Austrians. The Habsburg also had to pay large debts to their conquerors. The Adriatic port cities of Venice and Trieste started building Napoleon's fleet. Through this treaty Napoleon also forced Francis II to dissolve the HRE, to which he had no objection to, and forced the recognition of Bavaria and Wurttemberg as kingdoms and Baden as a grand duchy. Through these actions, Napoleon created his Confederation of the Rhine, consisting of the remaining minor states of Germany, of which Napoleon was "protector".

Britain

Following the Napoleonic wars, this country was the only one to have an expansive colonial empire. While France did colonize Algeria during the period from 1815 to 1870 and the Dutch developed more of Java, no country made substantial moves into the third wold for it was thought to be unnecessary to exercise political control or influence in areas in which business was conducted. Free trade was felt to be vital, and so Japan and China were opened in this period.

1930

Following the onset of the Great Depression, which ailed Germany more than any other Country in Europe, Nazism began to make strides as a real national party with political clout. In the elections of this year the Nazis took 107 seats in the Reichstag, up from 12 in 1928. Two years later, the Nazis took 230 seats, by far the largest single party in Germany. Even with the advances, Communism was also gaining traction and Hitler felt that his time may be fading. After gaining the backing of West Germany's industrial power from the Rhineland who abhorred Communism, Hitler looked to make Germany his own.

Popular Front

Following the scandal involving Stavisky that brought about cries to end the Third Republic, this, a coalition of Radical Socialists, Socials, and Communists, came together in support of the Republic united against the Fascists. In 1936 it won divisively at the polls. For the first time the socialists in France, under the leadership of Leon Blum, held the power in France. The socialists, while supporting this government, refused, as always, to join in the cabinet, even while holding 72 seats in the Chamber.

Women

For the first time in western history, this group gained all the rights of men in 1920 in the USSR. These included divorce, ownership of property, abortion, birth control, and the right to vote, which had only been given to women in the South Pacific and small western states of the US.

Extraterritoriality

Foreign residents in a country living under the laws of their native country, disregarding the laws of the host country. In the Ottoman Empire since 1525, the French merchants doing business not only enjoyed only French laws, but French courts as well, all supported by the sultan himself. Soon other European nations gained these privileges and they were not in any case disliked by the turks. The animosity towards this practice would come much later as overall anti-european sentiment swept Turkey

Dunkirk

Foreseeing the total destruction their crowed cities, the Dutch quickly sued for peace after the Germans invaded on May 10th. The Belgians soon followed, which led to massive portions of the French army stationed in Belgium surrendering to the Germans. With the Maginot bypassed and the Benelux having capitulated, the British evacuated 330,000 French and British troops at this city, known as a miracle for Hitler stopped his advance for reasons still largely not understood. The evacuation was over by June 4th as this city was finally occupied by the Germans. On June 13th Paris fell and by the 22th France sued for peace. The war on the ground on the western front was over.

Huguenots

French Calvinists. The Edict of Nantes (1598) freed them from persecution in France, but when that was revoked in the late 1700s, hundreds of thousands of them fled to other countries, including America.

Racine

French advocate of Jansenism and playwright. Tragedian, he based his works on Greek and Roman themes (1639-1699)

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence river and laid claim to the region for France between 1534 and 1542 (1491-1557)

Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza

French explorer who was trying to open up the Congo River basin for France at the same time that Stanley was trying to do the same for Belgium. The two were rivals.

Denis Diderot

French philosopher who was a leading figure of the Enlightenment in France. He was the principal editor of Encyclopedie that disseminated the scientific and philosophical knowledge of the time (1713-1784)

Heinrich Himmler

German Nazi who was chief of the SS and the Gestapo and who oversaw the genocide of six million Jews. Not wanted by any German at the conclusion of the war, this man wondered around Flensburg, where the government was seated after Hitler's death, where he was wanted as a criminal by both the allies and the Germans. He eventually was capture by the allies as his papers were perfectly in order so that he could get to Bavaria, something so rare it drew attention. Refusing to be interrogated, he committed suicide by cyanide pill while in custody.

Young Turks

Group of revolutionary and nationalistic Turks who revolted against Ottoman empire in 1908. They attempted to make reforms to quickly westernize the Ottoman Empire. Because of the German investment since 1878, they sided with the central powers in WWI to their detriment.

Nikita Khrushchev

He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, following the death of Joseph Stalin, and Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1958 to 1964. He was responsible for the De-Stalinization of the USSR (most notably changing the name of the city of Stalingrad, where Nazism was halted, to Volgograd) as well as several liberal reforms ranging from agriculture to foreign policy.

Duke of Norfolk

He wanted to take to take over the thrown because he wanted England to stay Catholic. Very powerful Catholic Duke who in 1569 revolted against Elizabeth. In 1570 she was excommunicated and all catholics within the realm were encouraged to revolt

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

He was Toussaint L'ouverture's general, and took up the fight for the freedom of slaves in Saint Domingue on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean sea. In 1804, he declared the slave colony an independent country, the first black country to free itself from European control, and named the country Haiti.

Alexander II

Hoping to gain support with liberals and intelligentsia that his predecessors could not, this man in 1855 allowed anyone (not yet serfs) to travel outside of Russia and, while not repealing them, made sure that censorship laws were not enforced. While he did the most for liberals of any Tsar, he was subject of assassination attempts in 1866, 1873, 1880, and 1881, the latter of which was successful (the same day he established the first, though powerless, national assemblies in Russia). Because of his assassination, every Tsar after him was to be extremely autocratic and fierce against the liberals and anarchists.

Janos Kadar

Hungary's Communist party boss, who had permitted liberalization of the rigid planned economy after the 1956 uprising in exchange for political obedience and continued Communist control. In 1988, in an effort to retain power by granting modest political concessions, the party replaced this man with a reform communist

The Teutonic Order

In 1230, following the Golden Bull of Rimini, Grand Master Hermann von Salza and Duke Konrad I of Masovia launched the Prussian Crusade, a joint invasion of Prussia intended to Christianise the Baltic Old Prussians. The Order then created the independent Monastic State in the conquered territory, and subsequently conquered Livonia. The Kings of Poland accused the Order of holding lands rightfully theirs. The Order lost its main purpose in Europe with the Christianisation of Lithuania. The Order became involved in campaigns against its Christian neighbours, the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Novgorod Republic (after assimilating the Livonian Order). The Order had a strong economic base, hired mercenaries from throughout Europe to augment their feudal levies, and became a naval power in the Baltic Sea. In 1410, a Polish-Lithuanian army decisively defeated the Order and broke its military power at the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg). The Crusade by this Order, once completed, would control all of the Baltic, including what would become the very powerful state of Prussia

Council of Pisa

In 1408, a council with bishops representing both popes met and elected a new Pope hoping to end the Schism, deposing both of the popes they represented. Neither former pope, however, would accept this new rival. Thus, the problem was not solved and now three Popes claimed legitimacy

Bavaria

In 1609 this state organized a catholic league with the Catholic states of the HRE as well as Spain (so to be recognized as a power of some sort)

Catalan War

In 1640 this war began as Catalonia rose in rebellion, greatly aided by the French. After twenty years of fighting, Catalonia was retained by the Spanish, although the province became autonomous. This was the first war clearly exposes the weakening Spanish position in the world

Kiuprils

In 1663, Turkey began to modernize under the rule of these men, a dynasty of exceptional viziers. The Turks again became a threat to Austria, invading in 1683

Stephen Razin

In 1667 he led uprising of fugitive serfs, Cossacks and adventurers. Outfitted fleet on Caspian Sea, plundered Russian vessels, defeated a Persian squadron and invaded Persia itself. Then went up Volga, killing and burning and proclaiming war against landlords, nobles and priests. Many cities welcomed and joined him. Finally caught in 1671 and put to death. His significance was that serfdom was clamped down on by the country by nobility for over a century in Russia.

Battle of Narva

In 1700 Charles XII of Sweden easily routed 40,000 Russians under Peter the Great with only 8,000 men. However, he felt it would be more productive to go to Warsaw and get a Swede elected King of Poland instead of wiping out Peter. Russia itself was remarkably unscathed from the humiliating defeat. The city for which the battle is named was regained by Peter in 1704

John Kay

In 1733 this Brit invented the fly shuttle. Made it possible for one person instead of two to operate a loom in textile manufacturing. It increased the output of woven material and therefore also the demand for yarn.

Treaty of Breslau

In 1742, so to better defend herself from the French and the Spanish, Maria made a temporary peace with Frederick the Great in which she gave him Silesia

Writ of Habeas Corpus

In 1794, appalled at the uprisings of the pro-French around England led by Whig Charles James Fox, the British government suspended this and took many prisoners to keep the peace

First French Empire

In 1802 the populous of France, through a plebiscite, made Napoleon First Consul for life because he had made peace with all of Europe and internally, something no leader had been able to do since 1788. Furthermore, in 1804 by another plebiscite, the Consulate was dissolved in favour of this Roman-like government with Napoleon as its ultimate and undisputed leader

Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien

In 1804, Napoleon invade Baden, and independent member of the Confederation of the Rhine on the southern right bank of the Rhine, to kill this man, a Bourbon, who opposed the restoration of the Bourbon in France and truly opposed the actions of Louis XVIII. Napoleon killed him into order to take Bourbon blood which gave him an alliance with the Jacobins and the regicides for the rest of his reign in France

Niels Bohr

In 1922, this man was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them." The award recognized his early leading work in the emerging field of Quantum Mechanics. While at Manchester University, this man had adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to Max Planck's quantum theory and so obtained a model of atomic structure which, with later improvements - mainly as a result of Heisenberg's concepts - remains valid to this day. This man published his model of atomic structure in 1913. Here he introduced the theory of electrons traveling in orbits around the atom's nucleus, the chemical properties of each element being largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms. This man also introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting a photon (light quantum) of discrete energy. This became a basis for quantum theory.

Occupation of the Ruhr

In 1923 the French, unable to collect the ridiculous reparations they had forced upon Germany, collaborated with the Belgians and completed this. The Germans in the occupied valley went about passive resistance and were financially compensated by the Weimar government. Through this program the mark became totally worthless and Germany spiraled into depression. Germans, which had not given up on the world after being stabbed in the back by WWI and the Treaty of Versailles, began to believe that Germany would never recover. Many turned to political extremism as the social to Germany ailments.

Giacomo Matteotti

In 1924, soon before his emergency powers were to end, Mussolini demanded new elections including a new law that stipulate that the party with the most votes would receive two-thirds of the seats in parliament. It was unnecessary, as the Fascist fairly received three-fifths of the vote. Shortly after the election, this man came out publicly against the Fascists, exposing hundreds of cases of Fascist violence, fraud, and chicanery. Quickly murdered after the information was released, many called for Mussolini to resign and there were calls for the ousting of the Fascists. All other parties left the government in protests. Mussolini had nothing to do with the assassination of this man, although he did approve, and used this as an opportunity to consolidate his dictatorship. Mussolini reduced the parliament to a nonentity, abolished unions, and censored the press. Italy was to be governed by Mussolini and Mussolini alone, without opposition.

Collectivization

In 1929, along with the First Five-Year Plan, this occurred in agriculture. Stalin desired to bring an end to the Kulaks and the entire agriculture system in the USSR and force the peasants come off the farm and become part of the proletariate to force a Marxist revolution upon Russia, moving away from Lenin's passive NEP. This worked, but many died as the communists invaded the countryside and without any reason to produce food, many peasants killed their livestock and burned their crops. Russia from 1929 foreword was heavily reliant on the rest of the world for its food, except in the periods where Stalin chose exportation of food over feeding starving masses, a complete reversal from the time of the Tsars.

Manchukuo

In 1932 Japan established this puppet state, ruled by Pu Yi the last Chinese emperor, in their conquered territories of Manchuria. They had landed 70,000 troops in Shanghai in 1932, but withdrew, fellowing that the occupation of this puppet state was not complete and invasion would be easier from Manchuria. In 1933 the League of Nations reprimanded Japan, and so the nation withdrew from the organization, which was at the same time as Germany withdrawing as well. The minor state in the League of Nations demanded military intervention against Japan, but the major nations that would supply the military forces refused, seeing no threat to their own security.

Ethiopia

In 1935 Italy invaded this country, which had soundly defeated Italy in 1895. Facing a much stronger enemy, this country never had a hope and appealed to the League of Nations, which it was a member of. The League of Nations put sanctions upon Italy that no country could sell it arms or raw materials, except oil, but this proved utterly ineffective and German and Italian arms producers easily could keep up with the weak military force of this country. France was internally divided, having a large Fascist minority, and British did not want to risk a war near the Suez canal. No one came to this countries aid, and so it was soundly defeated and assimilated into Italy's colonial empire.

Spanish Civil War

In 1936 a rebellion erupted in Spain after a coalition of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists was elected. General Francisco Franco led the rebellion. The revolt quickly became a civil war. The Soviet Union provided arms and advisers to the government forces while Germany and Italy sent tanks, airplanes, and soldiers to help Franco. It became a testing ground for the Nazis and a battle ground between Fascists and Communists. France's populous was so torn that its popular front disintegrated into a weak conservative government run by the Radical Socialists under the pressures of not picking a side.

Antirightist

In 1956 Mao, after 7 years of purges, proclaimed a new era for diversity and toleration for different ideas in China. Once some opposition groups formed and came out in the open, Mao unleashed a new period of repression known as a "this" campaign. The final major purge by Mao, at least half a million are believed to have been killed, raising the Mao's death toll to about 2 million. Mao said himself that in 1949 and 1950 he killed 700,00 counterrevolutionaries.

Teheran

In December of 1943 Stalin met here with FDR and Churchill to discuss the overall military strategy. At the insistence of FDR, Churchill was unable to discuss territorial allotments with Stalin, who feared the USSR would control half of Europe if France was invaded instead of the Balkans. At the demands of Stalin and FDR, France was invaded, and eastern Europe did fall to Stalin's vice.

Nonconformists

In England these succeeded the old Puritans after the Stuart Restoration. they developed a kind of middle class culture that was noticeably different from the culture of the Anglican gentry. Religion often was a cohesive factor between popular and elite cultures. But where there were different churches, whether or not they were officially tolerated, religion played less of a role in social cohesion.

First Partition of Poland

In February, 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna. Early in August the Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. Prussia took most of the Polish Royal Prussia that stood between its possessions in the Kingdom of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, taking Ermland (Warmia), Royal Prussia without the city of Danzig (Gdańsk) (which in 1773 became a new province called West Prussia), northern areas of Greater Poland along the Noteć River (the Netze District), and parts of Kuyavia, (also the Prussian city of Thorn). Austria took the rich salt mines of Bochnia and Wieliczka. To Austria fell Zator and Auschwitz (Oświęcim), part of Little Poland embracing parts of the counties of Kraków and Sandomir and the whole of Galicia, less the City of Kraków. By this "diplomatic document" Russia came into possession of that section of Livonia that had remained in Commonwealth control, and of Belarus embracing the counties of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Mstislavl. By this partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 30% of its territory, with a population of four million people (1/3 of its population), of which a large portion had not been ethnically Polish.By seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly gained control over 80% of the Commonwealth's total foreign trade. Through levying enormous customs duties, Prussia accelerated the collapse of the Commonwealth.

Rhineland

In March of 1936, after announcing to the world one month early that he would built up Germany's armed forces directly against the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler occupied this area, demilitarized by the Treaty of Versailles, in response to a Soviet-French agreement. Furious, the French looked to Britain to join it and threaten military action. The French themselves were divided, and the British were not going to force the Germans from demilitarizing their own soil. Nothing was done, and this area was remilitarized.

Fulton

In March of 1946, touring the US after being ousted from the office of Prime Minister, Churchill gave his Sinews of Peace speech in this Missouri city: "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow. Athens alone - Greece with its immortal glories - is free to decide its future at an election under British, American and French observation. The Russian-dominated Polish Government has been encouraged to make enormous and wrongful inroads upon Germany, and mass expulsions of millions of Germans on a scale grievous and undreamed-of are now taking place. The Communist parties, which were very small in all these Eastern States of Europe, have been raised to pre-eminence and power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control. Police governments are prevailing in nearly every case, and so far, except in Czechoslovakia, there is no true democracy."

Order in Council

In November of 1807 the British Privy Council specifically used this order to make a sanction during the Napoleonic Wars. It blockaded French ports unless the ship had gone through and been processed at a British port.

March on Rome

In October of 1922 this took place s Blackshirts converged on Rome in an apparent coup. The King would not allow martial law, and so the cabinet resigned to keep their lives and Mussolini was named premier in order to halt the blackshirts and curtail violence. He was given a year of emergency power to restore order and introduce reforms.

White Man's Burden

In a poem by British poet Rudyard Kipling commenting on American imperialism, this phrase would be utilized by the British as a phrase justifying imperialism. France used the phrase "Mission Civilisatrice" while the Germans wished to diffuse "Kulture". Americans came with "blessings of Anglo-Saxon protection". While these phrases justified the racism that was growing in Europe at the end of the nineteenth century, many, especially young peasants, went to Africa and Asia on missionary trips trying to advance the work of humanity.

Creoles

In colonial Spanish America, term used to describe someone of European descent born in the New World. When Napoleon conquered Spain, they, dissatisfied with Spain influence in the new world without their consent, revolted and took power for themselves. The Spanish would never recover their lost colonies.

Whites

In contrast to the Reds, who were the Bolsheviks, this group opposed Lenin during the Russian Civil War. They were mainly moderates who supported what the Duma and the provisional government had tried to do in 1917, but their were too many groups with too many armies that could never align. So many separated factions were easy enemies to conquer by force for the very organized soviet machine.

Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary

In dogma, this was announced as dogmatic truth in 1854 by Rome and in 1950 the bodily assumption of Mary into heaven was also proclaimed. In this way Catholic church reaffirmed their dogma even in a skeptical age filled with attacks against the church.

French Revolution

In many ways, this event is the closest history has to offer compared to the Russian Revolution. Both were movements of liberation, the Russian Revolution against imperialism and capitalism, and both were totally uniting in defeating the monarchy. Without a common enemy, the revolution broke down and would eventually be dominated by a well organized minority, in the case of Russia the Bolsheviks.

Resident

In the first stages of imperialism, a foreign government would rarely be opposed upon a people, but the local chief, sultan, bey, rajah, or prince would be forced by a lucrative treaty or a treaty threatening force to accept the recommendations of this European man, especially in areas under British influence. In this way the Europeans could govern and the locals would still be ruled by a leader they respected. If nation was reasonably powerful, and not in Africa, a protectorate would develop instead of a colony, like in Egypt and Bahrain. In large empires like China, Persia, or the Ottoman Empire the European governments would use spheres of influence instead.

