AP World History - 1st Semester Final Exam Review <Study Guides>

9. What does the wide distribution of Clovis technology suggest?

It suggests a regional pattern of cultural diffusion and at least indirect communication over a large area. (Original: p. 18; With Sources: p. 18)

25. With whom did the Maya cities in the Yucatan area of Mexico and Guatemala maintain a commercial relationship during 200-900 C.E.?

They maintained a commercial relationship with each other. (Original: p. 237; With Sources: p. 353)

Oba

a king in Yoruba (Original: p. 367; With Sources: p. 573)

Pythagoras

a major Greek philosopher who believed that an unchanging mathematical order underlies the apparent chaos of the world (Original: p.143; With Sources: p. 207)

Yellow Turban Rebellion

a major peasant revolt in China in 184 C.E. that helped to lead to the fall of the Han Dynasty (Original: p. 117; With Sources: p. 163)

Yellow Turban Rebellion

a massive Chinese peasant uprising inspired by Daoist teachings that began in 184 C.E., with the goal of establishing a new golden age of equality and harmony. (Original: p. 159; With Sources: p. 241)

6. What was the role of cities in the early civilizations?

political and administrative centers centers of culture including art, architecture, literature, ritual, and ceremony marketplaces for both local and long-distance exchange centers of manufacturing activity (Original: p. 63; With Sources: p. 94)

Plebians

poorer, less-privileged Romans who gradually won a role in Roman politics (Original: p. 109; With Sources: p. 155)

Pochteca

professional merchants in the Aztec Empire whose wealth often elevated them to elite status (Original: p. 384; With Sources: p. 590)

Animal husbandry

raising animals as a distinct form of food=producing economy (Original: p. 49; With Sources: p. 63)

Hyksos

a pastoral group of unknown ethnicity that invaded Egypt and ruled in the north from 1650- 1535 B.C.E. Their dominance was based on their use of horses, chariots, and bronze technology. (Original: p. 81; With Sources: p. 112)

Neo-Confucianism

a philosophy that emerged in Song dynasty China; it revived Confucian thinking while adding Buddhist and Daoist elements (Original: p. 244; With Sources: p. 382)

Solon

a reforming leader in 594 B.C.E. who emerged to push Athenian politics in a more democratic direction. He abolished debt slavery; access to public office was opened to a wider group of men, and all citizens were allowed to take part in the Assembly. (Original: p. 104; With Sources: p. 150)

Spartacus

a roman gladiator who led the most serious slave revolt in Roman history from 73-71 B.C.E. (Original: p. 169; With Sources: p. 251)

Quipu

a series of knotted cords, used for accounting and perhaps as a form of writing in Norte Chico civilization (Original: p. 57; With Sources: p. 87)

Hebrews

a smaller early civilization whose development of a monotheistic faith that provided the foundation of modern Judaism, Christianity, and Islam assured them a significant place in world history (Original: p. 80; With Sources: p. 109)

Scholar-gentry class

a term used to describe members of China's landowning families, reflecting their wealth from the land and the privilege that they derived as government officials Original: (p. 158; With Sources: p. 240)

Hippocrates

a very influential Greek medical theorist; regarded as the father of medicine (p. 143; With Sources: p. 207)

7. What did Kievan Rus extensively borrow from Byzantium?

a. Byzantine architectural styles b. the Cyrillic alphabet c. the extensive use of icons d. a monastic tradition stressing prayer and service e. political ideas of imperial control of the Church (Original: p. 277; With Sources: p. 433)

Hulegu

grandson of Chingiss Khan (ca. 1217-1265) who became the first il-khan (subordinate khan of Persia) (Original: p. 350; With Sources: p. 538)

Khubilai Khan

grandson of Chingiss Khan who ruled China from 1271-1294 (Original: p. 348; With Sources: p. 537)

Latifundia

huge estates operated by slave labor that flourished in parts of the Roman Empire (Original: p. 168; With Sources: p. 250)

Temujin

birth name of the Mongol leader better known as Chingiss Khan (Original: p. 344; With Sources: p. 532)

6. What new technologies and artifacts emerged in Central Europe, Ukraine, and Russia?

bone needles, multi-layered clothing, weaving, nets, storage pits, baskets, tusks of mammoths (Original: p. 17; With Sources: p. 17)

Eunuchs

castrated men, in China, who were personally loyal to the emperor and exercised great authority, must to the dismay of the official bureaucrats (Original: p. 371; With Sources: p. 577)

Helots

conquered people in Sparta who lived in slavelike conditions (Original: p. 103; With Sources: p. 149)

16. What are the distinctive features of the Greek intellectual tradition?

emphasis on argument and logic relentless questioning of received wisdom confidence in human reason enthusiasm for puzzling out the world without much reference to gods (Original: p. 142; With Sources: p. 206)

Eunuchs

in China, castrated court officials loyal to the emperor (Original: p. 117; With Sources: p. 163)

Aryans

indo-European pastoralists who moved into India about the time of the collapse of the Indus River Valley civilization; their role in causing this collapse is still debated by historians (Original: p. 119; With Sources: p. 165)

Karma

is the force generated by one's behavior in a previous life that decides the caste level at which an individual will be reborn. (Original: p. 163; With Sources: p. 245)

Khiokhoi of South Africa

originally hunters and gatherers, who adopted cattle and sheep raising from outsiders, perhaps Bantu-speaking immigrants to the region, but did not practice agriculture. Living in southern Africa for most of the last 2 thousand years, they illustrate the interaction and selective cultural borrowing that took place among the various peoples of the region. (Original: p. 191; With Sources: p. 291)

Xiongnu

people of the Mongolian steppe lands north of China who formed a large-scale nomadic empire in the third and second centuries B.C.E. (Original: p. 338; With Sources: p. 526)

7. What changes did Alexander's conquests bring in their wake?

Alexander's conquests led to the widespread dissemination of Greek culture into Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and India. The major avenue for this spread lay in the many cities established by the Greeks throughout the Hellenistic world. (Original: pp. 106-107; With Sources: p. 153)

4. Describe gender roles of the Iroquois peoples.

Among the Iroquois, descent was matrilineal, married couples lived with the wife's family, and women controlled agriculture. While men were hunters, warriors, and the primary political officeholders, women selected and could depose those leaders. (Original: p. 368; With Sources: p. 574)

n/um

Among the San, a spiritual potency that becomes activated during "curing dances" and protects humans from the malevolent forces of gods or ancestral spirits.

Seizure of Constantinople (1453)

Constantinople was the capital and almost the only outpost left of the Byzantine Empire. It fell to the army of the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II in 1453, an event that marked the end of Christian Byzantium. (Original: p.379; With Sources: p. 585)

12. In what different ways did Japanese and Korean women experience the pressures of Confucian orthodoxy (practices, beliefs)?

Elite Japanese women, unlike those in Korea, largely escaped the more oppressive features of Confucian culture, such as the prohibition of remarriage for widows, seclusion in the home, and foot binding. Moreover, elite Japanese women continued to inherit property, Japanese married couples often lived apart or with the wife's family, and marriages in Japan were made and broken easily. (Original: p. 258-259; With Sources: pp. 396-397)

18. In the long term, the crusading movement by Western Europeans did not bring the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christian churches closer together, but the crusading notion was used by the Europeans later to do what?

European empire building, especially in the Americas, continued the crusading notion that "God wills it." (Original: p. 289; With Sources: p. 445)

Pax Romana

the "Roman Peace," a term typically used to denote the stability and prosperity of the early Roman Empire, especially in the first and second centuries (Original: p. 112; With Sources: p. 158)

Coptic Christianity

the Egyptian variety of Christianity, distinctive in its belief that Christ has only a single, divine nature (Original: p. 187; With Sources: p. 287)

Helots

the dependent, semi-enslaved class of ancient Sparta whose social discontent prompted the militarization of Spartan society (Original: p. 175; With Sources: p. 257)

Vedas

the earliest religious texts of India, a collection of ancient poems, hymns, and rituals that were transmitted orally before being written down about 600 B.C.E. (Original: p. 133; With Sources: p. 197)

Janissaries

the elite infantry force of the Ottoman Empire; Complete with uniforms, cash salaries, and marching music, they were the first standing army in the region since the days of the Roman Empire. (Original: p. 380; With Sources: p. 586)

Nirvana

the end goal of Buddhism, in which individual identity is extinguished into a state of serenity and great compassion (Original: p. 135; With Sources: p. 199)

Socrates

the first great Greek philosopher to turn rationalism toward questions of human existence (Original: p. 142; With Sources: pp. 206-207)

Saint Paul

the first great populizer of Christianity; converted from Judaism along the road to Damascus (Original: p. 147; With Sources: p. 211)

Caesar Augustus

the great-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar who emerged as sole ruler of the Roman state at the end of an extended period of civil war (ruled from 31-14B.C.E.) (Original: p. 112; With Sources: pp. 157-158)