Constitution of 1936

In the year for which it is named, Stalin introduced a new constitution for the USSR. It reiterated what Lenin had spelled out in the previous 1924 constitution, but went further and ensured all Soviet citizens all unalienable human rights along with rights to employment, rest, leisure, and economic security. It was the first constitution in the western world to specifically condemn all forms of racisms, and ensured all equal suffrage.

War of the Sixth Coalition

In this (1813-1814), a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and a number of German States finally defeated France and drove Napoleon Bonaparte into exile on Elba. After Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, the continental powers joined Russia, Britain, Portugal and the rebels in Spain. With their armies reorganized, they drove Napoleon out of Germany in 1813 and invaded France in 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and restoring the Bourbons. Two-and-a-half million troops fought in the conflict and the total dead amounted to as many as two million, including the casualties of the 1812 Russian campaign. (Some estimates suggest that over a million died in Russia alone.) This included the battles of Lützen, Bautzen, Dresden and the epic Battle of Leipzig (also known as the Battle of Nations), which was the largest battle of the Napoleonic wars, and, indeed, the largest in Western history before the First World War. In Germany it was known as the War of Liberation

Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men (1753)

In this essay, Rousseau discusses two types of inequality, natural or physical and ethical or political. Natural inequality involves differences between one man's physical strength and that of another - it is a product of nature. Rousseau is not concerned with this type of inequality and wishes to investigate moral inequality. He argues moral inequality is endemic to a civil society and relates to, and causes, differences in power and wealth. This type of inequality is established by convention. Rousseau appears to take a cynical view of civil society, where man has strayed from his "natural state" of isolation and consequent freedom to satisfy his individual needs and desires. For Rousseau, civil society is a trick perpetrated by the powerful on the weak in order to maintain their power or wealth. But this is Rousseau's final conclusion; he begins his discussion with an analysis of a natural man who has not yet acquired language or abstract thought. "The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said "This is mine," and found people naïve enough to believe him, that man was the true founder of civil society. From how many crimes, wars, and murders, from how many horrors and misfortunes might not any one have saved mankind, by pulling up the stakes, or filling up the ditch, and crying to his fellows: Beware of listening to this impostor; you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody." Rousseau's natural man is very different from that of Hobbes. In fact, Rousseau explicitly points this out at various points throughout his work. Rousseau discredits Hobbes for taking an overly cynical view of man. Unlike Hobbes's natural man, Rousseau's is not motivated by fear of death because he cannot conceive of that end, thus fear of death already suggests a movement out of the state of nature. Rousseau's natural man is more or less like any other animal, with "self-preservation being his chief and almost sole concern" and "the only goods he recognizes in the universe" being "food, a female, and sleep..." This natural man, unlike Hobbes's, is not in constant state of fear and anxiety.

Navigation Acts

Laws that governed trade between England and its colonies. Colonists were required to ship certain products exclusively to England. These acts made colonists very angry because they were prohibited from trading with other countries and were forbidden to produce any finished goods. This made the Thirteen English Colonies much more aggressive against its parent countries compared to the Caribbean, especially the French Caribbean which was very self-suficient and traded finished products with all of Europe

Coluccio Salutati

Leader of a group of humanists who began to collect ancient manuscripts and form libraries, so as to make accessible virtually all the surviving writings of Classical Latin Authors. Invited many Byzantine Scholars to Florence, and these scholars brought hundreds of manuscripts. He began being the Chancellor of Florence in 1375

Spartacists

Marxist revolutionaries in post-World War I Germany, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Leibknecht, who were dedicated to bringing a socialist revolution, akin to that which ah occurred in Russia, to Germany. The "Spartacus Week" in which Germany was thrown essentially into a civil pushed the Social Democratic, who had full control of the country following the establishment of a Republic following WWI, into the middle and made them a symbol of conservative reactionary forces, even though ideologically the Social Democrats were quite left. In hard times of revolution, such majorities are prone to falling.

Jacqueries

Massive insurrections of peasants. France, the first and largest occurring in 1358 but many occurred through the 14th century. Rebellion of workers against price and wage controls imposed by govt. in wake of Black Death and labor shortages. "Jacque" was the somewhat derogatory term used to describe the French peasant.

Refractory Clergy

Members of the Roman Catholic clergy during the French Revolution who refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the state under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Of those who were true believers of catholicism, this group was theirs. This was also the clergy of the aristocracy, implicating that the those in power in the Legislative Assembly were no longer acting for the majority (only the bourgeois supported the measures against the clergy)

Treaty of Sevres

Most severe of the treaties with Germany's wartime allies, this 1920 treaty dismembered the Turkish empire. It gave Smyrna, an area on the west coast of Anatolia with a large Greek populations dating back to Trojan times, and Thrace to Greece, the Island of Rhodes and the Dodecanese to Italy, Syria and much of southern Anatolia to France, Iraq and Palestine to Britain, Saudi Arabia to Britain as protectorate, and Armenia to the prospective Armenian republic, which would have been established with Soviet cooperation. This treaty failed because of Turkish resistance to allied occupation, especially the hated Greeks. Eventually the Turks under Kemal took back Anatolia and the Treaty of Lausanne established the modern, secular Republic of Turkey.

Constitutionalist

Napoleon can be considered this for he felt hat government should be rationally constituted, which mean mapped out and planned deliberately and not inherited as a jumbled mess and never incorporated into one functioning state

Dependent States

Napoleon could support such vast armies without alienating his own people because the burden of supporting that army was always on the occupied. Most of his troops came from his allies and the Grand Empire, not France. These states, of that made up the Grand Empire, were the ones who paid for the army and the army was always outside the borders of France- their was no occupying force of a hated dictator.

Battle of Friedland

Napoleon then defeated the Russian army in June of 1807. Alexander I did not want to retreat through Russia, uncertain whether it might lead to a revolt of either the serfs or the nobles so he agreed to negotiate with Napoleon. The Fourth Coalition had dissolved

Battle of Leipzig

Napoleon tried his old strategy of striking before his enemies can unite, but he was too late to do his move. In October 1813, Napoleon's forces and the army of the new alliance met at the city this battle is named for in Saxony. The allies beat the French decisively, and Napoleon retreated into France. He gave up all of his claims to the throne for himself and family. Not trusting themselves, especially Russia, Prussia, and Austria, the allies granted Napoleon a pension and allowed him to retire to the small island of Elba off the west coast at which he would only remain for a short time

Josephine de Beauharnais

Napoleon's first wife who could give him more connections in Paris through her powerful position. After failing to give birth to an heir, Napoleon divorced her in favor of the younger Archduchess Marie Louise.

Guomindang

Nationalist political party founded on democratic principles by Sun Yat-sen in 1912. After 1925, the party was headed by Chiang Kai-shek, who turned it into an increasingly authoritarian movement

July 20th Plot

On 20 July 1944, this plot was conducted to assassinate Adolf Hitler inside his Wolf's Lair field headquarters near Rastenburg, East Prussia. The plot was the culmination of the efforts of several groups in the German Resistance to overthrow the Nazi-led German government. The failure of both the assassination, the explosion was stopped by a large wooden table, and the military coup d'état which was planned to follow it led to the arrest of at least 7,000 people by the Gestapo, including Claus von Stauffenberg. According to records of the Führer Conferences on Naval Affairs, 4,980 of these were executed, resulting in the destruction of the organised resistance movement in Germany for the remainder of World War II.

January 3, 1815

On this date Talleyrand, Metternich, and Castlereagh, all extremely dubious about the aims of Russia, and now Hardenberg of Prussia who got along with Alexander fine, signed a secret treaty that said all would go to war with Russia and Prussia if they needed to contain them

Battle of Jutland

Only real naval battle of the World War I, this battle occurred in May of 1916. German Baltic fleet met England of coast of Denmark. Germans inflicted heavy Brit losses but failed to break Brit blockade. Great Britain's naval supremacy confirmed but Brits unable to defeat German fleet completely in order to service Russia through the Baltic. The battle itself was inconclusive

Enclosure Acts

Parliament, controlled by landowners, passed these to encourage improved methods of cultivation and stock-raising to increase productivity (Agricultural Revolution). The old village system was an obstacle to these so in the 18th century the squirearchy was able to ensure that more of the common land would come under private ownership by the already landed wealthy. This fencing of the medieval commons reached its height during the Napoleonic Wars. These acts led to the increased productivity of land and labor but also released labor for other wage earning pursuits (became available as factory workers). These acts ended the independence of the poor yeoman farmers of England

Christian Democrats

Powerful center to center-right political parties that evolved in the late 1940s in Europe from former Catholic parties of the pre-WWII period, especially in Italy and France. These parties gained increasing support in the postwar era, winning elections in par because of their participation in wartime resistance. A vital component of postwar politics, these groups shifted from their decades-old emphasis on advocating church interests to welcoming non-Catholics among their ranks and focusing on democracy, anti-communism, and social reform

Critical History of the Old Testament

Published in 1678 by a French priest this work was condemned by the Church and government of Louis XIV. However, Richard Simon, the author, thought of himself as orthodox. Said faith depended on Church tradition rather than literal statements in the bible. He had openly doubted miracles and a number of events recorded in the scriptures, including the now accepted idea that Moses did not write the first five books of the Old Testament. Unlike many before him, he was not damned as a heretic

Wealth of Nations

Published on March 9, 1776, by Adam Smith; clearly written account of political economy at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, and is widely considered to be the first modern work in the field of economics. The work is also the first comprehensive defense of the free market system in which government intervention would be extremely limited. It introduced the idea of the "invisible hand". By 1800 it had been translated into every European language, save Portuguese

(House of Tudor) King Henry VII, King Henry VIII, King Edward VI, Queen Jane (Nine Day Queen), Queen Mary I (Bloody Mary), King Philip I, Queen Elizabeth I, (House of Stuart) King James I, King Charles I, (Commonwealth) Oliver Cromwell, Richard Cromwell, (Stuart) King Charles II, King James II, Queen Mary II and King William II, Queen Anne I, (Hanover) King George I, King George II, King George III (was only King, and not Elector of Hanover, according to the rulers on the Continent, after the Treaty of Paris), King George IV, King William IV

Put in order the Kings and Queens of England (the UK from 1707 to 1837) from 1485 to 1837 (House of Tudor, House of Stuart, and House of Hanover), including the leaders of the commonwealth

(Rurik Dynasty) Tsar Ivan IV (The Terrible), Tsar Feodor I, (Godunov) Tsar Boris I, (Times of Troubles had many powerless Tsars from 1605 to 1613), (Romanov) Tsar Michael I, Tsar Alexis I, Tsar Feodor III, Tsar Peter I (Emperor Peter the Great), Empress Catherine I, Emperor Peter II, Empress Anna I, Emperor Ivan VI, Empress Elizabeth I, Emperor Peter III, Empress Catherine II (Catherine the Great), Emperor Paul I, Emperor Alexander I

Put in order the leaders (Tsars/Tsarinas and Emperors/Empresses) of Russia from 1533 to 1825

Charles V, Ferdinand I, Maximilian II, Rudolf II, Mathias, Ferdinand II, Ferdinand III, Leopold I, Joseph I, Charles VI, Maria Thereasa, Joseph II, Leopold II, Emperor Francis II

Put in order the leaders of the House of Habsburg (residing in Vienna once the house breaks into Austrian and Spanish sides) from 1519 to 1835 (none were Kings of Austria- the leader of Austria was an Archduke until 1804)

George William the Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William the Grand Elector of Brandenburg, Elector of Brandenburg Frederick III (who was crowned King Frederick I of Prussia by Leopold I of Austria), King Frederick William I of Prussia, Frederick the Great (King Frederick II of Prussia), King Frederick William II of Prussia, King Frederick William III of Prussia, Baron Stein, King Frederick William III of Prussia

Put in order the leaders of the House of Hohenzollern from 1619 to 1840 (including the effective leader of the Kingdom of Prussia during the occupation of Napoleon Baron Stein)

What Is the Third Estate

Qu'est-ce que le tiers-état? is a pamphlet written by French thinker and clergyman Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès in January 1789, shortly before the outbreak of the French Revolution. The pamphlet was Sieyès' response to Jacques Necker's invitation for writers to state how they thought the Estates-General should be organized. In the pamphlet, Sieyès argued that the Third Estate - the common people of France - constituted a complete nation, and would be better off without the "dead weight" of the privileged orders, the First and Second Estates of the clergy and aristocracy. Sieyès stated that the people wanted genuine representatives in the Estates-General, representatives equal to the other two orders taken together, and votes taken by heads and not by orders. These ideas came to have an immense influence on the course of the Revolution.

Bretton Woods

Representatives from 44 countries met in New Hampshire to design a new international monetary system which resulted in the establishment of the IMF and the World Bank. The dollar was also made the reserve currency of the world, and could be exchanged for gold by any sovereign nation in the world. Such an exchange (and the dominance of the dollar) ended when Nixon ended the gold exchange following de Gaulle's abuse of it (de Gaulle preferred gold to dollars)

Prince Lvov

Responding to the lack of food in Petrograd, food riots broke out against the Tsar on March 8th, 1917. The Duma, which had only be allowed to reconvene a year prior, tried to take control of the city on a moderate position, but they had to compete with a Soviet of Worker's and Soldiers' Deputies in Petrograd. This Petrograd soviet would be a voice of the extremists in Petrograd. However, at this time the Duma still had significant power. On March 14th it set up a Provision Government under this man in an attempt to convince the Tsar to abdicate. The army allied with the Duma and Nicholas II yielded on March 17th.

Russian Orthodox Church

Russian form of Christianity imported from Byzantine Empire & combined with local religion; Tsar characteristically controlled major appointments. The reforms by the Patriarch, as well as the church itself, during the 17th century were seen to leading to unrest, so Peter eliminated the position of the Patriarch and from that point forward this Russian form of Christianity would be controlled by the Tsar before being eliminated entirely under the atheist communists

Vladimir Mayakovsky

Russian futurist playwright wrote Mystery Bouffe which parodied the bible. His last two plays were received so adversely by Stalin and the new ruling power of the Communist that he committed suicide in 1930

Intelligentsia

Russian term for articulate intellectuals as a class; desired radical change in the Russian political and economic systems, yet wished to maintain a Russian culture distinct from that of the West

Old Believers

Russians who refused to accept the ecclesiastical reforms of the Patriarch of Russia Nikon between 1652-66; many exiled to Siberia or southern Russia, where they became part of Russian colonization. Stephen Razin's supporters were among these

Joseph-Francois Dupleix

Saw developing power vacuum as opportunities for expanding control of respective companies for the French. He was the French equivalent of Robert Clive; this man was a French commander in India who fought assert French supremacy in India. He was the first European to utilize sepoys and was able to control many Indian Prince's because of the vastly more powerful European troops. His activity was during the peace period between the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War (1748-1754) and once the Seven Years War began he was called back to France for it was feared that his activities would be actively opposed by the British. He died in disgrace

James Watt

Scottish engineer and inventor whose improvements in the steam engine led to its wide use in industry (1736-1819) It is his steam engine that is recognizable as the forefather to all later steam engines

David Livingstone

Scottish missionary and explorer who discovered the Zambezi River and Victoria Falls (1813-1873)

David Hume

Scottish philosopher whose sceptical philosophy restricted human knowledge to that which can be perceived by the senses (1711-1776)

The Coup D'etat of the Fructidor

Seeing that the royalists who had handily won the first free election in France in the spring of 1797 were going to restore the monarchy, something the regicides could not allow, the Directory turned in September of 1797 to Napoleon, who sent General Augereau with a few thousand soldiers, so that the Legislative Assembly and the Directory could annul the election in the spring to "defend the revolution and keep out the Old Regime"

Poland

Seeing the success of the July Revolution in France and witnessing Tsar Nicholas I amassing a large army at on this country's border (actually to go and put down the revolution in Belgium) this country dethroned its king (Nicholas) and declared its independence. With Nicholas already having an army in place, and without western support, the revolution was brutally crushed and this state, while existing under Russian influence before, disappeared off the map into the Russian Empire. The people of this country were forced to populate Siberia or fled to other parts of Europe far away from Russia's influence. Belgium, however, was allowed to revolt and its independence was not challenged by Nicholas.

Burschenschaft

Student organization of clubs, mainly at universities, that promoted German nationalism. They were outlawed by Metternich's Carslbad Decrees. The movement was large enough to hold a national congress at Wartburg in 1817 and supported the 1818 assassination of Kotzebue, a Tsarist informant, and the attempted assassination of Nassau, the local governor. At these actions convinced Metternich to act

Duke of Parma

Taking over in 1578 in the Netherlands for Don Juan, this man instituted a new policy of the Spanish to try to unite the Netherlands for Spain instead of treating it as an occupied staging area for an invasion of England. He was able to use Catholicism to attract the 10 southern Provinces to his side, including the extremely wealthy city of Antwerp.

Charles X

Taking the throne from Louis XVII who died in 1824, this Count of Artois, the first to Bourbon to emigrate in 1789, ended the white terror and brought back an absolute monarchy given power directly from God, and was the most active counterrevolutionary to hold power in Europe between Napoleon and 1848. This activism would be his downfall in 1830 with the rise of the July Monarchy under Louis Philippe

Volksgeist

Term originally used by Johan Gottfried von Herder in 1784 which says that all true culture or civilization must arise from the native common people of a country. In other words each country needs its own unique national character.

Compromise of 1867

The Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph's attempt, in 1866, to deal with the demands for greater autonomy from the ethnic minorItles within the Hapsburg Empire. The compromise between the Austrians and Magyars (the magyars were seen as the only other civilized ethic group, so the Serbs were very weakened by this agreement as they had no voice) set up a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, where Franz Joseph (the goal was that it was to be ruled by the head of the House of Habsburg, but Franz Joseph outlived the Empire) served as the ruler of both Austria and Hungary, each of which had its own completely independent parliament. International affairs were to be settled by the Habsburg, but internal affairs were to be completely separate. Under this model. Austria would introduce universal male suffrage in 1807, but the Hungarians would never, only giving less than a quarter of its men the right to vote.

Corporation

The Fascists sought to redefine the Italian economy based on syndicalism, an economic form that had been supported by the Vatican, and not free-market capitalism, for years. The system that emerged in Italy was more liberal than syndicalism had been. 22 of these were established for each of the 22 major economic areas. Fascists in each of these were to establish their own wages, working conditions, prices, policies, and each were represented in a Chamber of Fasces and Corporation, although the officials were chosen by Mussolini and not freely elected. Each one of these was under the control of the minister of these, who was to determine how each of these would interact. While there were many differences other, this economy was closest to that of Stalin's USSR, except property remained in private hands.

French Indochina

The French colonies of Cambodia, Laos, Cochin China, Annam, and Tonkin, which had always been protect trading partners of China, were founded around 1883 in response to the British influence in Burma which they annexed in 1886. They were combined into this major colony in 1883 by the French.

Putsches

The attempted Coup d'etats by Louis Bonaparte in Strasbourg in 1836 and Boulonge in 1840, which both failed. For his actions Bonaparte was sentenced to life in the Fortress of Ham but escaped in 1846 to England. The term is German and used for many other coup d'etats in later Germany history (such as Hitler's failed revolt in Munich)

Cardinal Richelieu

The chief minister of Louis XII who ran the French government from 1624 to 1642. he was a political genius who wanted to make the king supreme in France and France supreme in Europe. he set out to destroy the power of the nobles and the Huguenots who were protected by the Edict of Nantes. He strengthened France economically and appointed intendants.

Sun Yat-sen

The first great revolutionary leader in 20th century China who founded the ALliance League in 1905. The League aimed to overthrow the Qing to make china a republic, get rid of foreign powers and distribute land to peasants. He created the three principles of the people, Nationalism, Socialism and Democracy. After the Revolution, he returned from overseas to lead china, however failed to leaed successfully. He handed power to Yuan Shikai

Credit Mobilier

The first of its kind, this company issued its own stock to raise capital and then used that capital to invest in stock corporation. This model proved extremely prosperous and investing in stock became popular, making France's rapid industrial development under Napoleon III possible.

Congress of Aachen (Alix-la-Chapelle)

The first post-Vienna meeting of the great power of Europe to discuss how to keep revolution out of the continent. It was universally agreed to withdraw the foreign armies still in France and the private banks of France agreed to a reparations deal that allowed England, Austria, and Russia to be paid faster by the private banks, and the French government would pay back the private banks in due time. There was not agreement with Tsar Alexander I however regarding his movement to make such a meeting as this one occurring in 1818 a type of permanent European Union to support cooperation and peace. Castlereigh of England would have nothing to do with it. The illicit slave trade and the African Barbary pirate were also not dealt with as England refused to give its ships, essentially the only ones left on the continent, to an international body and the continental countries would not let their ships be subject to English searches. Europe was not destined to unite in any way in 1818

Vichy France

The government of France which collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944, during the Second World War. It officially called itself the French State (État Français) and was headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain, who proclaimed the government following the 1940 allied defeat against Axis Powers. This government maintained some legal authority in the northern zone of France (the Zone occupée), which was occupied by the German Wehrmacht, but was most powerful in the unoccupied southern "free zone", where its administrative centre of Vichy was located. In November 1942 the southern zone was also occupied and fully subjected to German rule. Pétain collaborated with the German occupying forces in exchange for an agreement to not divide France between the Axis Powers. This government's authorities aided in the rounding-up of Jews and other "undesirables", and at times, this government's military forces actively opposed the Allies. The very slogan of the Third Republic "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" was banned. Much of the French public initially supported the new government despite its pro-Nazi policies, seeing it as necessary to maintain a degree of French autonomy and territorial integrity. The legitimacy of this government and Pétain's leadership was constantly challenged by the exiled General Charles de Gaulle, who claimed to represent the legitimacy and continuity of the French government. Public opinion turned against the this government and the occupying German forces over time, and resistance to them grew within France. Following the allied invasion of France in June 1944, de Gaulle proclaimed the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF). Most of the this government's leaders were later put on trial by the GPRF, and a number of them were executed. Pétain was sentenced to death for treason, but his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. At the time it was very controversial for, if Petain had not cooperated, France could have easily been totally occupied and administered directly by Hitler. The continued resistance that de Gaulle demanded could not have been practically done- France had been soundly defeated and had to cope with Germany's dominance

Joseph II

The greatest good for the greatest number was the reasoning behind this man's desire for fairer laws guiding the nation and a fairer way to govern the Empire

Defenestration of Prague

The hurling, by Protestants, of Catholic officials from a castle window in Prague, sparking the Thirty Years' War.

Dialectical Materialism

The idea, according to Karl Marx, that change and development in history results from the conflict between social classes. Economic, industrial, and technological forces (forces that impact a man's paycheck) impel human beings to behave in socially determined ways and not mainly by ideas (as was Hegel's idea).

Five Great Farms

The internal tariff union set up by minister Colbert to increase trade inside France. At the time it was created it was the largest free-trade area in Europe as it was barely larger than England

Royal Society of London

The leading English scientific organization, made up of leading merchants, planters, and even theologians, all devoted to the discoveries of scientific ideas. From this society money could be raised to continue research, scientific theorems could be debated and methods standardized. Formed in 1662, it was quickly copied in France in 1666

Bundestag

The lower, and most powerful, house of FRG's (West Germany) government, this would be made up of parties represented by their percentages in the popular vote, but no party would be represented if they had less than 5% of the national vote. The Chancellor, the executive in the new government with authority (the president was to be an honorable position with little power), was to be responsible to majority in this.

Hidalgos

The minor nobility of Spain. Often they possessed little wealth and were interested in improving their position through the overseas empire.

Interallied Shipping Council

The movement of all shipments, for military efforts, was controlled by this council during WWII. It was extremely important in order to assure Britain would be fed.

Industrial Unionism

The movement to form labor organizations that represent every worker in a single industry, regardless of his or her level of skill. It was very popular after the success of the 1889 London Dock Strike

Majlis

The national assembly in Persia that was formed after the 1906 revolutions there.

Legislative Assembly

The national assembly of the Directory. While voted upon by nearly all males, only electors could be elected, which was an extremely small number of men, It was bicameral, the lower chamber called the Council of Five Hundred and the upper chamber, which was called the Council of Ancients because the members had to be over 40, consisting of 250 members

Social Contract

The notion that society is based on an agreement between government and the governed in which people agree to give up some rights in exchange for the protection of others

Third Partition of Poland

The partitioning powers, seeing the increasing unrest in the remaining Commonwealth, decided to solve the problem by erasing any independent Polish state from the map. On 24 October 1795 their representatives signed a treaty, dividing the remaining territories of the Commonwealth among their three countries. The Russian part included 120,000 km² and 1.2 million people with Vilnius (Wilno), the Prussian part (new provinces of New East Prussia and New Silesia) 55,000 km² and 1 million people with Warsaw, and the Austrian 47,000 km² with 1.2 million and Lublin and Kraków.

The Hundred Days

The period between Napoleon Bonaparte's return to Paris (20 March 1815) from his exile on Elba, and the restoration of the Bourbon Dynasty under King Louis XVIII (8 July 1815). This period is also known as the War of the Seventh Coalition, and includes the Waterloo Campaign and the Neapolitan War. Afterwards Napoleon would be exiled on St. Helena in the South Atlantic where he would die

Deism

The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws. Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life.

Social Contract (1762)

The stated aim of this essay by Rosseau is to determine whether there can be a legitimate political authority. In order to accomplish more and remove himself from the state of nature, man must enter into a Social Contract with others. In this social contract, everyone will be free because all forfeit the same amount of freedom and impose the same duties on all. Rousseau also argues that it is illogical for a man to surrender his freedom for slavery; and so, the participants must be free. Furthermore, although the contract imposes new laws, especially those safeguarding and regulating property, a person can exit it at any time (except in a time of need, for this is desertion), and is again as free as when he was born. Rousseau posits that any administration, whatever form it takes, should be divided into two parts. First, there must be the sovereign (which Rousseau states must consist of the whole population) who represents the general will and is the legislative power within the state. The second division is that of the government, being distinct from the sovereign. This division must be since the sovereign cannot deal with particular matters (it is then acting as particular wills and not the general will — the sovereign is no longer whole and therefore ruined), like applications of the law. Therefore a government must be separate from that of the sovereign body. Rousseau claims that the size of the territory to be governed often decides the nature of the government. Since a government is only as strong as the people, and this strength is absolute, the larger the territory the more strength the government must be able to exert over the populace. In his view, a monarchical government is able to wield the most power over the people since it has to devote less power to itself, while a democracy the least. In general, the larger the bureaucracy, the more power required for government discipline. Normally, this relationship requires the state to be an aristocracy or monarchy. It is important to note here that when Rousseau talks of aristocracy and monarchy he does not necessarily mean they are not a democracy in the sense we see it now - the aristocracy or monarch could be elected, being like Cabinet Governments or Presidents are today - when Rousseau uses the word democracy he refers to a direct democracy rather than a representative democracy like most democratic states have today. In light of all this, Rousseau argues that, like his native Geneva, small city-states are the form of nation in which freedom can best flourish. For any state large enough to require intermediaries between the people and the government, an elected aristocracy may be preferable, and in very large states a benevolent monarch; but even monarchical rule, to be legitimate, must be subordinate to the sovereign rule of law.

Jean Monnet

The visionary but practical French economist and businessman who recognized that European unity had to start with economics. Leader like Schumann (France), Spaak (Belgium), Adenauer (Germany) and De Gasperi (Italy) were in favor of economic integration.This man's 1952 plan finally led to the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community)

Fourteen Points

The war aims outlined by President Wilson in 1918, which he believed would promote lasting peace; called for self-determination, freedom of the seas, free trade, end to secret agreements, reduction of arms and a league of nations. It was only proclaimed because the Bolsheviks had released secret documents outlining territory gains by the Allies if they were to be victorious in war. Compared to the concessions demanded by England and France, it was very generous for Germany and therefore Germany endorsed it.

Battle of Jena-Auerstadt

These battle occured in quick succession in October 1806 in which Napoleon decisively defeated the Prussians. He obliterated the Prussian army and occupied their capital city of Berlin. King of Prussia Fredrick William III asked protection from the Tzar of Russia in Konigsberg against Napoleon

East India Companies

These companies, established by by the English in 1600, the Dutch in 1602, and the French in 1664, were by far the most powerful. Through these companies, the Portuguese monopoly on the Far East slowly crumbled into nothing.

July Ordinances

These edicts of Charles X of France exemplify his desperation to keep his throne. When Laffite and Casimier-Perier, leftist leaders from the financial sector, were able to pass a vote of no confidence in the government through the Chamber of Deputies, Charles responded by disolving the chamber and demanding new elections, as was his constitutional right. However the people of France demanded the policies of the leftists, so Charles X introduced these four edicts on July 26th, 1830. The first disbanded the new Chamber of Deputies before they ever met. The second imposed censorship on the press. The third reduced suffrage so that bankers, merchants, and industrialists no longer had a role in the government so that only the old aristocracy had any power. Finally the fourth edict called for a second election based on the principals of the first three edicts. The next day the July Revolution began which took three days to persuade Charles X to abdicate and flee to England.

Universalists

These enlightened thinkers who agreed with Voltaire felt that humanity was united under a natural law of right and reason that was carried by all people in all periods of time. These people believed that all people around the world would eventually participate in the same progress that the enlightened thinker shad experienced during the 18th century. They also believed in no much thing as nationalism or a national character, but simply that at this period in time it was Paris and the French language that were in the vanguard of civilized thinking

Corn Laws

These laws forbade the importation of foreign grain without the prices in England rising substantially (to an extreme level that never occurred). These laws were repealed by the Whigs in a push in 1846 during a Tory government, before the revolutions of 1848, to the cheers of the working man.

Parlements

These political bodies in France emerged as units of power again after the death of Louis XIV. They were made up of judges, but under Louis XIV, when they had no power, the judges became offices which would be sold and, to get more money for these positions, they were attached to titles of nobility. Therefore, judges could no longer be ousted because they had property rights in their individual offices. This new found security allowed the bodies to once against assert to right to legislate their regions, disobey the king, and to collect taxes as they saw fit. Of these bodies in France, many had different degrees of success with the Paris body being the most powerful. Only the Revolution of 1789 could remove them of their power

Federalists

These rebels to the French Revolution, located in the great provincial cities like Lyon, Bordeaux, and Marseilles demanded some sort of federal government in which they would experience the same liberties they had had during the old regime. While they received a great deal of foreign aid, all were hunted and by Robespierre and the movement never could gain power in France for fear of the guillotine.

Prefect

These ruled over each of the 83 departments of France, that had been created by the constituent Assembly, with absolutely authority by which they enacted the will of the First Consul

Enlightened

These thinkers viewed the Partition of Poland as a glorious triumph of the enlightened despots of the era for the old and inappropriate remnants of the middle ages were being disposed of by enlightened despots of great nations (Prussia, Russia, and Austria). No longer would their be rivalries over Poland in eastern Europe, and general peace in the region, or a united from against the Ottomans, was thought to be in store for the future. In actuality, the death of Poland, and the general growth of Eastern European powers, greatly weakened the political aims of France, long time ally of Poland, Hungary, and the Ottomans. Europe was in fact less stable due to the enlightened monarchs, and Napoleon would prove this concept

Finnish, Hungarian, and Basque

These three languages are the only modern languages to not be derived from the ancient Indo-European language. The latter actually survived every single invasion of Europe, the only one to have done so (the other two came in later invasions after written history had begun)

Australia and New Zealand

These two British colonies, which were one of the first to test decolonization, were not heavily immigrated to because they overwhelmingly preferred english-speaking immigrants, a qualification that did not concern the US until after WWI.

Serbian and Bosnian

These two slavic languages are both written in Cyrillic script as they are closer culturally to Russia and the Greek Church

Capitulations

These were agreements instigated by the French in the sixteenth century that exempted European visitors from Ottoman law and provided European powers with extraterritoriality. This agreement dated back to the sixteenth century when Ottomans did not want to govern foreign merchants. In the nineteenth century these agreements were felt to be humiliating intrusions on the sovereignty of the Ottomans.

Enrages

These were even more extreme than the sans-culottes. They were leftist, extremists in Paris and the provinces who declared that parliamentary methods were useless. Included women. Worked thro-out the whole country. Formed revolutionary armies scouring countryside for food, denouncing suspects and preaching revolution.

Banalites

These were feudal dues collected by the nobility from the villagers for the use of the village shop, mill and winepress. Since the nobility generally owned these and held the monopoly over these necessary services, peasants were in essence forced to pay these fees.

Addresses to the German Nation

These were the very nationalistic speeches in Berlin by Fichte that declared that their was an ineradicable German sprit that needed to be preserved from outside influences (the French). His speeches, when given, only attracted a small academic audience, so the French general occupying Berlin allowed them to continue. They became the bedrock of Germanic nationalism in the 19th century and Fichte would become regarded as a national hero for speaking so openly in a time of occupation (even though the French only suppressed a very few things that were quite detrimental, and effective, to their rule)

Second Continental Congress

They organized the continental Army, called on the colonies to send troops, selected George Washington to lead the army, and appointed the comittee to draft the Declaration of Independence (1776)

Vendée Rebellion

This (1793 to 1796; French: Guerre de Vendée) was a Royalist rebellion and counterrevolution in the Vendée region of France during the French Revolution. The Vendée is a coastal region, located immediately south of the Loire River in western France. The uprising was closely tied to the Chouannerie, which took place in the area north of the Loire. Initially, the war was similar to the earlier Jacquerie peasant uprising, but quickly took on counterrevolutionary themes. The nature of the uprising has been heavily disputed by historians since the nineteenth century. On 1 August 1793, the Committee of Public Safety ordered General Jean-Baptiste Carrier to carry out a "pacification" of the region by complete physical destruction. These orders were not carried out immediately, but a steady stream of demands for total destruction persisted. By 1796 the region was considered occupied and the violence slowed, with roughly 1/4 of its population dead

People's Council

This (Dutch: Volksraad) for the Dutch East Indies was provided for by law in 1916 but was procrastinated until the actual installation of this, essentially a parliament, in 1918. It was a hesitant and slow attempt at democratization of the Dutch East Indies. The power of the Volksraad was limited as it only had advisory powers. Although part of the council was elected only a small proportion of the population had voting rights. The Volksraad had sixty members: 30 members from various indigenous groups, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations. The Volksraad was reconstituted every four years. The members of the Council were partly chosen, partly appointed by the colonial administration

Treaty of Paris

This 1763 treaty between the French, Spanish, and the English, along with the Peace of Hubertusburg between the Prussians and the Austrians, ended the Seven Years War. The French gave up all possessions in North America, the eastern half going to the British and the western half, which included New Orleans, going to the Spanish, but kept nearly all of its other possessions around the world. Even though the British were victorious, they felt that this was a fair treaty because the balance of powers was still in check, the dutch were safe behind Belgium, and the French had lost all the bargaining chips they had left overseas in the case for a future war. If the French were to loose another war, they were finally going to be truly hurt economically. This threat prevented any other wars, the American Revolution excluded, before the French Revolution threw everything out of flux

Congress of Troppau

This 1820 congress was established by Metternich in order to take down the government of Naples whose king had just been forced to take an oath to uphold the liberal Spanish constitution of 1812. Seeing that this was just a ploy to get others to do Metternich's dirty-work, France and England only sent observes to the congress in Austrian controlled Silesia. Tsar Alexander I did go, and there, already sick of the Poles who were not thankful for their republican government, he was convinced by Metternich that revolutionary activity must be contained. Once the most liberal ruler ever to grace Europe, Nicholas now was its most powerful advisory, if he so well chose to.

Municipal Corporations Act

This 1835 law modernized the local government of England allowing them to raise taxes more freely for urban improvement.

Ten Hours Act

This 1847 act limited the hours for all women in children in industrial establishments to 10 hours. The effect of this act was the lower of hours for all industrial workers to 10 hours because the work of men was too closely coordinated with women and children for the men to work alone. While it was not written in law, Britain had an effective industrial working-hours laws before the revolutions of 1848. It was opposed by the Liberal Party and John Bright because it was against laissez-faire, individual liberties, and limited the ability for workers to make money.

Treaty of Tientsin

This 1858 treaty opened 16 ports in China to US trade, including the 5 of the Treaty of Wanghsia, and granted Americans the right to travel and trade throughout China. This gave the fifty protestant missionaries throughout China legal clearance and created a country which would be the center of American missionaries for a century to come. It also forced China to pay a large debt of war indemnities and forbid them from raising tariffs above five percent

Seven Weeks War (Austro-Prussian War)

This 1866 war was fought after Bismarck contested that the German Federal Diet had no authority when Austria attempted to peacefully settle the issue of how Schleswig-Holstein was to be governed. Essentially all of Germany went to Austria's side, but Prussia won still won. Italy, for their menial support, was given Venice. Prussia annexed Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Casse, Frankfurt, Schleswig, and Holstein all by force and established the North German Confederation in which Prussia and 21 other German states north of the River Main would replace the German Federal Diet.

Forster Education Act

This 1870 act by the Liberals under the first ministry of Gladstone developed state-suported education.