Filial piety

the honoring of one's ancestors and parents, a key element of Confucianism (Original: p. 129 and 130; With Sources: p. 193 and 194)

Atman

the human soul, which in classic Hindu belief seeks union with Brahman (Original: p. 134; With Sources: p. 198)

Mandate of Heaven

the ideological foundation of Chinese emperors, this was a belief that a ruler held authority by command of divine force as long as he ruled morally and benevolently (Original: p. 60; With Sources: p. 90)

Epic of Gilgamesh

the most famous existing literary work from ancient Mesopotamia, it tells the story of one man's quest for immortality (Original: p. 74; With Sources: p. 104)

Hellenistic Era

the period from 323 to 30 B.C.E. in which Greek culture spread widely in Eurasia in the kingdoms ruled by Alexander's political successors. (Original: p. 107; With Sources: p. 153)

Brahmins

the priestly caste of India (Original: p. 133; With Sources: p. 197)

Caste

the system of social organization in India that has evolved over a thousand years; It's based on an original division of the populace into four inherited classes (varnas), with the addition of thousands of social distinctions based on occupation (jatis), which became the main cell of social life in India. (Original: pp. 160-161; With Sources: pp. 242-243)

Domestication

the taming and the changing of nature for the benefit of humankind (Original: p. 36; With Sources: p. 50)

devshirme

the tribute of boy children that the Ottoman Turks levied from their Christian subjects in the Balkans; The Ottomans raised the boys for service in the civil administration or in the elite Janissary infantry corps. (Original: p. 427; With Sources: p. 648)

Punic Wars

three major wars between Rome and Carthage in North Africa, fought between 264 and 146 B.C.E., that culminated in Roman victory and control of the western Mediterranean. (Original: p. 109; With Sources: p. 155)

Harappa/Mohenjo Daro

Both were major cities of the Indus River Valley civilization that flourished around 2,000 B.C.E (Original: p. 63; With Sources: 93)

17. List the changes and continuities of the classical era.

(Original: pp. 177-178; With Sources: pp. 259-260) Changes: ▪The Greek conquest of the Persian Empire under the leadership of Alexander the Great was both novel and unexpected. ▪The Roman Empire encompassed the entire Mediterranean basin in a single political system for the first time. ▪Buddhism and Christianity emerged as new, distinct, and universal religious traditions, although both bore the marks of their origin in Hindu and Jewish religions ▪The collapse of dynasties, empires, and civilizations, while seemingly solidly entrenched, were seen as something new Continuities: ▪China's scholar-gentry class retained its prominence throughout the ups and downs of changing dynasties and into the 20th century. ▪India's caste-based social structure still endures as a way of thinking and behaving for hundreds of millions of people on the South Asian peninsula. ▪Slavery remained an important and largely unquestioned part of civilization until the 19th century. ▪Patriarchy has been the most fundamental, longlasting, and taken-for-granted feature of all civilizations.

13. After reading about Catalhuyuk in Turkey, why do you think the people designed their city the way they did?

(missing on Mr. Martin's PDFs)

"insulting the meat"

A San cultural practice meant to deflate pride that involved negative comments about the meat brought in by a hunter and the expectation that a successful hunter would disparage his own kill

14. What's the difference between Shia and Sunni Islam?

A central problem was that of leadership and authority in the absence of Muhammad's towering presence. Who should hold the role of caliph, the successor to Muhammad? Caliphs were close companions to the Prophet Muhammad, selected by the Muslim elders of Medina. Division surfaced almost immediately as a series of Arab tribal rebellions and new "prophets" persuaded the first caliph, Abu Bakr, to suppress them forcibly. The third and fourth caliphs, Uthman and Ali, were both assassinated, and by 656, civil war pitted Muslim against Muslim. Shia—Shiites felt strongly that leadership in the Islamic world should derive from the line of Ali and his son Husayn, blood relatives of Muhammad. The Shia invested their leaders, known as imams, with a religious authority that the caliphs lacked, allowing them alone to reveal the true meaning of the Quran and the wishes of Allah. Sunni—Sunni Muslims, held that the caliphs were rightful political and military leaders, selected by the Islamic community, particularly from the religious scholars known as ulama. (Original: p. 311-312; With Sources: pp. 483-484)

Phoenicians

A civilization in the area of present-day Lebanon, creators of the first alphabetic writing system (Original: p. 80; With Sources: p. 109)

Quipu

A knotted cord used to record numerical data. Used by the Inca.

Cahokia

A major North American kingdom, near present-day St. Louis, that flourished from about 900 to 1250. It lay at the center of a widespread trading network that brought it shells from the Atlantic coast, copper from the Lake Superior region, buffalo hides from the Great Plains, obsidian from the Rocky Mountains, and mica from the southern Appalachian mountains.

3. Why were political systems important for trade?

A new state or empire's size and stability provided the security that encouraged travelers and traders to journey long distances form their homelands. The wealth available from controlling and taxing trade motivated the creation of states in various parts of the world and sustained those states once they had been constructed. (Original: p. 212, 218; With Sources: p. 328; 334)

Hadza

A people of northern Tanzania, almost the last surviving Paleolithic society

Caesaropapism

A political-religious system in which the secular ruler is also head of the religious establishment, as in the Byzantine Empire. (Original: p. 273; With Sources: p. 429)

Great Zimbabwe

A powerful state in the African interior that apparently emerged from the growing trade in gold to the East African coast; flourished between 1250 to 1350 C.E.

Shotoku Taisha

A prominent aristocrat (572-622) from one of the major Japanese clans who hoped to transform Japan into a centralized bureaucratic state. He launched a series of large-scale missions to China, which took hundreds of Japanese monks, scholars. Artists, and students to the mainland, and when they returned, they put into practice what they had learned. (Original: p. 256; With Sources: p. 394)

Anchoress

A religious woman who withdrew to a locked cell, usually attached to a church, where she devoted herself wholly to prayer and fasting. (Original: p. 285; With Sources: p. 441)

18. Who were the Sufis?

A second and quite different understanding of the Islamic faith emerged among those who saw the worldly success of Islamic civilization as a distraction and deviation from the purer spirituality of Muhammad's time. Sufis represented Islam's mystical dimension, in that they sought a direct and personal experience of the divine. Through renunciation of the material world, meditation on the words of the Quran, the use of music and dance, the veneration of Muhammad and various saints, Sufis pursued the obliteration of the ego and spiritual union with Allah. (Original: p. 313; With Sources: p. 485)

Ghana, Mali, Songhay

A series of important states that developed in western and central Sudan in the period 500-1600 C.E. in respose to the economic opportunities of trans-Saharan trade (especially control of gold production).

Code of Hammurabi

A series of laws publicized, at the order of King Hammurabi of Babylonia, that proclaim the king's commitment to social order (Original: p. 65 and 72; With Sources: p. 95 and 102)

Jomon culture

A settled Paleolithic culture of prehistoric Japan, characterized by seaside villages and the creation of some of the world's earliest pottery

6. Explain the five Pillars of Islam.

A. There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of God. (absolute monotheism and a final revelation) B. prayer five times a day at prescribed times and performed while facing toward Mecca C. Believers are required to generously give their wealth to maintain the community and to help the needy. D. Ramadan is a month of fasting—no food, drink, or sexual relations—from the first light of dawn to sundown. E. pilgrimage to Mecca—the Hajj (Original: p. 305-306; With Sources: p. 478) The Transformation of Arabia

7. Describe Dreamtime and what it represents.

Aborigines developed an elaborate and complex outlook on the world known as Dreamtime. Dreamtime is expressed in endless stories, in extended ceremonies, and in the evocative rock art of the continent's peoples. Dreamtime recounts the beginning of things; how ancestral beings crisscrossed the land, creating rivers, hills, rocks, and waterholes; how various peoples came to inhabit the land; and how they relate to animals and to one another. In this view of the world, everything in the natural order was a vibration, an echo, a footprint of these ancient happenings, which link the current inhabitants intimately to particular places and to timeless events in the past. (Original: p. 17; With Sources: p. 17)

5. How are moksha, karma, and reincarnation connected?

Achieving moksha was believed to involve many lifetimes as the notion of reincarnation became a central feature of Hindu thinking. Human souls migrated from body to body over many lifetimes, depending on one's actions. This was the law of karma. Pure actions, appropriate to one's station in life resulted in a higher social position or caste . Birth in a higher caste was evidence of "good karma," based on actions in a previous life, and offered a better chance to achieve moksha, which brought with it an end to the painful cycle of rebirth. (Original: p. 134; With Sources: p. 198)

10. How did the pastoral Masai and their settled agricultural neighbors bind their people together and what did such a system provide for them?

Adolescent boys from a variety of villages or lineages were initiated together in a ritual that often included circumcision, an experience that produced a profound bond among them. This ceremony created an "age-set," which then moved through a series of "age-grades" or ranks, from warrior through elder, during their lives. Such a system provided an alternative to the state as a means of mobilizing young men for military purposes, for integrating outsiders into the community, and for establishing a larger social identity. (Original: p. 340; With Sources: p. 528)

Griots

African praise singers who preserved and recited the oral traditions of their societies (Original: p. 189; With Sources: p. 289)

2. What happened to the Byzantine Empire after 1085?

After 1085, Byzantine territory shrank, owing to incursions by aggressive Christian European powers, by Catholic Crusaders, and later by Turkic Muslim invaders. (Original: p. 273; With Sources: p. 429)

An Lushan rebellion

After centuries of considerable foreign influence in China, a growing resentment against foreign culture, particularly among the literate classes, increasingly took hold. The turning point was probably the An Lushan rebellion (755-763), in which a general of foreign origin led a major revolt against the Tang dynasty. (Original: p. 265; With Sources: p. 403)

6. After the Greco-Persian Wars, what were the causes and effects of the Peloponnesian War?

After the war, Athenian efforts to solidify its dominant position among the allies (Sparta and other Greek city-states) led to intense resentment and finally to a bitter civil war with Sparta taking the lead in defending the traditional independence of Greek city-states. In this bloody conflict, known as the Peloponnesian War, Athens was defeated, while the Greeks exhausted themselves and magnified their distrust of one another. Thus, the way was open to their eventual takeover by the growing forces of Macedonia. (Original: pp. 105-106; With Sources: p. 151)

25. What ideas and technologies were diffused and exchanged as trade and commerce developed a "capitalist" economy that spanned the Old World?

Agricultural practices and products included rice, sugarcane, new strains of sorghum, hard wheat, bananas, lemons, limes, watermelon, coconut palms, spinach, artichokes, and cotton. Some of these found their way into the Middle East and Africa. Both sugarcane and cotton came to play central roles in the formation of the modern global system after 1500. Technology also diffused with the ancient Persian techniques for obtaining water by drilling into the sides of hills; Muslim technicians made improvements on rockets, first developed in China; and papermaking techniques entered the Abbasid Empire from China in the eighth century. Likewise, ideas circulated across the Islamic world. Scientific, medical, and philosophical texts, especially form ancient Greece, the Hellenistic world, and India, were systematically translated into Arabic, for several centuries providing an enormous boost to Islamic scholarship and science. Using Indian numerical notation, Arab scholars developed algebra as a novel mathematical discipline. They also undertook much original work in astronomy and optics, They built upon earlier Greek and Indian practice to crate a remarkable tradition in medicine and pharmacology. (Original: p. 325-326; With Sources: pp. 497-498)

8. In what ways did agriculture spread?

Agriculture spread in two ways; through diffusion and through colonization. Diffusion refers to the gradual spread of the techniques of agriculture, and perhaps of the plants themselves, but without the extensive movement of agricultural peoples. Colonization refers to the migration of agricultural peoples as growing populations and pressures to expand pushed them outward. Often this meant conquest, absorption, or displacement of earlier hunters and gatherers. (Original: p. 42; With Sources: p. 56)

19. By 1500, Europe had caught up with and, in some areas, surpassed China and the Islamic world. What were some technological breakthroughs in agriculture and the arts of war/sea?

Agriculture---The Europeans developed a heavy-wheeled plow, iron horseshoes, horse collar, a three-field system of crop rotation, which allowed considerably more land to be planted at any one time. Arts of War/Sea—From China came gunpowder but the Europeans were probably the first to use it in cannons. Advances in shipbuilding and navigational techniques—including the magnetic compass and stern-post rudder from China, and adaptations of the Arab lateen sail, which enabled vessels to sail against the wind—provided the foundation for European mastery of the seas. (Original: pp. 290-292; With Sources: pp. 446-448)

5. Who were Cyril and Methodius and what did they do?

Already in the ninth century, two Byzantine missionaries, Cyril and Methodius, had developed an alphabet based on Greek letters with which Slavic languages could be written. This Cyrillic script made it possible to translate the Bible and other religious literature into these languages and greatly aided the process of conversion. (Original: pp. 276-277; With Sources: pp. 432-433)

1. What kind of food-producing economy emerged in 4,000 B.C.E. where productive farming was difficult and what did they learn from that?

An alternative was focused on the raising of livestock. Peoples practicing such an economy learned to use the milk, blood, wool, hides, and meat of their animals to occupy lands that couldn't support agricultural societies. (Original: p. 334; With Sources: p. 522)

14b. Compare and Contrast Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations' environment. (Original: pp. 73-78; With Sources: pp. 103-108)

An open environment without serious obstacles to travel made Mesopotamia more vulnerable to invasion than the much more protected space of Egypt. Flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers helped to provide alluvial soil for productive agriculture. However, flooding of the rivers was unpredictable. Irrigation involved a complex and artificial network of canals and dikes. In Sumer, deforestation and soil erosion decreased crop yields by some 65% between 2400 and 1700 B.C.E. Contributing to this disaster was the increasing salinization of the soil, a long-term outcome of intensive irrigation. As a result, wheat was replaced by barley, which is far more tolerant of salty conditions. Ecological deterioration clearly weakened Sumerian citystates, facilitated their conquest by foreigners, and shifted the center of Mesopotamian civilization permanently to the north. Egypt was surrounded by deserts, mountains, seas, and cataracts which made it less vulnerable to invasions. Yearly, predictable flooding of the Nile River helped to provide alluvial soil for productive agriculture. Egyptian irrigation was less intrusive by simply regulating the natural flow of the Nile. This avoided the problem of salty soils, allowing agriculture to emphasize wheat production. On occasion their were extended periods of low floods between 2250 and 1950 B.C.E. which led to sharply reduced agricultural output, large-scale starvation, the loss of livestock, and social upheaval and political disruption. Egypt's ability to work with its more favorable environment enabled a degree of stability and continuity that proved impossible in Sumer.

18. What kind of growth accompanied the economic or industrial revolution?

An unprecedented world population growth accompanied this revolution. (Original: p. 391; With Sources: p. 597)

Hieroglyphs

Ancient Egyptian writing system; literally, "sacred carvings"—so named because the Greeks saw them prominently displayed in Egyptian temples (Original: p. 71; With Sources: p. 101)

10. What religious path was also becoming increasingly prominent in Hinduism?

Another religious path was the way of devotion to one or another of India's many gods and goddesses. Beginning in south India and moving northward, this bhakti (worship) movement involved the intense adoration of and identification with a particular deity through songs, prayers, and rituals associated with the many cults that emerged throughout India. The most popular deities were Vishnu, the protector and preserver of creation associated with mercy and goodness, and Shiva, representing the divine in its destructive aspect. Many other gods and goddesses had their followers in their bhakti cults, too. (Original: p. 138; With Sources: p. 202)

18. What other changes occurred during the flourishing of Indian Ocean commerce after the rise of Islam in the 7th century?

Arab Empire—The creation of an Arab Empire brought together in a single political system an immense range of economies and cultural traditions and provided a vast arena for the energies of Muslim traders. Middle East—Middle Eastern gold and silver flowed into southern India to purchase pepper, pearls, textiles, and gemstones. Muslim merchants—Muslim merchants and sailors, as well as Jews and Christians living within the Islamic world, established communities of traders from East Africa to the southern China coast. Mesopotamia/East Africa—Efforts to reclaim wasteland in Mesopotamia to produce sugar and dates for export stimulated a slave trade from East Africa, which landed thousands of Africans in southern Iraq to work on plantations and in salt mines under horrendous conditions. (Original: p. 228; With Sources: p. 344)

11. Why did the Battle of Talas River in 751 leave lasting consequences for Asia?

Arab forces reached the Indus River and seized some of the major oases towns of Central Asia. In 751, Arab armies inflicted a crushing defeat on Chinese forces in the Battle of Talas River, which had lasting consequences for the cultural evolution of Asia, for it checked the further expansion of China to the west and made possible the conversion of Central Asia's Turkic speaking people to Islam. (Original: p. 309; With Sources: p. 481)

16. What was the impact of the Crusades on European economies?

As European civilization expanded, Western economies grew. Merchants, travelers, diplomats, and missionaries brought European society into more intensive contact with more distant peoples and with Eurasian commercial networks. By the 13th and 14th centuries, Europeans had direct, though limited, contact with India, China, and Mongolia. Europe clearly was outward bound. (Original: p. 286; With Sources: p. 442)

5. Who was Timur (Tamerlane) and what did he do?

As the Mongol Empire disintegrated, a brief attempt to restore it occurred in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries under the leadership of a Turkic warrior named Timur. Timur's army of nomads brought immense devastation yet again to Russia, Persia, and India. He was as ferocious as his model, Chinghis Khan. (Original: p. 369; With Sources: p. 575)