Treaty of San Stefano

This 1878 treaty put upon the Ottoman Empire by the Russians forced Turkey to cede strategic territories south of the Caucasus to Turkey, so that Russia would have two avenues to attack in the future, and forced the Ottomans to give full independence to Serbia and Romania and grant autonomy to Bulgaria which was expected to fall under Russian influence. The British were the most furious at this treaty to which the word "jingoism" was added to the English language.

Treaty of St. Germain

This 1919 treaty was between the Austrians and the allies of France after World War I. Austria had to limit her army to 30,000 men, territories handed over to now states and independence recognized, lost 15 million of its people and almost all of its industrial area, forbade an economic union with Germany unless the Council of the League of Nations gave consent. It left Austria financially and militarily weak, needing loans from the League of Nations. The land provisions were already in affect as the Austrian Empire dismembered herself.

Poor Law of 1834 (New Poor Law)

This Act has been described as "the classic example of the fundamental Whig-Benthamite reforming legislation of the period", based on three main doctrines: Malthus's principle that population increased faster rather than resources unless checked, Ricardo's "iron law of wages" and Bentham's doctrine that people did what was pleasant, and would tend to claim relief rather than working. In essence it reformed the entire poor relief bureaucracy, making it more efficient, and made it harder to enter poor houses which were not to be as ideal as they had been. The hope of the law was to inspire many in the poor houses to find work.

Robot

This Bohemian term was common in eastern Europe where three or four days of forced labor per week were required of a peasant for a Lord, lowering the status of the peasant class to serfdom (referred to in Germany as Hereditary Subjection). The cause of this in Eastern Europe and not Western Europe was simple: in the west the peasants gained from the price increases, while in the east it was the Lords that benefited. This shifting of money gave Eastern and Western Europe its character that is still viewable today.

Joseph Chamberlain

This British statesman, origonally a factory owner who preferred socialism and so established somewhat of municipal socialism while mayor of Birmingham, sought to tie the various dominions of the Commonwealth of Nations (British Empire) through economic means. He advocated that the dominions such as Canada, New Zealand, and Australia should receive full autonomy, and therefore they would be more willing to integrate economically with Great Britain. He also advocated tariffs favoring goods from British dominions. His ideas generally factored into British imperialist policies after the end of WWI

Joseph Glanville

This Englishman in 1660's used Descartes's Cartesian dualism to demonstrate the existence of witches, which is a great example of how during the 17th century, a time of scientific revolution, many, including scientists, were very conservative (Including Newton, Harvey, Bacon, and Descartes) and had no interest in the social revolutions to follow in the 18th century.

Venice

This European city suffered the most when the Portuguese disrupted and ruined the traditional overland trading routes. This city's goods cost was now about five times that of the same goods in Lisbon

Louisiana

This French territory, which had recently been taken from Spain, was sold to America in 1803 as Napoleon gave up on his campaign to retake Haiti and, without rich Haiti, any overseas French Empire would be detrimental to the nation's health.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

This German Kaiser abdicated on November 9th, 1918 at the demands of his country. On November 3rd, sailors at Kiel mutinied against the war. A nation-wide syndicalist/marxist strike began on November 9th, and at the demands of Prince Max, the final German chancellor under the monarchy, he ran across the frontier to Holland where he died peacefully at the Doorn Estate in 1941, even though many wanted him to be tried as a war criminal.

Matthias Erzberger

This German politician of the Catholic Center Party was one of the most vocal leaders against the war. He "betrayed" Germany being one of the most important signatories of the armistice. He was murdered by the Brownshirts in 1921.

Kulturkampf

This German term, literally, "culture struggle", refers to German policies in relation to secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck. The attack on the church included a series of Prussian, discriminatory laws that made Catholics feel understandably persecuted within a predominantly Protestant nation. Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans and other orders were expelled in the culmination of twenty years of anti-Jesuit and antimonastic hysteria. The Catholic Church comprised one-third of the population of Prussia. In the newly founded German Empire, Bismarck sought to appeal to liberals and Protestants by reducing the political and social influence of the Catholic Church. The program was stopped in 1878 as Bismarck felt it was doing harm to national unity and had no successes to speak of over those 7 years and it was not making any recent progress

Alexander Isvolsky

This Russia foreign minister came to an agreement in 1908 with Austria in which Russia would support Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Austria would support Russia's demands to open the Bosphorus to Russian ships. Austrian foreign minister Alois von Aehrenthal did not live up to his bargain, simply taking Bosnia and holding no conference to discus Russian demands. The Russians were less disturbed by this than the Serbs, who greatly desired Bosnian territories.

Fyodor Dostoevski

This Russian author wrote Crime and Punishment, The Brother Karamazov, and The Idiot. He is considered one of the greatest psychological writers of all time (1821-1881).

Vladimir Lenin

This Russian demanded that any revisionist Marxist be kicked out of the party in favour of orthodox Marxism. He succeeded and his uncompromising Marxists, who were the majority in the Russian Social Democratic Party, were from then on known as Bolsheviks, with the revisionist Russians known as Mensheviks. With the Russian Revolution unknown in 1903 when this occurred, it was deemed unimportant by contemporaries.

Ivan Turgenev

This Russian realist author wrote Father and Sons and the collection of short stories A Sportsman's Sketches. Both were widely read and acclaimed throughout Europe (1818-1883).

Pravda

This Russian term translates to truth. It was the name for the Bolshevik party's newspaper founded in 1912 as Nicholas II relaxed censorship. Censorship would rise in full force again during WWI though.

Stakhanov

This Russian was a famous coal miner who was an example of the workers who exceeded the government's assigned goals and were greatly rewarded. By highlighting his achievements, the USSR could boast production by competition that did not harm the worker or the economy like socialists believed it did in capitalism.

Abdul Hamid II

This Sultan, ruling from 1876 to 1909, was established in his position by Midhat Pasha who hoped to reform the Ottoman Empire even further. This man, to gain power, played along and proclaimed a constitution with a parliament in 1876. This constitution gave freedom of the press, freedom of education, freedom of conscience, promised personal liberties, and stated that the empire in its current form was to be indivisible. All were lies. This man repudiated the constitution in 1877 when he became a true dictator living in fear of change he could not understand (a consignment of dynamos was once rejected because it could operate at several hundred revolutions per minute). With this man as Sultan, the Ottoman Empire was doomed to crumble.

Paul I

This Tsar, ruling from 1796 to 1801, was overthrow by assassination. This assassination was probably condoned by his successor, his son Alexander I

Labor Commission

This administration, the child of Louis Blanc, of the Provisional Government of France after the abdication of Louis Philippe ran the National Workshops which were agreed to by the Provisional Government only as a political concession. No significant work was ever assigned for fear of competition with private enterprise and dislocation of the economic system which was already established to the benefit of the middle class. Indeed, the man put in charge of the commission was out to prove the fallacy of socialism. This administration could not get a 10 hour day instituted (already established in England), but it was able to abolish slavery in the colonies.

Tripple Entente

This alliance, although never officially a military commitment, emerged after France and England recognized their respective holdings in Morocco and Egypt in 1904 and England and Russia divided Persia in 1907. This general amiability led to these three aligning in World War I.

Catholic Emancipation

This allowed roman catholics to be in parliament which ended the anglican monoploy on the british. This was a liberal move, but was done for a conservative puropose which was to keep the Irish happy. The process began during the Napoleonic Wars to keep the Irish from allowing the French to invade their island, but the most important act came through the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829 which ended any legal restrictions against Catholics in the United Kingdom.

Battle of Verdun

This battle was fought as the Germans attempted an offensive on the western front in 1916. General Petain held his troops to a minimum to focus on the Battle of the Somme, but the French still held their ground over the grueling ten month battle in which nearly no land was gained and 700,000 were lost.

Battle of Chateau-Thierry

This battle was fought on 18 July 1918 and was one of the first actions of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) under General John J. Pershing. It was a battle in World War I as part of the Second Battle of the Marne, initially prompted by a German offensive launched on 15 July against the AEF, the newest troops on the front

Battle of Tsushima Strait

This battle was the major naval battle fought between Russia and Japan during the Russo-Japanese War. This was naval history's only decisive sea battle fought by modern steel battleship fleets, the first naval battle in which wireless telegraphy played a critically important role, and has been characterized as the "dying echo of the old era - for the last time in the history of naval warfare ships of the line of a beaten fleet surrendered on the high seas." The Japanese won handily, destroying Russia's Baltic fleet, along with its weak Asian fleet, and cut off communication ability for Russian troops in Manchuria with Moscow

Legislative Assembly

This body was created in May of 1849 when the Constituent Assembly dissolved, but was a strangely divided legislative body for a republic. It was one-third Legitimists (favoured the restoration of Charles X), one-third Orleanists (who favoured Louis Philippe), and one-third Republicans, more than half which being ideologically closer to Socialists than Republicans. In an awkward turn, a congress created by socialists and republicans became a force against the those same groups.

National Assembly

This body, forcibly established by the Treaty of Frankfurt in 1871, was elected by a universal male body to created a new French Government. Sitting in Versailles, it was only a third republican, those who had defended Paris for four months while Napoleon III had been captured, for France still refused to trust republicans and so favoured monarchists. The monarchists, however, were nearly perfectly divided between Bourbon monarchists and Orlean monarchists. By one vote they cancelled each other out and the Third Republic was born with a Senate, elected by an indirect system, and a Chamber of Deputies elected by direct universal male suffrage.

National System of Political Economy

This book was written by Friedrich List in 1840. He believed that industrialization would relieve people of poverty and help achieve happiness. He supported railroad building, tariffs, and the Zollverein. In this book he also expressed his beliefs that free trade was only beneficial to the British and that tariffs would aid countries in catching up with the English. A revival of his ideas began in earnest during the 1870s.

People's Justice

This book, written by the anarchists Bakunin and Nechaiev, called for terrorism against the tsar, his officials, and liberals.

Edict of 1864

This by Tsar Alexander II gave certain rights to all Russians including public trials and right to representation by lawyers in court of the defendant's choosing. He also abolished class distinctions in judicial matters. Courts were established based on the English system, as were juries, and judges were to be professionally trained and paid so that corruption would be less.

Treblinka

This camp in eastern Poland was one of the largest extermination camps run by the Nazis. Operating for only just over a year, about 900,000 were murdered, most of them Jews. The camp was destroyed in 1943 after an uprising that allow about 300 to escape, but most were quickly captured. The Nazis chose not to rebuild and tried to hide their atrocities. Only bodies remained when the site was taken by the USSR.

Church of Ireland

This church, and exact model of the Anglican Church, was set up to control the old Catholic holdings on the island of Ireland. However, much as the northern Princes of the HRE took to Lutherism to gain sovereignty from their overloads, so did the Irish with Catholicism. This church had no power in the eyes of the Irish

Antwerp

This city was taken by the Duke of Parma in an effort to take the border Flemish Cities for the Spanish. Since this city was the most apt for an invasion of England, Elizabeth responded to the Duke of Parma by sending the Earl of Leicester and 6,000 in 1585

Austrian East India Company

This company was established at the revamped port of Trieste by Joseph II in an attempt to emulate the Ostend Company of Charles VI, his grandfather. It quickly failed after a few years for their was not enough money, support, or skill from a central European power to built any type of naval power

International Monetary and Economic Conference

This conference, meeting in London in 1933, as the last major effort to open international trading channels. It failed miserably, along with all attempts to stabilize exchange rates for currencies. Economic nationalism was to define the response by virtually all nations to the Great Depression, extending its existence. soon after this conference, Europe defaulted on its war debts to the United States. The precarious Dawes Plan system was in shambles.

Berlin Conference of 1885

This congress between all major imperialists powers mediated by Bismarck desired to bring the International Congo Association under the rule of a nation, Leopold II but not yet Belgium, so that it could be regulated and pressured as all governments in Europe were in order to ensure the protection of human rights. It also set mandates so that another private organization like it would not arise and essentially created rules for the scramble for Africa. Bismarck made it clear that claims for land made by any power had to be backed by economic or military occupation, and not by decree like in the Americas.

Constitution of 1791

This declared France a constitution monarchy in which the King would remain in power with a suspensive veto for anything done by the new one house elected assembly called the Legislative Assembly, but he could not outright veto the acts of the Legislative Assembly. In response to this Louis XVI, fed up with the revolution, fled to Varennes in an attempt to leave the country as a emigre, and by doing so destroyed all the power he still had through this. This document did not give woman the right to vote or hold office, and it also created the idea of passive and active citizens. Both had unalienable rights, but passive citizens (wage earners that worked for an employer and the illiterate) did not have the right to vote for it was assumed they had no political ideas of their own.

Regent Diamond

This diamond is a diamond which is on display in the Louvre. In 1698, a slave found the 410 carat (82 g) uncut diamond in a Golkonda mine, more specifically Paritala-Kollur Mine in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India and concealed it inside of a large wound in his leg. An English sea captain stole the diamond from the slave after killing him and sold it to an Indian merchant. Governor Thomas Pitt acquired it from a merchant in Madras in 1701. Because of Pitt's ownership it is sometimes known as the Pitt Diamond. Pitt bought the diamond for £20,400 (£2,964,490 as of 2011), and had it cut in to a 141 carats (28 g) cushion brilliant. After many attempts to sell it to various European royalty, including Louis XIV of France, it was sold to the French Regent, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans in 1717 for £135,000 (£18,634,090 as of 2011),. The royals used the stone in many ways including being set in the crown of Louis XV for his coronation in 1722, in a new crown for the coronation of Louis XVI in 1775, and as an adornment in the hat of Marie Antoinette. In 1791 its appraised value was £480,000 (£46,922,530 as of 2011). Napoleon used it to embellish his sword, designed by the goldsmiths Odiot, Boutet and Marie-Etienne Nitot. In 1812, it appeared on the Emperor's two-edged sword, the work of Nitot. Napoleon's second wife, Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, carried the Régent back to Austria upon his death. Later her father returned it to the French Crown Jewels. The diamond was mounted successively on the crowns of Louis XVIII, Charles X and Napoleon III.

Protocol of Troppau

This document, drawn directly from the conclusions at the Congress of Troppau, asked for the agreement between the five great power to international collaboration for the interest of general peace and stability against change. France and England both rejected it, not because they opposed crushing the Neapolitan Revolution, but because they opposed any sort of binding international union. As a result, the three powers that would agree to this did invade Naples and restored Ferdinand I.

Leopold I

This emperor of the HRE was distracted after Louis XIV paid the Hungary to revolt to weaken the Austrians, and in 1683 they invited the Turks to take down the Austrians. Distracted by the Ottomans back in Europe, this allowed the French to take Alice (Capital Strasbourg) in 1861 as was originally set out by the Treaty of Westphalia

Congress of Paris (1856)

This ended the Crimean War. It ensured Ottoman protection from Russia by the European powers and made Russia agree never to invade again in order to "protect" Christians in the Islamic empire, but it forced the Ottomans to allow Moldavia, Wallachia (which was given the left bank of the Danube from Russia), and Serbia to become autonomous provinces which would be protected by Austria, Great Britain, and France.

Thermidorian Reaction

This ended the Reign of Terror of Robespierre. The goal was increasingly an ideal democratic republic where justice would reign and there would be neither rich nor poor. Their lofty goal was unrestrained despotism and guillotine. In Mar. 1794, to the horror of many sans-culorres, Robespierre's Terror wiped out many angry men who had been criticizing Robespierre for being soft on the wealthy. It recalled the early days of the Revolution. At the zenith of the revolution, Robespierre was guillotined to general applause.

Consideration on the Government of Poland

This essay was written by Rousseau at the request of the people of Poland (1770) to ward off the increasing influence of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Written in 1772, immediately after the first partition of Poland in 1771, it was only published after Rousseau's death in 1778 in order to avoid public backlash from his beneficiaries. Among other issues, Rousseau addresses his belief that small states can prosper while large states slip into anarchy or despotism. He recommends that surpassing any constitutional reforms, the most important reform Poland could make would be the adoption of a federal system. Specifically, Rousseau advocates a federation of the existing voivodships. In recommending the creation of smaller states, Rousseau recognizes the imminent First Partition with the words: "If you wish to reform your government, then, begin by narrowing your frontiers, though perhaps your neighbors intend to do that for you."

Portugese

This ethnic group mainly migrated during the second half of the nineteenth century to Brazil.

Italian

This ethnic group migrated during the second half of the nineteenth century to evenly to both America and Latin America.

The Capitulation at Baylen

This event occurred after French General Pierre Dupont de l'Étang had been soundly defeated by the guerillas of Generals Francisco Castaños of Spain. It was the first time any French troops had been surrendered since Napoleon took power, and signified the weakening of the French army due to the constant warfare that France had endured for two decades, combined with the fact that the guerillas of Spain were too effective for the traditional French armies to handle

Toilers

This group was the only one who had the right to vote after the 1924 Constitution in the USSR. The later 1936 constitution created a more direct democratic process, including a secret ballot and an opening of the ballot to all members of the USSR, making elections in the USSR fair, although all politicians could still only be Communist.

Order of Flagellants

This group's members went through the streets, two by two, beating each other up with chains and whips. It was at this time that the great witch craft delusion, which was to reach its height in which the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, first became important. Its rise led to the rise in anti-semitism across northern Europe during the 15th century. This order and others like it cleared exhibited the faith lost in the Catholic church to provide passage to Heaven

International Council of Women

This group, founded by Susan B Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and other European feminists in 1888, was designed to organize the demand for women's rights across the borders of all modern nations (27 were represented).

Needle Gun

This gun is a firearm that has a needle-like firing pin, which can pass through the paper cartridge case to strike a percussion cap at the bullet base. This gun was used by the Prussians in the 1860s and 70s but had not been incorporated into the arsenals of other continental powers, giving the Prussians a great advantage in the Seven Weeks War and the Franco-Prussian War.

Republic of Poland

This heterogenous nation (including Poles, Russians, Ukrainians, Belorussians, and especially a large amount of Jews) had absolutely no administrative system (collected 1/75th the taxes of Louis XIV) and allowed its Lords to have a great deal of freedom in all dealings. Its foreign policy was a combination of strong Lords using personal armies and invitations of stronger powers to help them (like the Turks, Russians, or Austrians) It was united through its religion: Catholicism. Over its two centuries of existence, an actual nation state can only be said to have existed under the rule of Polish King John Sobieski

House of Savoy

This house, the last monarchy on the continent with any connections to the state, even though the monarchy never had much real power in Italy since its unification, was abolished by a 1946 referendum, ending the reign of Umberto II before he had even ruled a month. Italy would be a republic moving forward.

Madame Bovary (1857)

This is Gustave Flaubert's first published novel and is considered his masterpiece. The story focuses on a doctor's wife, Emma Bovary, who has adulterous affairs and lives beyond her means in order to escape the banalities and emptiness of provincial life. Though the basic plot is rather simple, even archetypal, the novel's true art lies in its details and hidden patterns. Flaubert was notoriously a perfectionist about his writing and claimed always to be searching for le mot juste ("the right word"). The novel was attacked for obscenity by public prosecutors when it was first serialized in La Revue de Paris between 1 October 1856 and 15 December 1856, resulting in a trial in January 1857 that made the story notorious. After the acquittal on 7 February 1857, it became a bestseller when it was published as a book in April 1857, and now stands virtually unchallenged not only as a seminal work of Realism, but as one of the most influential novels ever written

Terra Nullius

This is a Latin term that means certain land is not governed or owned. This refers to when the British and other Europeans presumed that Australia, the Americas, and Africa was this and therefore apt for colonization

Benelux

This is name for the free trade zone established in 1948 by lowland countries of the Rhine delta.

War of the Pragmatic Sanction

This is the Austrian term for the years between 1740 and 1748 based on the concept that the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI would not be recognized and therefore the reign of Maria Theresa of the Habsburgs

Concordat of 1801

This is the agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon that healed the religious division in France by giving the French Catholics free practice of their religion and Napoleon political power to the horror of the Jacobins. The autonomy of the Gallican church ended and the constitutional clergy came under the rule of the Holy See. By doing so, Pope Pius VII recognized the new Consulate of France and Napoleon as its supreme ruler. Napoleon agreed to pay the salaries of the clergy, but for Catholics and Protestants to prove that religion was of no concern to him. While Napoleon would soon oppose the papacy, the terms of this agreement were quite long lasting

Classical Virtues

This is the fundamental idea behind all Greek ideals, and would shape much of the western world, especially Christianity. They believed in the golden mean: all things can be good in moderation. Order was critical, exemplified in their architecture

Birth Rate

This is the ratio of live births in an area to the population of that area. While Europe had developed a "European Family Pattern" during the sixteenth century in which Europeans married later than the rest of the world, if marrying at all, and had less children, all in an attempt to maintain the standard of living for the next generation, this significantly began to drop during the French Revolution in France due to the Napoleon Code which required that all children, even women, get an inheritance. This allowed Germany to pass France, which had always been the largest state in Europe, in population in 1870 and by 1930 every major state had passed France in population. France was just the first foot to drop, and all other European countries followed before the end of nineteenth century. Modern rates of this in Europe are less than 15 per 1,000 people.

Factory Act of 1833

This law limited the factory workday for children between 9 and 13 to 8 hours and that of adolescents between 14 and 18 to 12 hours, yet made no effort to regulate hours of work for children at home or in small businesses because that went beyond the role of government and bureaucracy that was comfortable for the British during this time period. Children under 9 were to be enrolled by schools to be established by factory owners and broke pattern of whole families working together in the factory because efficiency required standardized shifts for all workers. Children under 9 were not to work.

General Yuan Shih-kai

This man (16 September 1859[1] - 6 June 1916) was an important Chinese general and politician famous for his influence during the late Qing Dynasty, his role in the events leading up to the abdication of the last Qing Emperor of China, his autocratic rule as the second President of the Republic of China (following Sun Yatsen, who resigned feeling that this man would be a better ruler; he was wrong), and his short-lived attempt to revive the Chinese monarchy, with himself as the "Great Emperor of China"

Baron Haussmann

This man (1809-1884), an aggressive, impatient Alsatian whom he placed in charge of Paris, Napoleon III found an authoritarian planner capable of bulldozing both buildings and opposition. In twenty years, Paris was transformed. This man and his fellow planners proceeded on many interrelated fronts. With bold energy that often shocked their contemporaries, they razed old buildings in order to cut broad, straight, tree-lined boulevards through the center of the city as well as in new quarters on the outskirts. This man and Napoleon III tried to make Paris a more beautiful city, and to a large extent they succeeded. The broad, straight boulevards, such as those radiating out like the spokes of a wheel from the Arch of Triumph and those centering on the new Opera House, afforded impressive vistas were their achievements. He also pioneered the concept of a ring of railroad stations around Paris so that no railroad went through the city; all trains terminated at Grand Paris. This style was copied by all European capitals to the chagrin to the modern commuter (the system has been replaced in Berlin and compressed in London).

Henry M Hyndman

This man (1842-1921) was an English writer and politician, and the founder of the Social Democratic Federation and the National Socialist Party on the Marxist model

Ramsay MacDonald

This man (1866-1937) was the leader of the Labour Party during the 20's. With the help of the Liberals, he was able to take power in 1924 and 1929.

Pope Leo XIII

This man (2 March 1810 - 20 July 1903), born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci to an Italian comital family, was the 256th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, reigning from 1878 to 1903. He was the oldest pope (reigning until the age of 93), and had the third longest pontificate, behind his immediate predecessor Pius IX and John Paul II. He is known for intellectualism, the development of social teachings with his encyclical Rerum Novarum and his attempts to define the position of the Church with regard to modern thinking. He influenced Roman Catholic Mariology and promoted both the rosary and the scapular. He issued a record eleven encyclicals on the rosary, approved two new Marian scapulars and was the first Pope to fully embrace the concept of Mary as mediatrix

Jacques-Louis David

This man (30 August 1748 - 29 December 1825) was an influential French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. In the 1780s his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward a classical austerity and severity, heightened feeling chiming with the moral climate of the final years of the Ancien Régime. He later became an active supporter of the French Revolution and friend of Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794), and was effectively a dictator of the arts under the French Republic. Imprisoned after Robespierre's fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release, that of Napoleon I. It was at this time that he developed his Empire style, notable for its use of warm Venetian colours. He had a large number of pupils, making him the strongest influence in French art of the early 19th century, especially academic Salon painting. He painted the Death of Marat, Napoleon at the Saint-Bernard Pass, Marie Antioinette on the Way to the Guillotine, Napoleon in Study, Paris and Helen, Leonidas at Thermopylae, and Death of Socrates

Konrad Adenauer

This man (5 January 1876 - 19 April 1967) was a German statesman. As Chancellor of Germany (West Germany) from 1949 to 1963, he led his country from the ruins of World War II to a powerful and prosperous nation that forged close relations with old enemies France and the United States. In his years in power Germany achieved prosperity, democracy, stability and respect. He was the first chancellor (head of government) of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, called West Germany), 1949-63. He was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), a coalition of Catholics and Protestants that under his leadership became and has since remained the most dominant in Germany. This man, dubbed "Der Alte" ("the old one"), belied his age as the oldest elected leader in world history by his intense work habits and his uncanny political instinct. He displayed a strong dedication to a broad vision of democracy, capitalism, and anti-Communism. A shrewd politician, This man was deeply committed to a Western-oriented foreign policy and restoring the position of West Germany on the world stage. He worked to restore the West German economy from the destruction in World War II to a central position in Europe, rebuilt its army and came to terms with France, helped make possible Western European unification, opposed rival East Germany, and made his nation a member of NATO and a firm ally of the United States. A devout Catholic, he was a leading Centre Party politician in the Weimar Republic, he served as Mayor of Cologne (1917-1933) and president of the Prussian State Council (1922-1933)

Edouard Herriot

This man (5 July 1872 - 26 March 1957) was a French Radical politician of the Third Republic who served three times as Prime Minister and for many years as President of the Chamber of Deputies.He led France along side Briand during the Spirit of Locarno.

Wladyslaw Gomulka

This man (6 February 1905 - 1 September 1982) was a Polish Communist leader. He was the de facto leader of Poland from 1945 to 1948, and again from 1956 to 1970. He took his own steps, separate of Moscow, to improve the economy much as ending collectivization and tried to improve Poland's relation with the Vatican. In his final years he created a free atmosphere, but this was short-lived, ending with his tenure

Maximilian I of Mexico

This man (6 July 1832 - 19 June 1867) was the only monarch of the Second Mexican Empire. After a distinguished career in the Austrian Navy, he was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico on April 10, 1864, with the backing of Napoleon III of France and a group of Mexican monarchists who sought to revive the Mexican monarchy. Many foreign governments, including that of the United States, refused to recognize his administration. This helped to ensure the success of Republican forces led by Benito Juárez, and this man was captured and executed in 1867. Though criticised as naïve and indecisive, this man is often praised by historians due to his liberal reforms, his genuine desire to help the people of Mexico, his refusal to desert his loyal followers, and his personal bravery during the siege of Querétaro. He has been highly praised even by historians who believe he had no business becoming involved in Mexican affairs.

Charles Peguy

This man (January 7, 1873 - September 4, 1914) was a noted French poet, essayist, and editor. His two main philosophies were socialism and nationalism, but by 1908 at the latest, after years of uneasy agnosticism, he had become a devout but non-practicing Roman Catholic. From that time, Catholicism strongly influenced his works. He was killed during World War I

Toussaint L'Ouverture

This man (May 20, 1743 - April 7, 1803) was the leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military genius and political acumen led to the establishment of the independent black state of Haiti, transforming an entire society of slaves into a free, self-governing people. The success of the Haitian Revolution shook the institution of slavery throughout the New World. This man began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint Domingue. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo, Toussaint switched allegiance to the French when they abolished slavery. He gradually established control over the whole island, expelling the British invaders and using political and military tactics to gain power over his rivals. Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and security of Saint Domingue. He restored the plantation system using free labour, negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the USA and maintained a large and well-disciplined army. In 1801 he promulgated an autonomist constitution for the colony, with himself as governor for life. In 1802 he was forced to resign by forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte to restore French authority in the colony. He was deported to France where he died in 1803. The Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence in 1804.

Karl von Hardenberg

This man (May 31, 1750 - November 26, 1822) was a Prussian statesman and Prime Minister of Prussia. While during his late career he acquiesced to reactionary policies, earlier in his career he implemented a variety of Liberal reforms. To him and Baron vom Stein, Prussia was indebted for improvements in its army system, the abolition of serfdom and feudal burdens, the throwing open of the civil service to all classes, and the complete reform of the educational system. He was the Prussian statesmen during the Congress of Vienna and tried to take as much territory from the Confederation of the Rhine as possible. Metternich, feeling that a strong buffer state was preferable over a weak one, gave Prussia a great deal of land on the Rhine. Prussia would act as the buffer between France and the rest of Europe

Count Mikhail Speransky

This man (Russian: Михаи́л Миха́йлович Спера́нский) ( January 12 [O.S. January 1] 1772 - February 23 [O.S. February 11] 1839) was probably the greatest of Russian reformers during the reign of Alexander I of Russia. He was a close advisor to Tsar Alexander I of Russia and later to Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, he is sometimes called the father of Russian liberalism. He was pro-French governmental reforms, since Napoleon ran the most efficient Empire in terms of law and taxation in the entire world

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord (Talleyrand)

This man emerged as the leader of France after Napoleon abdicated, probably aiding France by lessening the rage of Tsar Alexander I. He agreed to all terms as long as Bourbon Louis XVIII would be the restored King of France

Chiang Kai-shek

This man led the Guomindang after Sun's death in 1925 and led the Guomindang into Beijing in 1928, controlling practically the entire nation. This man would move the capital from Beijing to Nanjing. The west, seeing that the Guomindang had at least nominal control over the entire nation, accepted Chiang Kai-shek as the leader of Chine and extended the privileges, and burdens, that had been extended to the Qin dynasty to him and the Guomindang. In 1927, once victory was essentially assured, this man began a purge of the Guomindang and sought to eliminate all communist and Soviets in China. Borodin ran back to Moscow, with the other Soviets, and the few communist that remained combined in to the Chinese Red Army under the leadership of Mao Zedong.

Chinese Gordon

This man saw action in the Crimean War as an officer in the British army, but he made his military reputation in China, where he was placed in command of the "Ever Victorious Army", a force of Chinese soldiers led by European officers. In the early 1860s, this man and his men were instrumental in putting down the Taiping Rebellion, regularly defeating much larger forces. For these accomplishments, he was given his nickname and honours from both the Emperor of China and the British. He entered the service of the Khedive in 1873 (with British government approval) and later became the Governor-General of the Sudan, where he did much to suppress revolts and the slave trade. Exhausted, he resigned and returned to Europe in 1880. Then a serious revolt broke out in the Sudan, led by a self-proclaimed Mahdi, Mohammed Ahmed. At the request of the British government, this man went to Khartoum to see to the evacuation of Egyptian soldiers and civilians. Besieged by the Mahdi's forces, this man organised a defence that gained him the admiration of the British public, though not the government, which had not wished to become involved. Only when public pressure to act had become too great was a relief force reluctantly sent. It arrived two days after the city had fallen and this man had been killed

Frederick the Wise (III) of Saxony

This man supported Martin Luther; in his "search for salvation" he had amassed over 19000 relics which would have gotten him out of 2 million years of purgatory including vials of the milk of the Virgin Mary, straw from the manger [of Jesus], and the body of one of the innocents massacred by King Herod. He staged the fake kidnapping of Luther so that he would be safe in one of the castles owned by this man, in which he wrote the first bible in German

Francis II

This man took over the throne after his father, Leopold II. He gave in to the demands of nobles, giving them a vast increase in power in response to the French Revolution. The reforms of Joseph II, in context to an effective bureaucratic machine that could compete with Prussia, Russia, and France had been completely undone (ruled 1792-1835). He also dissolved the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 after the disastrous Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 which led to the end of the Third Collation

Thomas H Huxley

This man was "Darwin's Bulldog" as he was Darwin's greatest ally. He had a very popularized argument against the Archbishop of Canterbury on evolution.

Count Kaunitz

This man was Maria Teresa's chief diplomat between 1753-92 and where he had Maria Theresa's full trust. Thanks in large part to him, Habsburg Austria entered a treaty (1756) with her old enemy France (and later Russia and Sweden) against the Kingdom of Prussia to win back Silesia, which Austria lost to Prussia during the Silesian Wars. Later on he also set up the marriage of Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI which was hated by the French people and one of the causes of the French revolution

Robert Clive

This man was a British soldier who established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Southern India and Bengal. He is credited with securing India, and the wealth that followed, for the British crown during the Third Carnatic War (Seven Years War). He committed suicide in 1774, unable to end the corruption in the British East India Company

Lorenzo de' Medici

This man was a Florentine diplomat, politician and patron of scholars, artists and poets. His life coincided with the high point of the early Italian Renaissance; his death marked the end of the Golden Age of Florence. The fragile peace he helped maintain between the various Italian states collapsed with his death. This man is buried in the Medici Chapel in Florence. He supported many artists and humanists including Michelangelo and Leonardo and Botticelli (1449-1492). He was known as the Magnificent

Bela Kun

This man was a Hungarian Communist politician who ruled Hungary as leader of the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 after toppling the new post-war Hungarian Republic. Reactionary forces, along with foreign pressures, brought his nations to an end and restored the Monarchy in Hungary, although the throne would be permanently vacant.

Zhou Enlai

This man was a prominent and influential member of the Chinese Communist Party during the time of Mao. He played a large role in China's reestablishing ties with the West. He was the only powerful moderate that Mao respected, and probably would have taken Mao's place had he not outlived this man.

Wilfred Owen

This man was an English poet and soldier, one of the leading poets of the First World War. His shocking, realistic war poetry on the horrors of trenches and gas warfare was heavily influenced by his friend Siegfried Sassoon and stood in stark contrast to both the public perception of war at the time, and to the confidently patriotic verse written earlier by war poets such as Rupert Brooke. Among his best-known works — most of which were published posthumously — are "Dulce et Decorum Est", "Insensibility", "Anthem for Doomed Youth", "Futility" and "Strange Meeting"

John Churchill (Duke of Marlborough)

This man was an English soldier and statesman whose career spanned the reigns of five monarchs through the late 17th and early 18th centuries. His marriage to the hot-tempered Sarah Jennings - Anne's intimate friend - ensured Marlborough's rise, first to the Captain-Generalcy of British forces, then to a dukedom. Becoming de facto leader of Allied forces during the War of the Spanish Succession, his victories on the fields of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709), ensured his place in history as one of Europe's great generals. But his wife's stormy relationship with the Queen, and her subsequent dismissal from court, was central to his own fall. Incurring Anne's disfavour, and caught between Tory and Whig factions, Marlborough, who had brought glory and success to Anne's reign, was forced from office and went into self-imposed exile. He returned to England and to influence under the House of Hanover with the accession of George I to the British throne in 1714, but following a series of strokes in later age his health gradually deteriorated, and he died on 16 June 1722 (O.S.), at Windsor Lodge.

Maupeou

This man was called to be chancellor under Louis XI in 1768 to weaken, or destroy, the parlements of France that were weakening the monarchy. He did this by destroying all the old parlements and establishing new ones in their place. In this way the judges of the parlements had no property rights in their seats but were now salaried officials of the crown. These judges were assured tenure, but were not allowed to reject edicts of the king. This system was broken in 1774 by Louis XVI who recalled the old parlements to pacify the nobles, ensuring they would not contest his right to the throne during his first few years as king

Albert of Wallenstein

This man was commissioned by Emperpor Ferdinand II of the HRE to assemble an army and defeat the King of Denmark, the new ruler of the Protestant League. He did easily

Stanisław August Poniatowski

This man was forcibly put on the Polish throne in 1763 by Catherine, giving her immense power over the country. However, after the first partition of Poland in 1772, he began to be more openly supportive of his own people Polish, being a founding member of the reform party in 1788 and in 1791 he championed a new constitution that was put into affect. The new constitution made the position of the Polish King hereditary, beginning with this man, and got rid of the Liberum Veto that had plagued Poland for centuries (6 decades after the first attempt to get rid of it was proposed). Sadly for this man, the French revolution had begun two years earlier and, as a general excuse Prussia and Russia surrounded the newly strength Polish State bent on destroying the "Jacobinists" of Poland that were threatening the safety of all of Europe

General Rommel

This man was one of the most celebrated Nazi commanders during World War II, a sly tactician whose exploits in North Africa earned him the nickname "The Desert Fox" even though he eventually lost the African Campaign. This man, although opposing assassinating the Fuhrer, did cooperate with underground operations against Hitler and knew about the July 20th plot. He was forced to commit suicide by Hitler, but his family was spared, as promised.