1. How would you describe the social hierarchy of classical China? (officials, landlords, peasants, merchants)

At the top were the emperor's officials who were in large part drawn from the wealthy landowning families. Despite the efforts of Chinese emperors, landowners remained a central feature of Chinese society. Peasants made up the largest part of the Chinese population. There was significant differentiation between peasant families; some worked or owned enough land to feed themselves and perhaps sell something at the local market, while others could barely survive. Merchants were seen in a negative light. They were viewed as unproductive people who made a shameful profit by selling the work of others. (Original: pp. 156-160; With Sources: pp. 238-242)

15. How did the patriarchies of Athens and Sparta differ from each other?

Athens: placed increasing limitations on women between 700 and 400 B.C.E. Athens completely excluded women from public life. It required that women be represented by a guardian in legal matters, and women were not even referred to by name in court proceedings. Athens restricted women to the home, where they lived separately form men. Marriage customarily saw a woman in her midteens marry a man ten to fifteen years her senior. Land passed through male heirs. Sparta: Women in Sparta lacked any forma public role, as in Athens. Spartan women possessed more freedom, but greater value was placed on male warriors. In this context, the central task for Spartan women was reproduction—specifically the bearing of strong healthy sons. To secure strong sons, women were encouraged to strengthen their bodies, and they even participated in public sporting events. Spartan women were not secluded for segregated like Athenian women. Spartan women married men about their own age, putting the couple on a more equal basis. Men were often engaged in preparing for war, so Spartan women had more authority in the household. (Original: pp. 173-177; With Sources: pp. 255-259)

Firestick farming

Australia's Paleolithic peoples had mastered and manipulated their environment in part through the practice of this. This was a pattern of deliberately set fires, which they described as cleaning up the country. These controlled burns served to clear the underbrush, thus making hunting easier and encouraging the growth of certain plant and animal species. (Original: p. 366; With Sources: p. 572)

8. What is one reason that India seldom experienced an empire that encompassed the entire subcontinent?

Because caste (jati) was a very local phenomenon, rooted in particular regions or villages, it focused the loyalties of most people on a quite restricted territory and weakened the appeal or authority of larger all-Indian states. (Original: p. 164; With Sources: p. 246)

11. In what ways did a gathering and hunting economy shape other aspects of Paleolithic societies?

Because hunting and gathering didn't allow for the accumulation of much surplus, Paleolithic societies were highly egalitarian, lacking the inequalities of wealth and power found in later agricultural and urban life; Paleolithic societies also lacked specialists, with most people possessing the same set of skills, although male and female tasks often differed sharply; Relationships between women and men were usually far more equal than in later societies. This was in part the result of gathering women bringing in more of the food consumed by the family than hunting men. (Original: pp. 20-21; With Sources: p. 20-21)

9. Describe the development of agricultural societies in the southern half of he African continent beginning around 3,000 B.C.E.

Beginning from what is now southern Nigeria or Cameroon, Bantu-speaking people moved east and south over the next millennia, taking with them their agricultural, cattle-raising, and later, ironworking skills, as well as their languages. The Bantus generally absorbed, killed, or drove away the indigenous Paleolithic peoples or exposed them to animal-borne diseases to which they had no immunities. (Original: p. 46; With Sources: p. 60)

Beguines

Beguines were groups of laywomen, often from poorer families in Northern Europe, who lived together, practiced celibacy, and devoted themselves to weaving and to working with the sick, the old, and the poor. (Original: p. 285; With Sources: p. 441)

5. Why did animal domestication precede the domestication of plants in Africa? (present day Sudan)

Between 10,000 and 5,000 years ago, the Sahara Desert effectively did not exist. During that time, the region received more rainfall than currently; it had extensive grassland vegetation for grazing animals; and it was relatively hospitable to human life. Thus, cattle and donkeys were domesticated in the region before the domestication of plants. (Original: p. 41; With Sources: p.55)

10. In what (political, economic, and social) ways did Korea, Vietnam, and Japan experience and respond to Chinese influence?

Both Korea and Vietnam achieved political independence while participating fully in the tribute system as vassal states. Japan was never conquered by the Chinese but did participate for some its history in the tribute system as a vassal state. The cultural elite of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan borrowed heavily form China— Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism, administrative techniques, the examination system, artistic and literary styles—even as their own cultures remained distinct. Both Korea and Vietnam experienced some colonization by ethnic Chinese settlers. Physically separated from China, Japan voluntarily adopted elements of Chinese civilization. It adopted a Chinese-style emperor, Confucianism, Buddhism, Chinese court and government, and the Chinese calendar. Nevertheless, Japan was selective in its borrowing and by the tenth century stopped tribute missions, and in the long run evolved in its own distinctive way. Unlike Korea or Japan, the cultural heartland of Vietnam was fully incorporated into the Chinese state for over a thousand years, far longer than corresponding parts of Korea. This political dominance led to cultural changes in Vietnam, such as the adoption of Chinese-style irrigated agriculture, the education of the Vietnamese elite in Confucian-based schools and their inclusion in the local bureaucracy, Chinese replacing the local language in official business, and the adoption of Chinese clothing and hairstyles. (Original: pp. 252-259; With Sources: pp. 390-397)

3. How did the history of Meroe and Axum reflect interaction with neighboring civilizations?

Both Meroë and Axum traded extensively with neighboring civilizations. Meroë's wealth and military power were in part derived from this trade. The formation of a substantial state in Axum was at least in part stimulated by Axum's participation in Red Sea and Indian Ocean commerce and the taxes that flowed from this commerce. Both developed their own distinct writing scripts. A Merotic script eventually took the place of Egyptian-style writing, while Axum's script, Geez, was derived from South Arabian models. Axum adopted Christianity from the Roman world in the 4th century C.E., primarily through Egyptian influence, and the region once controlled by Meroë also adopted Christianity in the 340s C.E. following Meroë's decline. (Original: pp. 184-188; With Sources: p. 284-288)

20. Compare the lives and teachings of Jesus and the Buddha.

Buddha: Gautama was born into a ruling family and was surrounded by luxury. Buddhism was never promoted to the exclusion of other faiths in India, whereas in the Roman Empire Christianity was promoted as the single legal faith. The Buddha's original message largely ignored the supernatural, involved no miracles, and taught a path of intense self-effort aimed at ethical living and mindfulness as a means of ending suffering. Buddha's public life lasted over forty years. Jesus: Jesus was a rural or small-town worker from a lower-class family. Jesus inherited from his Jewish tradition an intense devotion to a single personal deity with whom he was on intimate terms. He performed miracles that reflected the power of God available to him as a result as that relationship. Jesus' teachings were politically and socially sharper than those of Buddha. Jesus' public life was very brief. Both: Both became spiritual seekers, mystics in their own traditions, who claimed to personally experience another level of reality. Both were "wisdom teachers," challenging the conventional values of their time, urging the renunciation of wealth, and emphasizing the supreme importance of love or compassion as the basis for a moral life. Both called for the personal transformation of their followers. Neither Buddha nor Jesus planned to found new religions. Both of their messages emerged soon after their deaths as separate religions embraced by much wider and more inclusive audiences. Both were transformed from teachers into gods by their followers. Both Buddhist and Christian followers clashed over interpretations of their respective founder's teachings. (Original: p. 145-150; With Sources: pp. 209-214)

8. Why did Buddhism decline in India?

Buddhism declined in India perhaps in part because the mounting wealth of monasteries and the economic interests of their leading figures separated them from ordinary people. Competition from Islam after 1,000 C.E. may also have played a role. The most important reason, however, was the growth of a new kind of Hinduism during the first millennium, which the masses found more accessible than the elaborate sacrifices of the Brahmins or the philosophical speculations of intellectuals. (Original: p. 137; With Sources: p. 201)

6. In what ways did Buddhism reflect Hindu traditions, and in what ways did it challenge them?

Buddhism reflected Hindu traditions in the idea that ordinary life is an illusion, in the concepts of karma and rebirth, the goal of overcoming the incessant demands of the ego, the practice of meditation, and the hope for final release from reincarnation. Buddhism challenged Hindu traditions through the rejection of the religious authority of the Brahmins, the lack of interest in abstract speculation about the creation of the world or the existence of gods, and its rejection of the inequalities of a Hindu-based caste system through its belief that neither caste position nor gender was a barrier to enlightenment. (Original: pp. 135-136; With Sources: pp. 199-200)

10. Why did Buddhism appeal to the merchants along the Silk Roads?

Buddhism was a cultural product of Indian civilization. Its universal message was preferred to that of a Brahmin-dominated Hinduism that privileged the higher castes. (Original: p. 222; With Sources: p. 338)

11. In what way did Buddhism pick up elements of other cultures along the Silk Roads?

Buddhist monasteries became involved in secular affairs in the rich oasis towns of the Silk Roads. The begging bowls of the monks became a symbol rather than a daily activity, especially since some of the monks became quite wealthy, receiving gifts from well-to-do merchants. Sculptures and murals in the monasteries depicted musicians and acrobats, women applying makeup, and even drinking parties. Buddhist doctrine changed into a more devotional Mahayana form of Buddhism—featuring the Buddha as a deity. Statues of the Buddha in the area northwest of India, had been influenced by the invasions of Alexander the Great and reveal distinctly Greek influences, Also, the gods of many peoples along the Silk Roads were incorporated into Buddhist practices. (Original: pp. 223 224; With Sources: pp. 339-340)