Pope Innocent III

This man was the Pope from 1198 to 1216 and led the papacy to its height of its power. He was a skilled diplomat and a great political leader. He believed that emperors and kings were servant of the church. He dominated almost all of Europe

Phillippe II, Duke of Orleans

This man was the Regent for King Louis XV, who took the throne at age 5. Along with being a weak ruler, this man was not a fan of Louis XIV's absolutism himself and so allowed the nobles of France to gain back a part of the power that they had lost during the rule of Louis XIV. He also allowed the parlements of France to meet once again

Charles-François Lebrun, Duke of Plaisance

This man was the Third Consul of the Consulate. He had been a student of Maupeou in the days of Louis XI. He was one of the many emigres who came back to France at Napoleon's request, which greatly improved the wealth of France

Count of Provence

This man was the champion of the royalists during the age of the Directory. He was known as Louis XVIII and would've become king if the royalists were successful. He had installed himself at Verona in Italy where, with British money, he had entered a large propaganda campaign against the Directory and the Revolution

Axel Oxenstierna

This man was the chief adviser of Gustavus who helped establish the highly efficient system of government of Sweden. Was usually allowed to rule during the reign of Gustavus' daughter Christina after Gustavus's death

Leonid Brezhnev

This man was the fourth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, serving from 1964 until his death in 1982. His eighteen year term as General Secretary was one of the lengthiest, second only to that of Joseph Stalin. This man's rule saw the global influence of the Soviet Union's grow dramatically, in part because of the expansion of the Soviet Army during this time. His tenure as leader has often been criticized for marking the beginning of a period of economic stagnation which would eventually lead to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. He ended all of the reforms that were thought of by Khrushchev

Alfonso XIII

This man was the last Bourbon to rule Spain. He was quietly driven out in 1931, at the onset of the great depression. Spain introduced an extremely weak republic government that, while instituting important anti-clerical reforms, would soon fall to Franco and the Fascist.

Charles Albert

This man was the liberal King of Sardinia. He helped the independence movement in Lombardy-Venetia in '48 but that movement had failed. He helped again in Lombardy in '49 but that too failed (He was defeated in first conflict by Radetsky at Custozza, July 25 and in second conflict at Battle of Novara). He willingly granted his people a liberal constitution after the February Revolution, but abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II, after his final defeated to the Austrians.

Reza Khan

This man was the military officer in Iran who overthrew the Qajar dynasty and moved to Westernize. He retained a monarchy with himself at the held, and it was called the Pahlavi dynasty. He was able to avoid imperial domination, although the British still had an influence in the country, modernize (builds factories roads and railroads and strengthens the army, adopts western alphabet, clothes, schools). Unlike Ataturk, however, he retained the monarchy with himself at the helm. It was under his leadership that the world began to refer to Persia as Iran, a term that had been used inside the country for some time

J A Hobson

This man wrote Imperialism in 1902 after South African war; contended that imperialism was caused by economic needs of unregulated capitalism and to divert popular attention away from domestic reform and need to reduce gap between rich and poor; became important principle of socialists and welfare-capitalists. Most intellectuals thought that its theories were doubtful for Imperialism was more caused by a demanded for imports to maintain inner Europe's extremely high standard of living than a demand for exports or a search for new markets to invest Europe surplus capital (American had happily been selling its municipal bonds to Great Britain for years)

Vyacheslav von Plehve

This man, Minister of the Interior for the Russian Empire, believed that the war with Japan would be relatively short and would bring the populous closer to the government in a state in which they would not he likely to revolt. Assassinated before much of the war even occurred, he never got to see that the war did the exact opposite of what he predicted.

Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte

This man, Napoleon's only older brother, was his most loyal. He was made King of Naples by his brother from 1804 to 1808, only giving up the thrown to rule Spain until the Treaty of Valençay gave the thrown back to the Bourbon King, Ferdinand

Alexander Ypsilanti

This man, a Greek man who had spent his life in the Russian army, led a 1821 revolt in Greece with some of his fellow Russia military men. Going through much of the Balkans on his way to Greece, he expected all of the Balkans to rise with him and Alexander to support his desires for a Christian Greek State. Tsar Alexander I, no longer a liberal, refused to aid him and the Romanians he hoped would come to his cause had more distaste with Greek culture than Turkish culture. With no allies, this man was quickly defeated by the Turks.

Charles XIV John of Sweden (Jean Bernadotte)

This man, a former French marshal, had landed on the thrown of Sweden through election in 1810 as Charles XIII was going to die without an heir. Tsar Alexander I saw him as the perfect leader for France as he would be very dependent on Russia and would not stop Alexander from burning Paris to the ground, as Moscow had been. This plan was rejected by the traditionalist Metternich, who feared Russia most of all

Marquis de Lafayette

This man, a hero to the Americans and one of Washington's best general, was made commander of the guard of Paris by the Parlement of Paris after the storming of the Bastille. By combining the colors of Paris, red and blue, with the color of the Bourbons, white for the insignia of his troops, his attempt to symbolize cooperation became the tricolor, the emblem of the revolution that would kill long before compromise

Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès

This man, a regicide of the Terror, was the Second Consul of the Consulate and the author of the Napoleonic Code. He was one of the many emigres who came back to France at Napoleon's request, which greatly improved the wealth of France

Jean-Marie Roland

This man, along with Condorcet, led the Girondins during the Legislative Assembly

Duke Charles of Lorraine

This man, along with the great king of Poland John Sobieski, commanded the troops of the Christian nations of Europe against the Turks at Vienna in 1683 so to protect his inheritance from annexation by France, who was not all against the Turkish invasion

Joachim Murat

This man, although Austrian, was put on the throne of Naples by Napoleon (married to his sister) in 1808. Even though he had been a puppet of Napoleon, Metternich was assured that he was now a puppet of Austria and he was allowed to stay in power. This proved to be incorrect as he was the only leader to rise with Napoleon during his Hundred Days. For this, this man was shot at killed. At his death in 1815 the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies emerged under the restored Bourbon monarchy

Helmut Kohl

This man, born 3 April 1930, is a German conservative politician and statesman. He was Chancellor of Germany from 1982 to 1998 (of West Germany between 1982 and 1990 and of the reunited Germany between 1990 and 1998) and the chairman of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) from 1973 to 1998. His 16-year tenure was the longest of any German chancellor since Otto von Bismarck and oversaw the end of the Cold War and the German reunification. This man is widely regarded as one of the main architects of the German reunification and, together with French President François Mitterrand, the Maastricht Treaty, which contributed to the creation of the European Union

Serge Alexandre Stavisky

This man, essentially without any political power, convinced the municipal authorities at Bayonne to launch a floatation of worthless bonds supposedly worth millions of Francs. Shortly after this story broke, this man killed himself but the papers supported that he had been shot by the policy to prevent the implication of some politicians. The Third Republic, always weak, mere existence was called into question, especially by the Fascists.

Charles Edward Stuart

This man, known as Young Pretender, landed in Scotland while England was at war with France, hoping that the distraction would allow him to take the thrown or allow France to take advantage o the distracted Protestants. While he was able to lead his military forces within 80 miles of London, the Hanoverians easily beat him back to the continent. This revolt, know as The Fourty-Five for the year it was led, was the last attempt by the Jacobites to force a Stuart back on the throne of England

Colonel Arabi

This man, leading riots damning the debt accumulated by the Khedive Tewfik, eventually forced the British and French to flee onto their ships in 1882. The British asked the French to attack Alexandria with them, but they refused. After a quick bombardment, this man was taken captive and Tewfik was again give power, but under British control. The British protectorate of Egypt had begun.

Charles II

This man, living 6 November 1661 - 1 November 1700, was the last Habsburg King of Spain. He is noted for his extensive physical, intellectual, and emotional disabilities—along with his consequent ineffectual rule—as well as his role in the developments preceding the War of the Spanish Succession. While Leopold I and Louis XIV had secretly agreed to divide the empire between this man's two sisters (who they married) to avoid a war, the discovery of a will of Charles II that gave the whole empire to Louis the Duke of Burgandy (Louis XIV grandson) or the Habsburg Emperor in Vienna. Louis XIV accept those terms, and a world war broke out to stop him

Abdul Aziz

This man, ruling from 1861 to 1876, was the most liberal Sultan ever to rule the Ottoman Empire. He traveled throughout Europe, including the world's fair in Paris in 1867, but his attempts to industrialize his empire were doomed to fail his people had no experience with such labour and they resented the change he represented. A poor practical ruler, this man was forced to repudiate half of the Ottoman's debts in 1874, making him very unpopular in Europe. He would be forced to abdicate by Minister Midhat Pasha two years later.

Nikolay Yakovlevich Danilevsky

This man, the author of Russia and Europe which was published in 1871, predicted that Russia would enter a long war with Europe which would be followed by a grand federation of the East where Slavs, Poles, Greeks, Turks, and Hungarians would be all in one state under Russian Rule. His works are some of the most prominent in pan-slavism.

Marshall MacMahon

This man, the first President of the Third Republic of France, attempted to do the same as Napoleon III had done to the Second Republic and dissolved the Chamber of Deputies so he could dismiss his premier who he opposed. By doing this, this man would be closer to ruling the entire country, although that, like Napoleon III, was not his goal. Still afraid, the newly elected Chamber of Deputies reaffirmed the Premier. By doing this, the president became ceremonial figure and the power of the Third Republic lay with the Chamber of Deputies, the Premier, and his cabinet. Because France had many political parties during the Third Republic, temporary alliances between parties was the only way to keep a majority so no President or Premier ever again gained enough support to complete such an act. Because of this resourcefulness against executive authority, the fall of the previous French governments, the Third Republic is the longest lasting French Government after the Ancient Regime.

Alexander Kerensky

This man, the only marxist that joined the Provisional Government in Russia in 1917, became its leader as the year went along. This man developed a middle position to try to gain support from both sides, but never appeased the military or the peasants. When the Bolsheviks took Petrograd in November of 1917, just as this man introduced his pre-parliament, this man was forced to flee

Charles Alexandre de Calonne

This man, the successor of Jacques Necker, in 1786 proposed a general tax to fall equally on all landowners without exemption, abolishment of all internal tariffs (which would destroy Louis XIV's Five Great Farms), and representative provincial assemblies, members of which would be voted in by landowners

Louis Bonaparte

This man, the younger brother of Napoleon, was established by his brother as King of Holland from 1806 to 1810. He was ousted by his brother because he was more pro-dutch than pro-french, and he supported secret trading with the British. In 1810 Holland was incorporate into the French Empire

Galileo Galilei

This man, using a telescope he built in 1609, found the moon to be of the same substance of the Earth, found that the planets' sizes increase with increased magnification through the telescope, while the stars remain dots. He also discovered that the sun was not a perfect orb and it had irregularities. For all of these findings that pointed to heliocentricity, Galileo was condemned and forced to recant his works by the Church. To survive he did, and was locked in house arrest for the rest of his life

La Harpe

This man, who became a pro-French leader of the Helvetic Republic, was Tsar Alexander I's tutor contributing greatly to Alexander's initial sympathy to revolutionary ideals in France

Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours

This man, who happened to be the son of the new King of the French Louis Philippe, was elected by the Belgian National Assembly which was controlled by a very slight majority who desired a union with France, as they had been during the Era under Napoleon, in 1831 to be the King of their new Kingdom of Belgium. The issues with such a king quite evident, Louis Philippe prohibited his son from taking the throne.

European System

This marked the formation of a system of European states defined by formal treaties. They were unified before the war and after they were divided. This led to the religious self-determination and the formation of modern European states.

Elbe River

This marked the greatest extent of Peter's conquests, even though Prussia and Denmark took the land Peter conquered from the Swede's instead of Russia

War of the Seventh Coalition

This marked the period between Emperor Napoleon I of France's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on 8 July 1815 (a period of 111 days). This period saw this, and includes the Waterloo Campaign[4] and the Neapolitan War. The phrase les Cent Jours was first used by the prefect of Paris, Gaspard, comte de Chabrol, in his speech welcoming the King. Napoleon returned while the Congress of Vienna was sitting. On 13 March, seven days before Napoleon reached Paris, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw, and on 25 March, five days after his arrival in Paris, Austria, Prussia, Russia and the United Kingdom bound themselves to put 150,000 men each into the field to end his rule This set the stage for the last conflict in the Napoleonic Wars, the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo,the restoration of the French monarchy for the second time and the permanent exile of Napoleon to the distant island of Saint Helena, where he died in May 1821.

Otto von Bismark

This minister president was appointed in 1862 by Wilhelm I. His sole duty was to oppose the liberals in congress and ensure that the power of Prussia remained with the Junkers. The only way this man felt that Prussia could escape future 1848s was to expand its borders to ensure growth. He also ensured that the army would be supported which meant that subscription laws would not be enforced (a larger army could not have been paid for) and taxes would be collected even if the liberals in Berlin refused to pass this man's budget.

Labour Party

This new party emerging in Great Britain at the beginning of the 20th century required its party's members to vote along party lines, a stance that had been taboo in the previous century in both the Conservative and Liberal Party. The gentile feelings mediations beneficial to both parties that had made Parliament the greatest representative body in the world during the 19th century came to an end.

Feudal Reaction

This occurred late in 18th century Europe in response to the skyrocketing cost of goods. This was the practice of manor Lords beginning to actually collect manorial fees, which had not been done in full practice since the medieval era, and even revived some dues that had only been collected at the height of the dark ages.

Coup D'etat of Brumaire

This occurred when Napoleon returned from Egypt unexpectedly as Sieyes, one who voted for the regicide of Louis XVI, attempted with the Directory to overthrow the Legislative Assembly that was in favour of restoring the monarchy. All they were lacking was a strong general, and young Napoleon fit what they desired. On November 9, 1799 they proclaimed a new form of the republic entitled the Consulate. It would be headed by three consuls, Napoleon being the First Consul

Nivelle Offensive

This offensive, staged in April and May of 1917, was designed by the general for which it is named to break through the German lines and end the war within 48 hours. It was a monumental failure and caused widespread discontent within the French Army. General Petain would replaced the man for which this offensive is named.

Aida

This opera, written by Verdi for Khedive Ismail in 1871, exemplified the increasing wealth of Egypt with the Suez Canal and the exportation of cotton during and after the American Civil War.

Second Estate

This order was the estate of the nobles in France, comprising of about 400,000 individuals in 1789 that had enjoyed a great deal of power since the death of Louis XIV

The Third of May 1808

This painting by Spaniard Francisco Goya, the court painter of Joseph Bonaparte while on the Spanish throne, was the first revolutionary, modern work concerning extremely dark material: a massacre. It inspired Picasso's Guernica and Manet's Execution of Maximilian

Communist Party

This party proved to be the second most powerful in Italy following WWII, and the strongest of its type in the western world, counting for 35% of the Italian electorate in the mid-1970s. They never could pass any part of their philosophy through legislation as the Christian Democrats never allowed them to have seats in the national government.

Tory

This party that had power in England during the 1820s came under new leadership during this time (Foreign Minister George Canning and Robert Peel) and began to liberalizing England through legislation instead of rebellion. One of the first things they did was reduce tariffs, greatly opening trading.

Christian Democrats

This party would rule Italy after WWII. It appealed to all classes, being democratic, promoting a moderately regulated free-market economy, and holding to the labor tenets of the Catholic Church. It proved to be a potent combination, but the party, not opposed in its early years, became complacent and filled with corruption.

Social Democrats

This party, along with the Christian Democratic Union, was a major party in Germany after WWII. They had by this point completely rebuked Marxism, doing it at a party congress in 1959, and were in fact the centrist party in Germany, compared to the Christian Democratic Union on the right.

Liberal Democratic Party

This party, frequently abbreviated to LDP or Jimintō, is a centre-right political party in Japan. It is one of the most consistently successful political parties in the democratic world. The LDP ruled almost continuously for nearly 54 years from its founding in 1955 until its defeat in the 2009 election. Prior to 2009, the party had only been out of power for a brief 11 month period between 1993 and 1994

Careers Open to Talent

This phrase highlighted the end of feudalism under the Consulate. All public authority was concentrated in officially employed agents of the government and no person held to be under any legal authority except that of the state, which included all members of the state including states officials. Estates, legal classes, privileges of the nobility, hereditary offices, guilds, and manors were all destroyed. No commissions or official positions could be bought or sold. Citizens were to rise in the government according to their abilities alone

Tory

This political party of England simply desired peace during the War of Spanish Succession and didn't mind the terms (in which the English did not receive much) unlike the Whigs. This party ruled the House of Lords in 1713, but the Whigs controlled the House of Commons. To unite parliament, Queen Anne raised 12 of this party to the House of Lords to give this party (the party of the House of Lords) the majority. From this point forword, the King or Queen would also raise the number of Lords during major issues if it was necessary for them to be victorious

Singapore

This port, known as the Gibraltar of the East, was conquered relatively easily in February of 1942, forcing all British military operations in the Pacific to Australia.

Serfdom

This practice in Russian was much more akin to slavery than it was to other practices like it in eastern Europe. In this system, serfs were in essence owned. They could be used in factories, mines, farms, or even rented. Even though this system dehumanized people, serfs had no real other opportunities and the lords of the serfs functioned as local government, something totally foreign in Russia, and so they could not be uprooted without many repercussions. This practice was only abolished by Alexander II in 1861 as by that time it had become unprofitable and serfs functioned only as collateral for loans.

International Congo Association

This private enterprise, founded by Henry Stanley in 1878 with the backing of King Leopold II of Belgium, went into the Congo trading with local chiefs for landing rights, giving in return nearly nothing much like the Indians in America centuries before. While backed by Leopold, the Belgium government had nothing to do with this, yet.

George I

This protestant man, the Elector of Hanover, was declared King of England in 1714 by the Act of Settlement of 1701 from Parliament even though he spoke no English and was generally disliked, which in turn strengthened parliament

A Place In The Sun

This refers to Kaiser Wilhelm II's statements that Germany must be supreme, and control substantial amounts of foreign territory (particularly in Africa)

Belgium

This region declared its independence in 1830 following the July Revolution. While economically very beneficial, the people of this region enjoyed autonomy under the Austrians, and they did not receive the same rights from the absolutist King of the Netherlands.

Eastern Europe

This region's inhabitants migrated during the second half of the nineteenth century to America. They were the poorest immigrants from any region of Europe and the most unaccustomed to the culture they were immigrating to.

Saarland

This region, conducting its plebiscite and required by the treaty of Versailles, overwhelming voted to return to Germany in 1935, as it should've. Before French occupation of this territory after WWI, there had never been any French influence in this region. France just wanted its rich coal deposites and vast industrial capabilities.

Calvinism

This religion was founded by John Calvin 1509-65: French, but settled in Geneva, which became the center of his religion. He established a seminary and wrote his "Institutes", a catechism, and was easily circulated because of the Kepler's printing press. Emphasized double predestination. Justifies rebelling against rulers who aren't Calvinists because they don't hold true authority because God never gave in to them or they'd be in the true religion and predestined for heaven. Since it did not have a national flavour like the Baltic Lutherans, it proved to be the only Protestant religion to be international. It attracted many commoners from all over Europe as well as the nobles of Poland and Hungary who grew tired of the catholic royalty in their territories. This is the father of modern Presbyterianism in America

Eminent Property

This remnant of feudalism only still found in France, it allowed the owner of a manor to demand some of the goods or wages made by those on his manner's domain, which could include many powerful towns that had grown around powerful manors. Even though the people of the town owned their land outright, they still could owe money to a Lord that they wanted nothing to do with, and this caused contempt between the classes. The fees collected through this was also known as manorial fees

National Labor Front

This replaced the Unions in Germany. It was created by the Nazis. Strikes were forbidden and it operated on the leadership principle. It created mini-Fuhrers in the Factories. True unionization was not permitted. It would, of course, be necessary to have a consolidated labor force in the building the power of the Third Reich

Decembrist Revolt

This revolt occurred in 1825 after the death of Tsar Alexander I where Russian army officers led about 3,000 soldiers in a protest against Tsar Nicholas I's assumption of the throne since he was the younger of Alexander's two sons. The elder son, Constantine, had given up his right to the throne in favour of his brother, so the revolt was quickly put down. However menial this revolt may have been, it made Nicholas's rule authoritarian without any sympathy for revolutionaries.

Yalu River

This river, the border between China and North Korea, was from where a Chinese "volunteer" army of over one million men appear and began assaulting American troops, driving them back in order to ensure Chinese soil would not feel the repercussions of a Korean War.

Stake in Society Theory

This theory that developed during the 19th century states that those who govern should have something to lose. In this fashion only the bourgeois and the aristocracy should have a vote. This was reflected by the fact that only 1 in 30 men could vote in the July Monarchy and only 1 in 8 could vote after the Reform Act of 1832 in Britain.

Treaty of Valençay

This treaty (December 11, 1813), named after the château of the same name belonging to French foreign minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, was drafted by Antoine René Mathurin and José Miguel de Carvajal y Manrique on behalf of the French Empire and the Spanish Crown respectively. Intended as the preliminary to a full peace treaty between France and Spain, the agreement provided for the restoration of Ferdinand VII of Spain, imprisoned at this chateau since 1808, to the Spanish throne usurped by Joseph Bonaparte. It was designed to end the hostilities in Spain by a general withdraw of the French from the peninsula, but with the Spain promising neutrality and forcing out Wellington and his troops. Included in the terms was an armistice which neither side, mistrusting the other's intentions, fully intended to respect. It appears Napoleon also extracted an oath from Ferdinand in a secret protocol which required the Spanish monarch to turn the Spanish Army against the British and Portuguese should Wellington continue to use Spain as a base of operations against France. In any event, the Cádiz Cortes duly repudiated the treaty once Ferdinand reached the safety of Madrid. The Peninsular War would drag on until Napoleon's final defeat in France by the powers of the Sixth Coalition.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

This treaty ended the hostilities between France and England due to the War of the Pragmatic Sanction. It was in tandem with Maria Theresa accepting the Treaty of Breslau as a permanent solution. It returned both powers to a status quo. England returned Louisburg and ended their blockade of the West Indies. French returned Madras and Belgium. It also proclaimed that France and England would recognize Spanish control of the northern duchies of Italy that they had taken from the Austrians.

(Second) Treaty of Paris

This treaty of 1815 replaced the treaty that had been made a year earlier, before Napoleon's Hundred Days. It essentially said exactly the same as the treaty a year before except it made reparations against France for having the never to allow the Hundred Days. 700,000,000 were to be owed to the Quadruple alliance (payable) and France was to be occupied until it was certain that the restored Bourbons were in control

Treaty of Chaumont

This treaty of March 9, 1814 provided for the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne and the contraction of France to its frontiers of 1792. Established the Quadruple Alliance between Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain. For the first time since Napoleon had taken power, the four opponents of France were allied, and swore not to ally with France for twenty years. Three weeks later Napoleon abdicated at Fontainebleau

Treaty of Istanbul

This treaty was between of the Great Powers (Britain, France and Russia) on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire on the other. Under the protocol signed on May 7, 1832 between Bavaria and the protecting Powers, and basically dealing with the way in which the Regency was to be managed until Otto reached his majority (while also concluding the second Greek loan, for a sum of £2,400,000 sterling), Greece was defined as an independent kingdom, with the Arta-Volos line as its northern frontier. The Ottoman Empire was indemnified in the sum of 40,000,000 piastres for the loss of the territory. The borders of the Kingdom were reiterated in the London Protocol of August 30, 1832 signed by the Great Powers, which ratified the terms of the Constantinople Arrangement in connection with the border between Greece and the Ottoman Empire and marked the end of the Greek War of Independence creating modern Greece as an independent state free of the Ottoman Empire.

Greco-Turkish War

This war occurred between 1919-1922. Allies demand Turks give territory to Greeks. Mustafa Kama forms rebel government from Ankara to defend the Turks from Greek aggression. Mustafa pushes them back. All Greeks are pushed out of Turkey in 1922 in a trade in which all Turks in modern Greeks were pushed out as well so there would not be any dissatisfied minorities. Turkey becomes a secular republic

Book of the Courtier

This was a book written by Castiglione in 1528. In it, he epitomized the main ideas of Italian humanism. It said a successful man was one who could integrate knowledge of ancient languages and history w/ athletic, musical, and military skillz, all while being polite and exhibiting a high moral character. It created an idea that only "civilized" people have any merit or value in the world. Manners were vital. This book also laid out firmly the idea that men were meant to be strong and firm while women were supposed to be weak and delicate. While something to this degree was already observed in Renaissance Europe, this book made it much more concrete.

War of the Third Coalition

This was a conflict which spanned from 1803 to 1806. It saw the defeat of an alliance of Austria, Portugal (Portugal is a small ally of Great Britain in nearly all Coalitions), Russia, Great Britain, and others by France and its client states under Napoleon I. Great Britain had already been at war with France following the resumption of hostilities resulting from the breakdown of the Peace of Amiens, and Britain would be the only country still at war with France after the Treaty of Pressburg. For two years (1803-1805) Britain stood under constant threat of a French invasion. The Royal Navy, however, secured mastery of the seas by decisively destroying a Franco-Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805. This itself came to full fruition that summer as Napoleon's provocative actions in Italy (crowning himself King) and Germany spurred Austria into joining Britain and Russia against France. The war would be decided on the continent, and the major land operations that sealed the swift French victory involved the Ulm Campaign, a large wheeling manoeuvre by the Grande Armée lasting from late August to mid-October that captured an entire Austrian army, and the decisive French victory over a combined Russo-Austrian force under Tsar Alexander I at the Battle of Austerlitz in early December. Austerlitz effectively brought this to an end, although later there was a small side campaign against Naples, which also resulted in a decisive French victory at the Battle of Campo Tenese. On 26 December 1805, Austria and France signed the Treaty of Pressburg, which took the former out of the war, reinforced the earlier treaties of Campo Formio and Lunéville, made Austria cede land to Napoleon's German allies, and imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the defeated Habsburgs. Russian troops were allowed to head back to home soil. Victory at Austerlitz also permitted the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, a collection of German states intended as a buffer zone between France and the rest of Europe. In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist when Holy Roman Emperor Francis II kept Francis I of Austria as his only official title. These achievements, however, did not establish a lasting peace on the continent. Austerlitz had driven neither Russia nor Britain, whose armies protected Sicily from a French invasion, to settle. Meanwhile, Prussian worries about growing French influence in Central Europe sparked the war in 1806.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789

This was a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. Although it establishes fundamental rights for French citizens and "all the members of the social Body", it addresses neither the status of women nor slavery; despite that, it is a precursor document to international human rights instruments. It stated that laws must be equal and expression the general will, the only sovereign was the nation itself, and taxes could only be raised by common consent. It also made public servants accountable for their conduct, and land could be taken by the nation, but only at a fair price.

First Five-Year Plan

This was a list of economic goals, created by Joseph Stalin and based off his policy of Socialism in One Country, that was designed to strengthen the country's economy between 1928 and 1932. The main concerns of this focused on making the nation militarily, industrially, and finacially self-sufficient. Launched by the Soviet government in 1928 and administered by the Gosplan, this employed tactics such as keeping detailed records on every item manufactured in the nation and shipping it to where it needed to go at the right time as well as other procedures of efficiency. The over-reaching goal was to employ the harmony found internally in capitalist corporations and employ that to an entire industry and nation, as noted by Engels. While extremely complex system filled with day-to-day failures and the USSR coped with moving away from a supply/demand market based economic, this largely succeeded, making the USSR, for a time, independent from foreign loans, which had been extremely hard to come by since Lenin repudiated the debt of the Tsars. Such a complex system forced the complex bureaucratic system that characterized the USSr until its fall.

Kiel Mutiny

This was a major revolt by sailors of the German High Seas Fleet on 3 November 1918 as the end of the First World War grew near. The revolt triggered the German revolution which was to sweep aside the monarchy within a few days. It ultimately led to the end of the First World War and to the establishment of the Weimar Republic

Tribunate

This was a parliament under the Consulate of Napoleon in which public policies could be discussed, but it had no power to enact them

Peace of Prague

This was a peace treaty signed at Prague on 23 August 1866, which ended the Austro-Prussian War. The treaty was lenient toward the Austrian Empire because Otto von Bismarck had persuaded William I that maintaining Austria's place in Europe would be better in the future for Prussia than harsh terms. Austria lost Venetia, ceded to Napoleon III of France, who in turn ceded it to Italy. Austria refused to give Venetia directly to Italy because the Austrians had crushed the Italians during the war. The Habsburgs were permanently excluded from German affairs (Kleindeutschland). The Kingdom of Prussia thus established itself as the only major power among the German states. The North German Confederation was formed, with the north German states joining together, and the Southern German states having to pay large indemnities to Prussia

Perpetual Diet of Regensburg

This was a permanent Imperial Diet (Reichstag) of the Holy Roman Empire from 1663 to 1806 seated in Regensburg in present-day Germany. Previously, the Diet had convened in different cities but, beginning in 1594, it met only in the town hall in Regensburg. On 20 January 1663, the Diet convened to deal with threats from the Ottoman Empire (the Turkish Question). Since the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the Holy Roman Emperor had been formally bound to accept all decisions made by the Diet. Hence, out of fear that the Emperor would disregard the Diet's role by not calling sessions, it never dissolved. Therefore no final report of its decisions, known as a Recess, could be issued, and that of the preceding diet, issued in 1654, was dubbed the Youngest Recess. From 1663 until the 1684 Truce of Ratisbon (a former name of Regensburg in English), the diet gradually developed into a permanent body. In addition to envoys who represented the Imperial Estates in the Diet, Regensburg had around 70 representatives (Komitialgesandtern or Comitia) from foreign states. The Emperor was represented by a Principal Commissioner (Prinzipalkommissar), a position that accrued to the Thurn und Taxis family from 1748. In its early years, the Perpetual Diet was a tool for consolidation of Habsburg power in the empire. However, by the middle of the 18th century, it was largely "dysfunctional" and a "mere congress of diplomats that produced "no important legislation in political and constitutional matters". The weak institution has been called "a bladeless knife without a handle", and, during the Diet's existence, the Empire increasingly became nothing more than a collection of largely independent states. The last action of the Diet, on 25 March 1803, was the passage of the German Mediatisation, which reorganized and secularized the Empire. Following the approval of that final constitutional document, the Diet never met again and its existence ended with the fall of the Empire in 1806.

The Three People's Principles

This was a political philosophy developed by Sun Yat-sen as part of a philosophy to make China a free, prosperous, and powerful nation. Its legacy of implementation is most apparent in the governmental organization of the Republic of China (ROC), which currently administers Taiwan, Penghu, Quemoy, and Matsu Islands. This philosophy has been claimed as the cornerstone of the Republic of China's policy as carried by the Kuomintang (KMT). The principles also appear in the first line of the National Anthem of the Republic of China. The components of this are often translated and summarized as nationalism, democracy, and the livelihood of the people

The Fronde

This was a rebellion against the regency of Anne of Austria by the officeholders, Parisian landowners, and nobility of France. While Louis XIV was a child, she and her advisory Mazarin ruled. The rebellion was in response to taxation, and was led by the Parliament of Paris, which refused to register various taxes that Anne wanted to pass. They demanded control of the government's financial policy, but Anne had several of them arrested before she, Louis, and Mazarin fled Paris. There was some military conflict, which Mazarin ended in order to avoid a Spanish invasion. The rebellion finally failed and gave an impression to Louis XIV as a very young child never to never allows the nobles any power

The Golden Bough

This was a wide-ranging, comparative study of mythology and religion, written by Scottish anthropologist Sir James George Frazer (1854-1941). It first was published in two volumes in 1890; the third edition, published 1906-15, comprised twelve volumes. It was aimed at a broad literate audience raised on tales as told in such publications as Thomas Bulfinch's The Age of Fable, or Stories of Gods and Heroes (1855). It offered a modernist approach to discussing religion, treating it dispassionately as a cultural phenomenon rather than from a theological perspective. Frazer was able to demonstrate that many of the rites, practices, and ideas of Christianity that separated it from other modern religions were actually quite common at the time of Christ.

Long Depression

This was a worldwide economic recession, felt most heavily in Europe and the United States, which had been experiencing strong economic growth fueled by the Second Industrial Revolution in the decade following the American Civil War. At the time, the episode was labeled the Great Depression, and held that title until the Great Depression of the 1930s. Though a period of general deflation and low growth began in 1873, (ending about 1896), it did not have the severe economic retrogression and spectacular breakdown of the latter Great Depression. Many economists believe that the lower French productivity that followed the Franco-Prussia War is to blame, while others blame the worst deflationary environment in modern history coupled with the end of tremendous growth in America following the Civil War (Panic of 1873) that occurred at the same time as the crash of the Vienna Stock Exchange. As a result many countries moved away from strict Laissez-Faire capitalism and towards modern regulated capitalism

Ecclesiastical Reservation

This was added to the agreement that allowed Lutherans to retain to retain all church lands forcibly seized before 1552. This was intended to prevent high Catholic prelates who converted to Protestantism from taking their lands titles and privileges with them.

Plebiscite

This was called so that the people could vote on the constitution of the Consulate. The only other option other than the Consulate was no government at all. The official vote was 3,011,007 to 1,562 in favour of the Consulate

Treaty of Kiel

This was concluded between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Sweden on one side and the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway on the other side on 14 January 1814 in the city the treaty is named for. It ended the hostilities between the parties in the ongoing Napoleonic Wars, where the United Kingdom and Sweden were part of the anti-French camp (Sixth Coalition) while Denmark-Norway was allied to Napoleon Bonaparte.

Zimmerwald Program

This was crated by small group of antiwar socialists who met in Switzerland in 1915. The group, who created this plan demanding immediate peace without annexation or indemnities, soon split up and never got any power. The "Left: of this group consisted of Lenin and his Russian emigres who would lead the Russian Revolution.

Mississippi Bubble

This was created by the Scot John Law who was brought to France to improve the economy. He did so by creating a company which would incorporate all national trade companies in 1717 which was commonly known as the Mississippi company. Seeing it as a great money making, the Regent bestowed all of the national debt, commonly seen as the debt of King and not the debt of the people, onto the Mississippi Company. With the entire tax revenue being looped in with a company in which investment could occur, speculators drove the stock price to unrealistic measures. When that was noticed, the stock collapsed in 1720. However, the company survived and thrived for the investors who did not sell, living on the riches form New Orleans which the company founded in 1718. The scandal did bring down the Regency as the French debt was repudiated, bringing Louis XV and Cardinal Fleury into power in 1723. Law was forced into exile in Belgium, and France from this point forward was totally devoid of credit. The only loans the Bourbons could get were from the Parlements of French and the Church

Reassurance Treaty

This was established with Russia by Bismarck in 1887 in order to ensure Russia that it would not support a war between Austria and Russia. In this way the German peoples could be united without bring about the hostilities of St. Petersburg on Berlin during a period when the two countries shared a long border.

The Office for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)

This was formed in 1948 to administer American and Canadian aid in the framework of the Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II. It started its operations on 16 April 1948. Since 1949, it has been headquartered in the Chateau de la Muette in Paris, France. After the Marshall Plan ended, this focused on economic issues. In the 1950s this provided the framework for negotiations aimed at determining conditions for setting up a European Free Trade Area, to bring the European Economic Community of the six and the other members together on a multilateral basis. In 1958, a European Nuclear Energy Agency was set up under this. It has evolved into the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) which encompasses industrialized and developed nations around the world.

Commercial Code

This was founded in France by Colbert and it revolutionized France by instituting a national standard for business practices and regulations to govern those practices, replacing local laws. By doing this Colbert specifically picked out important, yet weak, industries in which he would attempt through the government to make stronger like founding the French East Indian Company to compete with the Dutch and the English which he would finance through better utilizing the very powerful industries of France, especially agriculture. It was very mercantilistic, encouraging all exports, except foods so to keep prices low, and forbidding all but the most necessary imports

Potsdam

This was held from July 16 to August 2, 1945. Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The three nations were represented by Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin, Prime Minister Clement Attlee, and President Harry S. Truman. Stalin, Attlee, and Truman gathered to decide how to administer punishment to the defeated Nazi Germany, which had agreed to unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier, on 8 May (V-E Day). The goals of the conference also included the establishment of post-war order, peace treaties issues, and countering the effects of war.

Bill of Rights of 1689

This was passed by Parliament on 16 December 1689. It was a re-statement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William and Mary in March 1689 (or 1688 by Old Style dating), inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. It lays down limits on the powers of sovereign and sets out the rights of Parliament and rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, the requirement to regular elections to Parliament and the right to petition the monarch without fear of retribution. It reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law, and condemned James II of England for "causing several good subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when papists were both armed and employed contrary to law". These ideas about rights reflected those of the political thinker John Locke and they quickly became popular in England. It also sets out—or, in the view of its drafters, restates—certain constitutional requirements of the Crown to seek the consent of the people, as represented in Parliament.

Potsdam Giants

This was the Prussian infantry regiment No 6, composed of taller-than-average soldiers. The regiment was founded in 1675 and dissolved in 1806 after the Prussian defeat against Napoleon. Throughout the reign of the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia (1688-1740) the unit was known as the "Potsdamer Riesengarde" ("giant guard of Potsdam") in German, but the Prussian population quickly nicknamed them the "Lange Kerls" ("Long guys").