Karakorum

Capital of the Mongol Empire (Original: p. 346; With Sources: p. 534)

23. In what ways was Anatolia so much more thoroughly Islamized than India?

By 1500, the population of Anatolia was 90% Muslim and largely Turkic-speaking. Anatolia was the heartland of the powerful Turkish Ottoman Empire that had overrun Christian Byzantium. The population—perhaps 8 million—was far smaller than India's roughly 48 million people, but far more Turkic-speaking peoples settled in Anatolia, giving them a much greater cultural weight than the smaller colonizing force in India. Byzantine civilization in Anatolia focused on the centralized institutions of church and state, was rendered leaderless and dispirited, whereas India's decentralized civilization, lacking a unified political or religious establishment, was better able to absorb the shock of external invasion while retaining its core values and identity. Anatolia built q new society that welcomed converts and granted them material rewards and opportunity for high office. Moreover, the cultural barriers to conversion were arguably less severe than in India. (Original: p. 319-320; With Sources: pp. 491-492)

9. What are the three functions of caste?

Caste, together with the shared culture of Hinduism, provided a substitute for the state as an integrative mechanism for Indian civilization. It offered a distinct and socially recognized place for almost everyone. India's caste system facilitated the exploitation of the poor by the wealthy and powerful. (Original: p. 164; With Sources: p. 246)

12. Why did Muslims recognize Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians as "people of the book?"

By the middle of the eighth century, Arabs viewed Islam as a universal religion actively seeking converts, but even then they recognized Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians as "people of the book." This gave them the status of protected subjects and were free to practice their own religion, so long as they paid a special tax. (Original: p. 310; With Sources: p. 482)

Justinian

Byzantine emperor (ruled 527-565 C.E.), noted for his short-lived reconquest of much of the former western Roman Empire and for his codification of Roman law. (Original: p. 272, 275; With Sources: p. 428, 431)

18. What are the features of the dominant center of Cahokia?

Cahokia was located near present-day St. Louis, Missouri and flourished from 900-1250 C.E. Its central mound, which was a terraced pyramid of four levels, measured 1,000feet long by 700 feet wide, rose more than 100 feet above the ground, and occupied 15 acres. It was the largest structure north of Mexico, the focal point of a community numbering 10,000 or more people, and the center of a widespread trading network. Its urban presence was far larger than Chaco Canyon. Cahokia emerged as the climax of a long history of moundbuilding cultures in the eastern woodlands, whereas Chaco was more of a "start up" culture, emerging quite quickly "with a relatively shallow history." Cahokia was a stratified society, (as was Hopewell), with a clear elite and with rulers to mobilize the labor required to build such enormous structures. (Original: p. 204; With Sources: p. 304)

13. What kind of influence did Chavin exert in the Andes region?

Chavin-style architecture, sculpture, pottery, religious images, and painted textiles were widely imitated within the region. Chavin itself became a pilgrimage site and perhaps a training center for initiates from distant centers. At locations three weeks or more away by llama caravan, temples were remodeled to resemble that of the Chavin, although in many cases with locally inspired variations. The widespread religious Chavin cult, traveling on the back of a traveling network, provided for the first time and for several centuries a measure of economic and cultural integration to much of the Peruvian Andes. (Original: p. 198; With Sources: p. 298)

17. In what ways did China contribute to the growth of trade in the Indian Ocean between 500 and 1500 C.E.?

China reestablished an effective and unified state, which actively encouraged maritime trade. The impressive growth of the Chinese economy sent Chinese products pouring into the circuits of Indian Ocean commerce, while providing a vat and attractive market for Indian and Southeast Asian goods. Chinese technological innovations, such as larger ships and the magnetic compass, likewise added to the momentum of commercial growth. (Original: p. 228; With Sources: p. 344)

Hangzhou

China's capital during the Song dynasty, with a population of more than a million people (Original: p. 244; With Sources: p. 382)

5. What specifically did the following regions or peoples diffuse through trade?

China: the technology of manufacturing raw silk India: crystallized sugar, a system of numerals and the concept of zero, techniques for making cotton textiles, and many food crops Arabs: Islam The Americas/Mesoamerica: corn Eurasia and North Africa: disease—the plague (Original: p. 213; With Sources: p. 329)

11. Compare the Roman and Chinese Empires. (Original: pp. 114-116; With Sources: pp. 160-163)

Chinese Empire: ▪The Chinese developed a more elaborate bureaucracy to hold the empire together than did the Romans. ▪Chinese characters, which represented words or ideas more than sounds, were not easily transferable to other languages, but written Chinese could be understood by all literate people, no matter which spoken dialect of the language they used. Thus Chinese, more than Latin, served as an instrument of elite assimilation. ▪Buddhism came from India and was introduced to China by Central Asian traders and received little support from Han dynasty rulers. ▪Under the Sui Dynasty, Emperor Wendi reunified China and Buddhism again gained state support, temporarily. After the collapse of the Han, Buddhism appealed to people who felt bewildered by the loss of a predictable and stable society. Buddhism eventually became one of several religious strands in a complex Chinese mix. ▪The Chinese empire grew out of a much larger cultural heartland, already ethnically Chinese. As the Chinese state expanded, especially to the south, it actively assimilated the non-Chinese or "barbarian" people. Similarities: ▪Both defined themselves in universal terms. ▪Both invested heavily in public works—roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, protective walls--to integrate their respective domains militarily and commercially. ▪Both invoked supernatural sanctions to support their rule. ▪Both absorbed a foreign religious tradition—Christianity in the Roman Empire and Buddhism in China ▪Politically, both empires established effective centralized control over vast regions and huge populations. Roman Empire: ▪Politically, the Roman administration was a somewhat ramshackle affair, relying more on regional elites and the army to provide cohesion. ▪Latin, an alphabetic language, depicting sounds, gave rise to various distinct languages— Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian—whereas Chinese did not. ▪Unlike the Chinese, the Romans developed an elaborate body of law, applicable equally to all people of the realm, dealing with matters of justice, property, commerce, and family life. ▪Christianity was born as a small sect of a small province in a remote corner of the empire. From there, it spread slowly for several centuries, mostly among the poor and lower classes; this process was considerably aided by the Pax Romana. After suffering intermittent persecution, it obtained state support from emperors the help shore up a weakening empire with a common religion. ▪Rome's beginnings as a small city-state meant that Romans, and even Italians, were always a distinct minority within the empire. ▪Gradually, and somewhat reluctantly, the Roman Empire granted Roman citizenship to various individuals, families, or whole communities for their service to the empire.

Footbinding

Chinese practice of tightly wrapping girls' feet to keep them small, begun in the Tang dynasty; an emphasis on small size and delicacy was central to views of female beauty (Original: p. 246-247; With Sources: p. 384)

14. What techniques or technologies did China export to other regions of Eurasia?

Chinese techniques for producing salt by solar evaporation spead to the Islamic world and later to Christian Europe. Papermaking, known in China since the Han dynasty, spread to Korea and Vietnam by the 4th century, to Japan and India by the 7th, to the Islamic world by the 8th, to Muslim Spain by 1150, to France and Germany in the 1300s, and to England in the 1490s. Printing, likewise a Chinese invention, rapidly reached Korea, where moveable type became a highly developed technique, and Japan as well. (Original: p. 259; With Sources:)

4. In what ways did women's lives change during the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties?

Chinese women of the Tang dynasty had greater freedom in their social lives. This was because of the influence of steppe nomads, whose women led less restricted lives. However, the revival of Confucianism and rapid economic growth of the Song resulted in the tightening of patriarchal restrictions on women, such as footbinding. In the textile industry, urban workshops and state factories increasingly took over the skilled tasks of weaving textiles that had previously been the work of rural women. Growing wealth and urban environments offered women opportunities as restaurant operators, sellers of vegetables and fish, maids, cooks, or dressmakers. The growing prosperity of elite families funneled increasing numbers of women into roles as concubines, entertainers, courtesans, and prostitutes. This trend reduced the ability of wives to negotiate as equals with their husbands, and it set women against one another. Some positive trends occurred during the Song Dynasty. Women saw their property rights expanded, and in some quarters, the education of women was advocated as a way to better prepare their sons for civil service exams. (Original: pp. 246-247; With Sources: pp. 384-385)

13. What were the sources of state authority in the First Civilizations?

Citizens recognized that the complexity of life in cities or densely populated territories required some authority to coordinated and regulate the community enterprises, such as irrigation and defense. State authorities frequently used forced to compel obedience. Authority was often associated with divine sanction. Writing and accounting helped state authority by defining elite status, conveying prestige on the literate, providing a means to disseminate propaganda, strengthening the state by making accurate record keeping possible, and giving added weight to orders, regulations, and laws. Perception of state authority and power was seen through its grand architecture, impressive rituals, and lavish lifestyles of the elite. (Original: pp. 69-72; With Sources: pp. 99-103)

15. Why did some Paleolithic peoples abandon earlier, more nomadic ways and begin to live more settled lives?

Climatic warming allowed many plants and animals, upon which humans relied, to flourish. The increased food stocks allowed some groups of humans to settle down and live in more permanent settlements. (Original: pp. 23-24; With Sources: p. 23-24)

14. Following the collapse of the Han Dynasty in the third century, what were the signs of a weakening patriarchy? Did patriarchy end in China?