Frederick the Great

This was the Prussian king who embraced culture and wrote poetry and prose. He gave religious and philosophical toleration to all subjects, abolished torture and made the laws of Prussia simpler. During his time as King, 300,000 immigrants came to Prussia, mainly from France, because it was the most generous to immigrants of any country on the Continent and it was extremely religiously tolerant. For all of Prussia's glories, this man did allow serfdom to thrive in his country, even though he abolished it on royal lands, which were about 25% of the serfs in Prussia, and did nothing to end the social stratification that existed in Prussia due to a totally non-existant middle class. The social stratification in Prussia was much greater then anywhere else on the continent, save Russia. He also ruled over a country with no bureaucracy so that this man made all the decision for the entire nation. He was so sure of himself that he did not even trust in a successor, leading to the obliteration of Prussia by Napoleon

Pragmatic Sanction of 1713

This was the act passed by Charles VI that stated that Habsburg possessions were never to be divided, in order to allow his daughter to be ruler. He got all the powers in Europe to agree to it (Britain was the last and only agreed when Charles VI closed the port of Ostend in Belgium) and while they did put up a military fight, Maria Theresa was crowned Queen

Little Father

This was the affectionate term used by Father Gapon when referring to the Tsar.

Cash-and-Carry

This was the economic method by which the west used colonies prior to 1870, with the exception of Australia, New Zealand, and the Americas for there were not active and respectable governments in those areas to do business with. The Europeans governments would operate a trading port, but capital and heavy industrials were rarely introduced into the interior for all goods were made by the locals. This was not like the imperialism to follow.

The Directory

This was the first French Republic, according to the Constitution of Year III. It was fundamentally flawed, based military conquests and an extremely narrow base. It got its name from the executive branch of the new government

Bank Of Amsterdam

This was the first large corporation that was only a banking institution (not families that rose out of another industry like the Fuggars and the Medici). Many people flocked to deposit their money because of the faith they had in the bank, as well as the lucrative interest their money gained at the bank. It was the first institution to give out low (or relatively low) interest loans

Legislative Body

This was the main parliament under the Consulate of Napoleon, in essence replacing the Legislative Assembly. It consisted of notables yet could neither initiate nor discuss legislation. It could mutely enact or reject bills created by the consuls, but even this little power was not real in practice. It was a sham

Cape of Good Hope

This was the most strategically placed way-station the sea routes to Asia. It was the only way-station owned by the Dutch

Treaty of Trianon

This was the peace agreement signed in 1920, at the end of World War I, between the Allies of World War I and Hungary (one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary). The treaty regulated the status of an independent Hungarian State and defined its borders. Compared to the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary (which was part of Austria-Hungary), the Hungary after the treaty had 72% less territory. Its population was 7.6 million, which was 64% less than the population of the pre-war kingdom, whose population was 20.9 million. 31% (3.3 out of 10.7 million) of ethnic Hungarians who lived in the pre-war kingdom lived outside the newly defined borders of Hungary after the peace. Hungary no longer had direct access to the sea. The military establishment of the post-treaty Hungary included an army of about 35,000, while the navy of pre-war Austria-Hungary ceased to exist. The principal beneficiaries of territorial division of pre-war Kingdom of Hungary were Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, due to the fact that territories that were assigned to these countries were mainly populated by ethnic Romanians, Slovaks and South Slavs. In addition, the newly established state of Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbours

Ostend Company

This was the short lived Austrian trading company founded in Ostend, Belgium. While it was incredibly profitable in its six voyages to China, political pressure due to the Pragmatic Sanction forced Charles VI to close the company so that England and the Netherlands would agree to his terms

Revolutionary

This was the term that allowed for the Committee of Public safety to exist even under the new French Constitution that was signed in June of 1798. It essentially meant that until peace had been made with the First Coalition, them Robespierre was allowed to run a dictator state in order to ensure victory (and ensure that he would stay in power longer)

Eurocommunist

This was the term the Italian communists used to describe their new philosophy after abandoning Moscow and Marx-Leninism, rejecting firmly the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariate.

Evolutionary Socialism

This was the work that suggested that socialists should combine with other progressive forces to win gradual evolutionary gains for workers through legislation, unions, and further economic development. It was written by Eduard Bernstein, the Socialist leader in the Reichstag

Moveable Type

This was used for printing, and meant that individual letters and words could be moved around to create a page of type. It helped the spread of humanism over the Alps as it meant that printing was much easier, cheaper, and more efficient. It also led to the famous printing of vernacular Bibles in 1450 by Gutenberg.

Armenian Genocide

This was was the systematic killing of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire during and just after World War I. It was implemented through wholesale massacres and deportations, with the deportations consisting of forced marches under conditions designed to lead to the death of the deportees. The total number of resulting Armenian deaths is generally held to have been between 1 million and 1.5 million. Armenians are now only concentrated in the small portion of the Ararat Plane west of the Aras River.

Marie de' Medici

This woman ruled for her deceased husband, Henry IV, after his death in 1610. Feeling a power-vaccume compared to her strong husband, the clergy and Lords forced upon this woman a meeting of the Estates General, which she hastily put down. Never against, until the French Revolution, would the Estates General meet

Emmeline Pankhurst

This women, leader of the England's Women's Social and Political Union, and her two daughters, and many other women organized a suffragist movement to demand voting rights for women before WWI. She used tactics such as processions to the House of Parliaments, window smashing and bombs in letter boxes. When they were arrested and jailed, the women suffragists went on hunger strikes. The government let the women go when they were sick because of hunger but rearrested them when they recovered (cat-and-mouse strategy)

Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind

This work by Condorcet in 1793 can be considered the greatest testament to the enlightenment and Universalism. He wrote it while hiding from the guillotine, which would eventually take his life

Popular Republican Movement

This, (known as the MRP), essentially a Catholic progressive party like the Christian Democrats found across the continent following WWII, but more progressive than most of the others, founded a provisional coalition government in France with the Socialists and Communists following WWII, gaining their power since the right was associated with Petain and the Vichy government. The constitution of the Fourth Republic, created by the Constituent Assembly ran by the coalition, was essentially the same as the constitution of the Third Republic in which the parliament would be all powerful and there would be no powerful executive. De Gaulle resigned the Presidency in disgust. By 1947 the Communists were kicked out of the cabinet at the height of Cold War tensions.

French Intervention in Mexico

This, also known as The Maximilian Affair, War of the French Intervention, and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by an expeditionary force sent by the Second French Empire, supported in the beginning by the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Spain. It followed President Benito Juárez's suspension of interest payments to foreign countries on 17 July 1861, which angered Mexico's major creditors: Spain, France and Britain. Napoleon III of France was the instigator, justifying military intervention by claiming a broad foreign policy of commitment to free trade. For him, a friendly government in Mexico would provide an opportunity to expand free trade by ensuring European access to important markets, and prevent monopoly by the United States. Napoleon also needed the silver that could be mined in Mexico to finance his empire. Napoleon built a coalition with Spain and Britain at a time the U.S. was engaged in a full-scale civil war. The U.S. protested but could not intervene directly until its civil war was over in 1865. The three powers signed the Treaty of London on October 31, to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico. On 8 December the Spanish fleet and troops from Spanish-controlled Cuba arrived at Mexico's main Gulf port, Veracruz. When the British and Spanish discovered that the French planned to invade Mexico, they withdrew. The subsequent French invasion resulted in the Second Mexican Empire, which was supported by the Roman Catholic clergy, many conservative elements of the upper class, and some indigenous communities; when the presidential terms of Benito Juárez (1858-71) were interrupted by the rule of the Habsburg monarchy in Mexico (1864-67). Conservatives, and many in the Mexican nobility, tried to revive the monarchical form of government (see: First Mexican Empire) when they helped to bring to Mexico an archduke from the Royal House of Austria, Maximilian Ferdinand, or Maximilian I of Mexico (who married Charlotte of Belgium, also known as Carlota of Mexico), with the military support of France. France had various interests in this Mexican affair, such as seeking reconciliation with Austria, which had been defeated during the Franco-Austrian War, counterbalancing the growing U.S. power by developing a powerful Catholic neighbouring empire, and exploiting the rich mines in the north-west of the country

The War of the Fifth Coalition

This, fought in the year 1809, pitted a coalition of the Austrian Empire and the United Kingdom against Napoleon's French Empire and Bavaria. Austria proclaimed it as a war of liberation. Major engagements between France and Austria, the main participants, unfolded over much of Central Europe from April to July, with very high casualty rates. Britain, already involved on the European continent in the ongoing Peninsular War, sent another expedition, the Walcheren Campaign, to the Netherlands in order to relieve the Austrians, although this effort had little impact on the outcome of the conflict. After much campaigning in Bavaria and across the Danube valley, the war ended favorably for the French after the bloody struggle at Wagram in early July. The resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn was the harshest that France had imposed on Austria in recent memory. Metternich and Archduke Charles had the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as their fundamental goal, and to this end the former succeeded in making Napoleon seek more modest goals in return for promises of Franco-Austrian peace and friendship. Nevertheless, while most of the hereditary lands remained part of Habsburg territories, France received Carinthia, Carniola, and the Adriatic ports, while Galicia was given to the Poles and the Salzburg area of the Tyrol went to the Bavarians. Austria lost over three million subjects, about one-fifth of her total population, as a result of these territorial changes. Although fighting in the Iberian Peninsula continued, this was the last major conflict on the European continent until the French invasion of Russia in 1812 sparked the Sixth Coalition.

Congress of Verona

This, the last congress of the five great European powers, met in Austria controlled Italy in 1822 to discuss new liberal developments. It was here that Tsar Alexander I proclaimed that he would not aid Alexander Ypsilanti. All the powers also agreed to allow France to invade Spain to control the largest center for anti-conversative movements in all of Europe. The Spanish, with a majority who detested the liberals, welcomed the French in 1823. King Ferdinand VII of Spain repudiated his constitutional oath and the revolutionaries were jailed or executed. Finally the issues of American revolts were discussed. Brazil, which had taken its independence when Pedro I of the Braganza Dynasty refused to return to Lisbon with the Braganza resurrection after the defeat of Napoleon (the family had ruled during the wars from Brazil), was allowed to remain as such. The old Spanish colonies of South America, which had declared their independence when Ferdinand VII returned to the throne, were desired by Tsar Alexander I to be returned to Spanish by military intervention. England would have nothing of it and the splintering revolution was allowed to take its course.

Constitutional Clergy

Those clergymen in France that took the oath upholding the Civil Constitution because they felt themselves to the patriots, and also felt that it was no different for the Galliacan Church had always been independent of Rome, just now it was very much official and enforced by the Legislative Assembly

Ancients

Those in the 18th century that felt that science, art, literature, and invention of their time had not surpassed that of the Greeks and Romans.

Roman Law

To increase their influence, the Kings on the continent began implementing this kind of philosophy in law which would weak and eventually destroy the concept of "common law". The king would be the only determiner of the laws of the country for the good of King

Battle of Saratoga

Turning point of the American Revolution. It was very important because it convinced the French to give the U.S. military support. It lifted American spirits, ended the British threat in New England by taking control of the Hudson River, and, most importantly, showed the French that the Americans had the potential to beat their enemy, Great Britain.

French New Deal

Under Leon Blum and the Popular Front, France adopted many progressive messages, some long over due yet some particularly new and socialistic. Under Blum's plan, which he referred to as this, a 40-hour work became law, as well as vacation with pay. Collective bargaining was also guaranteed. In only one year following this union membership increased 5x. The arament and aviation industries were nationalized, as wel as the bank of France. Blum hope to break the power of the economic elite, referred in France as the "two-hundred families". All of these efforts brought outrage from the Fascists who begged Mussolini for support as the economy began to flounder and gold fled the country. While needed, this all came at a bad time for France as Germany built up her armaments, a France under such working laws could not keep up.

Francis Palacky

Under his leadrship the first Pan-Slavic Congress issued a manidesto calling for national equality of slavs and protested the repression of slavs. He also wrote a history of Bohemia in German in a attempt to stir Czech nationalism, but quickly saw that a version in the Czech language called the History of the Czech People would be more effective.

Pearl Harbor

United States military base on Hawaii that was bombed by Japan, bringing the United States into World War II. Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941. The United States and her allies declared war on Japan on December 8th. Germany and Italy, along with their puppets, declared war on the US December 11th, bring the US into the war in Europe

John Steinbeck

United States writer noted for his novels about agricultural workers, specifically the plight of migrants to California from Oklahoma as found in The Grapes of Wrath (1902-1968). The Grapes of Wrath is offered referred to as the "classic" social novel, which was a very common type of novel during such an era of change and uncertainty

Archangel

Until 1920 this city was occupied by the Americans, French, and the British in order to import war materials for the Whites. The three allies pulled out when the victory of the Reds was clearly inevitable.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Was an important leader of the Haïtian Revolution and the first leader of a free Haiti. In a long struggle again the institution of slavery, he led the blacks to victory over the whites and free coloreds and secured native control over the colony in 1797, calling himself a dictator, even though the National Convention in 1794 conveyed the rights of man to the colonies, banishing slavery. Napoleon would reestablish slavery in Haiti in 1802, banishing this man to die in a French prison. Napoleon failed, a Haitian Republic was established in 1804 as his armies were destroyed by Yellow Fever, and so he sold the rest of France's territories in the western hemisphere that could be sold (Louisiana) to the fledgling United States

Unions

While illegal under the Romanovs, these illegally existed quite easily in Russia. They functioned to coordinate the actions and ideas of workers rather than to corroborate with management on wages and working conditions. With on average more than 500 workers in each factory, which was usually owned by foreign interests or the state, in Marxist terms, the proletariate had the potential to unify and grow at a much more prolific rate than the bourgeois.

Sophie Condorcet

Widow of writer (who died in Reign of Terror) who became hostess of salons in Paris even after the Revolution - 1795. Became a writer herself and translated Adam Smith. Her salons remained the center of liberal opposition during the years of Napoleon.

Tariffs

With the depression of 1873 setting in, Europe's governments established these at protectional levels, at first to protect domestic agricultural production from Ukraine and the United States but eventually they would spread to protect all domestic production. France established them in 1892, Germany in 1879, and the United States immediately after the Civil War.

Wheat

With the total destruction of much of eastern Europe during WWI, cultivation of this crop dropped by a fifth in the entire world, prompting the rest of the world to fill the gap. Once Eastern European production was restored, along with scientific advancements, a glut occurred on the matter for resource for which demand was inelastic. Prices for this crop reached their lowest levels in over 400 years in 1930. This is the true underlying cause of the great depression: a total agricultural failure, for other crops came under the same kind of pressures.

Essay Concerning the Human Understanding

Work of John Locke in which he denied the idea of innate ideas of Descartes in his pursuit of understanding knowledge and proposed that all people are born clean slates and are influenced by their environment; "tabula rasa" (1690)

Admiral Mahan

Writer of The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, this American seaman pushed the idea of naval superiority to be a key facet in being a world power in major discussions. The Germans and the Japanese took this man's words to heart, creating the naval arms race between Great Britain and Germany prior to World War I. Germany's reason for their buildup was to protect their overseas empire, and so after the war England ensured that they would no longer have an overseas empire to protect.

Descent of Man

Written by Charles Darwin. Assumptions about human nature: Distinct (minds, intelligence, understanding, philosophy, souls); Evolution has evolved to us- teleology (Darwin argues organisms evolve); Effectiveness. Implies on Religion: Ethics- survival trait; and Religion is an extension of ethics. Intelligence is a trait. Man's morals, religion, and physical nature adapt to requirements of survival

Leviathan

Written by English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (who described life as solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short), maintained that sovereignty is ultimately derived from the people, who transfer it to the monarchy by implicit contract. From this the idea of a social contract was born, although Hobbes version compared to Locke's was much more defensive of the government in power and believed that revolution (like the ones he had just experienced in England) only led to chaos. While the government only got its power from the people, law was still fundamental and could not be disobeyed in order to avoid such chaos (1651, two years after the execution of King Charles I)

Letter on Toleration

Written by John Locke and published in 1689. It advocated an established church but with toleration of all faiths except Catholics and atheists. These excluded because dangerous to society. The former because of foreign allegances and the latter because it lacked the basis for moral responsibility.

Ninety-Five Thesis

Written by Martin Luther in 1517, they are widely regarded as the primary catalyst for the Protestant Reformation. Luther used these theses to display his displeasure with some of the Church's clergy's abuses, most notably the sale of indulgences; this ultimately gave birth to Protestantism. His main concept behind this work was the idea that priests provide no necessary function in the relationship between man and God. Because of this idea, Luther reduced the seven sacraments to two: baptism and mass

Civilization and its Discontents

Written by Sigmund Freud in 1930. Society is always going to force us into unhappiness. Human rationalism isn't nearly as good as the Enlightenment set it out to be

Summa Theologica

Written by Thomas Aquinas, it is one of the most notable scholastic works of the medieval period. In this work Aquinas' work founded Christian belief on Aristotelian principles.

The Magic Mountain

Written by Thomas Mann 1924. Competing views on politics and culture. Before the war, Mann was ultra conservative. He became more moderate after the war. His books wee burned by Nazi soldiers. This is important because we see in writing how political views changed after the war

The Prince

Written by machiavelli, described that power is more important, "better to be feared than loved". This was the first triste on politics not based in part on theology. It was very much more secular than the works of Thomas Aquinas or Marsigilio

Pico della Mirandola

Wrote On the Dignity of Man which stated that man was made in the image of God before the fall and as Christ after the Resurrection. Man is placed in-between beasts and the angels. He also believed that there is no limits to what man can accomplish. In 1486, at the age of 23, he claimed that he could sum all of human knowledge in 900 thesis

Friedrich Nietzche

Wrote that western society had put too much stress on such ideas as reason, democracy, and progress. This stifled actions based on emotion and instinct. As a result, individuality and creativity suffered. He urged a return to the ancient heroic values of pride, assertiveness, and strength. He wrote that through willpower and courage, some humans could become supermen. They could rise above and control the common herd

Jules Guesde

a French socialist journalist and politician. Led the Socialist Party of France, which later merged with the French Socialist Party to become the French Section of the Workers' International. This man was a rigid Marxist who refused any compromise of Marxist doctrine

Serf

a person who is bound to the land ("bound to the soil") and owned by a feudal lord (practice in Russia) Other than being bought and sold, they were very similar to the slaves on plantations of the southern portion of the English Thirteen Colonies of the same time period. Peter extended the slavery characteristic, allowing these people to be used not only for agriculture but industry as well

Henry II

first Plantagenet King of France. regained Calais from the English; husband of Catherine de Medicis and father of Charles IX (1519-1559). He died suddenly in a jousting tournament, leaving his wife to defend his heirs from lusting nobles, which led to civil wars in France

Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg

the Elector of Brandenburg, the only one ever known as the Great Elector, who rebuilt his domain after its destruction during the Thirty Years' War (1620-1688), "army in being" which would define Prussia moving forward through WWII. Began the practice of essentially all the money collected by the elector, only half of which came from outside of the family through taxes, going to the army (King Frederick I was famous for his stinginess outside of the army). He also began the improvement of the Prussian economy, sponsoring many industries that could not form out of Prussia's weak middle class and he encouraged many Jews, Huguenots, and Swiss to immigrate to improve the economic workforce