Confucianism was discredited, while Daoism and Buddhism attracted a growing following. Pastoral and nomadic people invaded northern China and ruled a number of the small states that had replaced the Han government. The cultural influence of nomadic peoples, whose women were far less restricted than those of China, was noticed. Confucian-minded males criticized the adoption of nomadic styles of dress, makeup, and music. By the time of the Tang Dynasty (618-907), writers and artists depicted elite women as capable of handling legal and business affairs on their own and on occasion riding horses and playing polo, bareheaded and wearing men's clothing. Tang legal codes even recognized a married daughter's right to inherit property from her family of birth. A further sign of a weakening patriarchy that caused great distress to advocates of Confucian doctrine lay in the reign of Empress Wu, who was the first and only woman ever to rule China. With the support of Buddhism, Empress Wu governed despotically, but she consolidated China's civil service examination system for the selection of public officials and actively patronized scholarship and the arts, decreed that the mourning period for mothers be made equal to that of fathers, and ordered the creation of Chinese character for "human beings" that suggested the process of birth flowing from one woman without a prominent male role. The growing popularity of Daoism (and Buddhism) provided new images of the feminine and new roles for women. Daoist sects often featured women as priests, nuns, or reclusive mediators, able to receive cosmic truth and to use it for the benefit of others. Nevertheless, none of this meant an end to patriarchy, but it does suggest some change in tone and expression of that patriarchy. (Original: pp. 172-173; With Sources: pp. 254-255)

1. In what respects did Byzantium continue the patterns of the classical Roman Empire? In what ways did it diverge from those patterns?

Continued Patterns (Original: p. 271 and p. 276; With Sources: p. 427 and p. 432) Divergences (Original: pp. 272-273; With Sources: pp. 428-429) ▪Continuance can be seen in Byzantium's roads, military structures, centralized administration, imperial court, laws, and Christian organization ▪It can also be seen in Byzantium's pursuit of the long-term struggle with the Persian Empire. ▪Byzantium diverged through the development of a reformed administrative system that gave appointed generals civil authority in the empire's provinces and allowed them to raise armies from the landowning peasants of the region. ▪It also diverged through the new ideas encompassed in caesaropapism that defined the relationship between the state and the Church.

1. What were the changes and continuities in Second Wave Civilizations?

Continuities Changes ▪Monarchs continued to rule most of the new civilizations. ▪Men continued to dominate women. ▪A sharp divide between the elite and everyone else persisted almost everywhere ▪The practice of slavery continued. ▪Population grew more rapidly than ever before during this period. ▪States and empires expanded, growing in size, dwarfing in size the city-states of Mesopotamia and the Egypt of the pharaohs. ▪The rise and fall of empires had a dramatic effect on large populations inasmuch as that civilizations dissolved—for example the Mayans or Roman Empire. ▪New philosophical and religious systems provided the moral and spiritual framework within which people sought to order their lives and define their relationships to the mysteries of life and death. ▪China was the primary source of technological changes that included piston bellows, the draw-loom, silk-handling machinery, the wheelbarrows, a better harness for draft animals, the crossbow, iron casting, the iron chain suspension bridge, gunpowder, firearms, the magnetic compass, paper, printing, and porcelain. India pioneered the crystallization of sugar and techniques for the manufacture of cotton textiles. Roman technological achievements were apparent in construction and civil engineering—the building of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and fortifications—and in the art of glassblowing. ▪The emergence of a widespread and dense network of communication and exchange that connected many of the world's peoples to one another, especially through long-distance trade routes. (Original: pp. 88-91; With Sources: pp. 134-138)

3. Discuss the ways in which the Tang and Song Dynasties were regarded as the "Golden Age of Chinese Achievement."

Culturally—During this period, China reached a cultural peak, setting standards of excellence in poetry, landscape painting, and ceramics. Particularly during the Song Dynasty, there was an explosion of scholarship that gave rise to Neo-Confucianism. Population grew rapidly, from 50 million-60 million people during the Tang dynasty to 120 million by 1200, spurred in part by a remarkable growth in agricultural production. During this period, China possessed many cities of over 100,000 people and a capital at Hangzhou with a population of over a million people. Politically—the Tang and Song dynasties built a state structure that endured for a thousand years. Economically—These two dynasties experienced an economic revolution that made it the richest empire on earth. Industrial production soared and technological innovation flourished, including the invention of printing and gunpowder, along with innovations in navigation and shipbuilding that led the world. The economy of China became the most highly commercialized in the world, producing for the market rather than for local consumption. (Original: p. 244; With Sources: p. 382)

14. In what ways were women offered new opportunities between the 11th and 13th centuries?

Economic growth and urbanization offered European women substantial new opportunities. Women were active in weaving, brewing, milling grain, midwifery, small-scale retailing, laundering, spinning, and of course, prostitution. (Original: p. 284; With Sources: p. 440)

megafaunal extinction

Dying out of a number of large animal species, including the mammoth and several species of horses and camels, that occurred around 11,000-10,000 years ago at the end of the Ice Age. The extinction may have been caused by excessive hunting or by the changing climate of the era.

6. Even though China saw itself as "the center of the world," why did it allow itself to deal with the "barbarians?"

Educated Chinese saw their won society as self-sufficient, requiring little from the outside world, while barbarians, quite understandably, sought access to China's wealth and wisdom. Furthermore, China was willing to permit that access under controlled conditions, for its sense of superiority did not preclude the possibility that barbarians could become civilized. (Original: p. 249; With Sources: p. 387)

10. Compare the practice of slavery in ancient times from region to region.

Egypt and the Indus Valley civilizations initially had far fewer slaves than did Mesopotamia, which was highly militarized. Later, the Greeks of Athens and the Romans employed slaves far more extensively than did the Chinese or Indians. Furthermore, most ancient slavery differed from the type of slavery practiced in the Americas during recent centuries: in the early civilizations, slaves were not a primary agricultural labor force, many children of slaves could become free people, and slavery was not associated primarily with "blackness" or with Africa. (Original: pp. 65-66; With Sources: 95-96)

15. In what ways were Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations shaped by their interactions with near and distant neighbors?

Egyptian agriculture drew upon wheat and barley, which reached Egypt from Mesopotamia, as well as gourds, watermelons, domesticated donkeys, and cattle, which derived from Sudan. Some scholars argue that Egypt's steep pyramids and its system of writing were stimulated by Mesopotamian models. The practice of divine kingship seems to have derived form the central or eastern Sudan. Indo-Europeans Hittites—and pastoralists—Hyksos-- influenced both Egypt and Mesopotamia (Babylonia) by bringing with them the domesticated horse, wheeled carts, and chariot technology, which were introduced into their own military forces. The Egyptians absorbed foreign innovations, such as the horse-drawn chariot; new kinds of armor, bows, daggers, and swords; improved methods of spinning and weaving; new musical instruments; and olive and pomegranate trees. After expelling the Hyksos, the Egyptians went on to create their own empire, both in Nubia and in the eastern Mediterranean regions of Syria and Palestine. The Babylonian and Egyptian Empires were also bound together by marriage alliances as part of an international political system. (Original: pp. 79-81; With Sources: pp. 108-112)

Osiris

Egyptian god of the dead (Original: p. 79; With Sources: p. 108)

13. In what ways did the expression of Chinese patriarchy change over time, and why did it change in the first place?

Emerging Confucian ideology during the Han Dynasty played an important role in the evolving ideas about patriarchy in Chinese society. Long established patterns of thinking in terms of pairs of opposites wer now described in gendered and unequal terms, with the superior symbol of yang (associated with heaven, rulers, strength, rationality, and light) viewed as masculine and yin (associated with the earth, subjects, weakness, emotion, and darkness) viewed as feminine. Confucian thinkers emphasized the public and political roles of men in contrast to the domestic and private domain of women. The idea of the "three obediences" was also emphasized: it described a woman' subordination first to her father, then to her husband, and finally to her son. The Chinese woman writer Ban Zhao recorded how women were taught from birth that they were inferior and subordinated to men and should be passive and subservient in their relations with men. (Original: pp. 171-173; With Sources: pp. 253-255)

2. What is an empire and what does it do?

Empires are simply states, political systems that exercise coercive power. The term, however, is normally reserved for larger and more aggressive states, those that conquer, rule, and extract resources from other states and peoples. Thus, empires have generally encompassed a considerable variety of peoples and cultures within a single political system, and they have often been associated with political and cultural oppression. These imperial states governed by rulers culturally different from themselves, brought together people of quite different traditions and religions and so stimulated the exchange of ideas, cultures, and values. (Original: p. 98; With Sources: p. 144)

8. What was the reason for the Hundred Years' War? Did the Ming Dynasty experience a comparable conflict?

England and France fought intermittently for more that a century over rival claims to territory in France. Europe was a decidedly fragmented system of many separate, independent, and highly competitive states, which made for a sharply divided Christendom. Attempts at state building was driven by the needs of war— taxes to build and support armies. No. (Original: p. 372; With Sources: pp. 578-579)

13. Why did the exchange of diseases give Europeans a certain advantage?

Exposure over time had provided them with some degree of immunity to Eurasian diseases. (Original: p. 225; With Sources: p. 341)

11. What may have been the ecological and political factors of the Mayan demise?

Extremely rapid population growth after 600 C.E. pushed total Maya numbers to perhaps 5 million or more and soon outstripped available resources, resulting in deforestation and the erosion of hillsides. Under such conditions, climate change in the form of prolonged droughts in the 800s may well have triggered the collapse, while political disunity and endemic rivalries prevented a coordinated and effective response to the emerging catastrophe. Maya warfare in fact became more frequent as competition for increasingly scarce land for cultivation became sharper. (p. 195; With Sources: p. 295)

5. In what way were nomadic pastoralists connected to their agricultural neighbors and what did this stimulate?

Few nomadic peoples could live solely form the products of their animals, and most of them actively sought access to the foodstuffs, manufactured goods, and luxury items available from the urban workshops and farming communities of adjacent civilizations. This stimulated the creation of tribal confederations or nomadic states that could more effectively deal with the powerful agricultural societies on their borders. (Original: p. 336; With Sources: p. 524)

8. In the rival Mesopotamian cities, what was the role of female and male slaves?

Female slaves were put to work in large-scale semi-industrial weaving enterprises, while males helped to maintain irrigation canals and construct ziggurats. Other male and female slaves worked as domestic servants in the households of their owners. (Original: p. 65; With Sources: p. 95)

4. To where did humans migrate after they left Africa?

First to the Middle East and from there westward into Europe about 40,000 years ago and eastward into Asia (Original: p. 16; With Sources: p. 16)

10. Why were Arabs able to construct such a huge empire so quickly?

For the first time, a shared faith in Islam allowed the newly organized state to mobilize the military potential of the entire Arab nation. The Byzantine and Persian empires were weakened by decades of war with each other and by internal revolts. They also underestimated the Arab threat. Merchant leaders of the new Islamic community wanted to capture profitable trade routes and wealthy agricultural regions. Individual Arabs found in military expansion a route to wealth and social promotion. Expansion provided a common task for the Arab community, which reinforced the fragile unity of the umma. Arabs were motivated by a religious dimension, as many viewed the mission of empire in terms of jihad, bringing righteous government to the peoples they conquered. (Original: p. 308-310; With Sources: pp. 480-482)

7. Why did the Chinese government often give other states gifts that were in fact worth more than the tribute those states paid to China?

Foreigners seeking access to China had to send a delegation to the Chinese court, where they would perform the kowtow, a series of ritual bowings and prostrations, and present their tribute—produce of value form their countries—to the Chinese emperor. In return for these expressions of submission, he would grant permission for foreigners to trade in China's rich markets and would provide them with gifts or "bestowals," often worth far more than the tribute they had offered. This was the mechanism by which successive Chinese dynasties attempted to regulate their relationships with their neighboring peoples. (Original: pp. 249-250; With Sources: pp. 387-388)

Greek fire

Form of liquid fire that could be sprayed at eh enemy; invented by the Byzantines and very important in their efforts to halt the Arab advance into Byzantine territory. (Original: p. 276; With Sources: p. 432)

8. What was the route of migration into North America?

From Eastern Siberia, by land across the Bering Strait or by sea down the west coast of North America (Original: p. 18; With Sources: p. 18)

12. Why did Paleolithic societies have more leisure time?

Gathering and hunting people frequently worked fewer hours to meet their material needs than did people in agricultural or industrial societies and so had more leisure time. It wasn't because they had so much, but because they wanted or needed so little. (Original: p. 21; With Sources: p. 21)

20. Why was Europe unable to achieve the kind of political unity that China experienced? What impact did this have on the subsequent history of the European multi-centered political system?

Geographic barriers, ethnic and linguistic diversity, and the shifting balances of power among Europe's many states prevented the emergence of a single empire like that of China. As a result, European nations engaged in many conflicts and Europe was unable to achieve domestic peace for many centuries. (Original: p. 292; With Sources: p. 448)

6. The Silk Roads were land-based trade routes linking pastoral and agricultural peoples as well as large civilizations. How were goods transported along the Silk Roads to sustain the networks of exchange among its diverse people?

Goods were often carried in large camel caravans that traversed the harsh and dangerous steppes, deserts, and oases of Central Asia. (Original: p. 220; With Sources: p. 336)

Timbuktu

Great city of West Africa, noted in the 14th -16th centuries as a center of Islamic scholarship (Original: p. 381; With Sources: p. 587)

Modun

Great ruler of the Xiongnu Empire (ruled 210-174 B.C.E.) who created a centralized and hierarchical political system (Original: p. 338; With Sources: p. 526)

12. How did Greco-Roman slavery differ from that of other classical civilizations?

Greco-Roman society depended more on slaves than did other classical civilizations. There were more slaves in the Greco-Roman world than in other classical civilizations. Slaves participated in a greater number and range of occupations than in the other civilizations, from the highest and most prestigious positions to the lowest and most degraded. Slaves were excluded only from military service. (Original: pp. 167-169; With Sources: pp. 249-251)

Wudi

Han emperor (ruled 141-86 B.C.E.) who began the Chinese civil service system establishing an academy to train imperial bureaucrats (Original: p. 116; With Sources: p. 162)

6. Why did Prince Vladimir reject Islam and adopt Eastern Orthodox Christianity?

He actively considered Judaism, Islam, Roman Catholicism, and Greek Orthodoxy before finally deciding on the religion of Byzantium. He rejected Islam because it prohibited alcoholic drink and "drinking is the joy of the Ruses." (Original: p. 277; With Sources: p. 433)

5. How does Robert Carneiro approach the question of the rise of civilizations?

He argued that a growing density of population produced a crowded and competitive society that was a motivation for change, especially in areas where rich agricultural land was limited, either by geography or by powerful competing societies. Such settings provided incentives for innovations, such as irrigation or plows that could produce more food, because opportunities for territorial expansion were not readily available. Environments with dense populations led to intense competition among rival groups, which led to repeated warfare. Because losers couldn't easily flee to new lands, they were absorbed into the winner's society as a lower class. The successful leader of the winning side emerged as an elite with an enlarged base of land, a class of subordinated workers, and a powerful state at their disposal—in short, a civilization. (Original: p. 62; With Sources: p. 92)

2. What reforms were instituted under Emperor Wang Mang?

He ordered the great private estates to be nationalized and divided up among the landless. Government loans were available to peasant families. Limits were placed on the amount of land a family might own. He ended private slavery. (Original: p. 158; With Sources: p. 240)

10. What does one scholar suggest as a model for enslaving people?

He suggested that the early domestication of animals provided the model for enslaving people. (Original: p. 165; With Sources: p. 247)

17. How was Mongol rule in Persia different from that in China?

Heavy taxation pushed Persian peasants off their land, while Mongol herds of sheep and goats, and Mongol neglect of fragile underground water channels, did extensive damage to Persian agricultural land. The Mongol rulers in Persia were transformed far more than their counterparts in China were, as the Mongols made extensive use of the sophisticated Persian bureaucracy. Unlike what occurred in China, the Mongols who conquered Persia converted in large numbers to the local Muslim faith. A number of Mongols turned to farming and married local people, so when their rule in Persia collapsed, they were not driven out as they had been from China. Instead, they were assimilated into Persian society. (Original: p. 350-351; With Sources: pp. 538-539)

13. What was Chinggis Khan's mission?

His mission was to unite the Mongol tribes into a confederation and construct an empire that expanded into China, long a source of great wealth for nomadic peoples. (Original: p. 344-345; With Sources: pp. 532-533)

1. What was the first hominid species to use fire in a controlled fashion?

Homo erectus (Original: p. 13; With Sources: p. 13)

6. While sorghum was the first grain to be tamed in Eastern Africa, what plants were important crops in West Africa?

Important crops were yams, oil palm trees, okra, and the kola nut. (Original: p. 41; With Sources: p. 55)

Triple Alliance (1428)

In 1428, a Triple Alliance among the Mexica, ( who became the Aztecs), and two other nearby city-states launched a highly aggressive program of military conquest, which in less than 100 years brought more of Mesoamerica within a single political framework than ever before. (Original: p. 384; With Sources: p. 590)

11. What's the significance of the Trung Sisters in Vietnam?

In 39 C.E., an uprising was launched by two sisters, daughters of a local leader deposed by the Chinese. One of them, Trung Trac, whose husband had been executed, dressed in full military regalia and addressed some 30,000 soldiers. When the rebellion was crushed several years later, the Trung sisters committed suicide rather than surrender to the Chinese. In literature, monuments, and public memory, they long remained powerful symbols of Vietnamese resistance to Chinese aggression. (Original: p. 255; With Sources: p. 393)

17. What was the impact of the Abbasid rule after the overthrow of the Umayyad Dynasty?

In 750, the Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad and they presided over a flourishing and prosperous Islamic civilization in which non-Arabs, especially Persians, now played a prominent role. Persian cultural influence was reflected in a new title for he caliph, "the shadow of God on earth." But the political unity of the Abbasid Empire didn't last long. Beginning in the mid-ninth century, many local governors or military commanders effectively asserted the autonomy of their regions, while still giving formal allegiance to the caliph of Baghdad. The Islamic world had fractured politically into a series of sultanates, many ruled by Persian or Turkish military dynasties. (Original: p. 312-313; With Sources: pp. 484-485)

2. Why is Islam seen as the most influential of the new "third-wave civilizations?"

In Arabia, it was an expansive new civilization defined by its religion. The world of Islam came to encompass many other centers of civilization, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, the interior of West Africa and the coast of East Africa, Spain, southeastern Europe, and more. It was a civilization that came closer than any had ever come to uniting all mankind under its ideals. (Original: p. 210; With Sources: p. 326)

Oracle bones

In Chinese civilization, animal bones were heated and the cracks then interpreted as prophecies. The prophecies were written on the bone and provide our earliest written sources for ancient China. (Original: p. 60; With Sources: p. 90)

Dharma

In Indian belief, this is the performance of the duties appropriate to an individual's caste. Good performance will lead to rebirth in a higher caste. (Original: p. 163; With Sources: p. 245)

trance dance

In San culture, a nightlong ritual held to activate a human being's inner potency (n/um) to counteract the evil influences of gods and ancestors. The practice was apparently common to the Khoisan people of whom the Ju/'honsai are a surviving remnant.

10. With what Eurasian civilizations might the Maya be compared?

In its political dimensions, classical Maya civilization more closely resembled the competing city-states of ancient Mesopotamia or classical Greece, than the imperial structures of Rome, Persia, or China. (Original: pp. 194-195; With Sources: pp. 294-295)

Mita

Inca demands on their conquered people were expressed, not in terms of tribute, but as labor service known as mita, which was periodically required of every household. Almost everyone had to work for the state. Some worked on large farms which supported temples and religious institutions, others herded, mined, served in the military, or toiled on state-directed projects. What people produced at home, stayed at home. (Original: p. 387; With Sources: p. 593)

10. What were the differences between the Chinese and European oceangoing ventures?

In terms of size, European oceangoing vessels were miniscule compared to Zheng He's hundreds of ships and crew in the many thousands. Columbus captained three ships and a crew of 90, while da Gama had four ships, manned by perhaps 170 sailors. Motivations were also different. Europeans were seeking the wealth of Africa and Asia. They were also in search of Christian converts and of possible allies with whom to continue their long crusading struggle against threatening Muslim powers. China faced no equivalent power, needed no military allies in the Indian Ocean basin, and required little that these regions produced. China did not want to convert foreigners to Chinese culture and religion as the Europeans did. China did not seek conquests or colonies as did the Europeans. China wanted to end its voyages—they led nowhere, really, whereas the initial European expeditions were the beginning of a journey to world power. (Original: p. 375; With Sources: pp. 581-582)

Hangul

In the 1400s, Korea moved toward greater cultural independence by developing a phonetic alphabet, known as hangul, for writing the Korean language. (Original: p. 254; With Sources: p. 392)

3. Why didn't pastoralism emerge in the Americas?

In the Americas, the absence of large animals that could be domesticated precluded a herding economy, so they had to adopt and shape their societies according to diverse environments. (Original: p. 334; With Sources: p. 522)

Upanishads

Indian mystical and philosophical works, written between 800 and 400 B.C.E. (Original: 133-134; With Sources: pp. 197-198)

2. Where did Homo sapiens first emerge?

In the grasslands of Eastern and Southern Africa (Original: p. 12; With Sources: p. 12)

7. How did India's caste system differ from China's class system?

India's caste system gave priority to religious status and ritual purity (the Brahmins), whereas China elevated political officials to the highest of elite positions. The caste system divided Indian society into vast numbers of distinct social groups; China had fewer, but broader categories of society— scholar-gentry, landlords, peasants, merchants. India's caste society defined these social groups far more rigidly and with even less opportunity for social mobility than in China. (Original: p. 164; With Sources: p. 246)

16. What region became the center (fulcrum) of the Indian Ocean commercial network?

India. Its ports bulged with goods from both west and east. Its merchants were in touch with Southeast Asia by the first century C.E. and settled communities of Indian traders appeared throughout the Indian Ocean basin and as far away as Alexandria in Egypt (Original: p. 227; With Sources: pp. 343-344)

16. Give examples of Ashoka's reign over the Mauryan Empire.

Initially a ruthless leader (268-232 B.C.E.) in expanding the empire, Ashoka converted to Buddhism after a particularly bloody battle and turned his attention to more peaceful ways of governing his huge empire. His decrees outlined a philosophy of nonviolence and of toleration for the many sects of the extremely varied religious culture of India. Ashoka abandoned his royal hunts and ended animal sacrificed in the capital, eliminated most meat from the royal menu, and generously supported Buddhist monasteries and stupas. He ordered the digging of wells, the planting of shade trees, and the building of rest stops along the empire's major highways—all of which served to integrate the kingdom's economy. He retained the power to punish wrongdoing, and the death penalty remained intact. Ashoka's policies were good politics as well as good morality. They were an effort to develop an inclusive and integrative moral code for an extremely diverse realm. (Original: pp. 120-121; With Sources: pp. 166-167)

8. What new technologies were adapted or invented by pastoral societies?

Innovations included the complex horse harness, the saddle with iron stirrups, a small compound bow that could be fired from horseback, various forms of armor, and new kinds of swords. (Original: p. 337-338; With Sources: p. 525)

24. Compare some factors that inhibited the development of long-distance exchange networks in the Americas, as opposed to Eurasia.

Interactions between civilizations were limited because of the absence of horses, donkeys, camels. Wheeled vehicles, and large ocean-going vessels, all of which facilitated long-distance trade and travel in Afro-Eurasia Geographic or environmental differences added further obstacles. The narrow bottleneck of Panama, largely covered by dense rain forests, surely inhibited contact between North and South America. Furthermore, the north/south orientation of the Americas—which required agricultural practices to move through, and adapt to, quite distinct climatic and vegetation zones—slowed the spread of agricultural products. By contrast, the east/west axis of Eurasia meant that agricultural innovations could diffuse more rapidly because they were entering roughly similar environments. (Original: p. 236; With Sources: pp. 351-352)

3. How does the core message of Islam compare with that of Judaism and Christianity?

Islam is monotheistic, as is Judaism and Christianity. Allah is the only God, the all-powerful Creator. As the "messenger of God," Muhammad presented himself in the tradition of earlier prophets like Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Like the Jewish prophets and Jesus, Muhammad demanded social justice and laid out a prescription for its implementation. (Original: p. 304-305; With Sources: pp. 476-477)

22. Identify some similarities and differences in the spread of Islam to India, Anatolia, West Africa, and Spain. (Hint: How did Islam spread and was it the dominant faith?)

Islam spread to India, Anatolia, and Spain in part through force of arms of Islamic armies, while Islam arrived in West Africa with Muslim traders. Sufis facilitated conversions by accommodating local traditions, especially in India and Anatolia, but played little role in West Africa until at least the 18th century. In India, West Africa, and Spain, Islam became one of several faiths within the wider culture, while in Anatolia it became the dominant faith. (Original: pp. 317-323; With Sources: pp. 489-495)

2. What was the importance of "intensification" in the Neolithic Age?

It meant getting more for less, in this case more food resources—far more—from a much smaller area of land than was possible with a gathering and hunting technology. More food meant more people. Growing populations in turn required an even greater need for the intensive exploitation of the environment. It was the continuing human effort to subdue the earth. (Original: p. 37; With Sources: p. 51)

4. Why did the message of the Quran challenge the tribal and clan structure of Arab society?

It not only challenged the ancient polytheism of Arab religion and the social injustices of Mecca but also the entire tribal and clan structure of Arab society, which was so prone to war, feuding, and violence. (Original: p. 305; With Sources: p. 477)

7. Why did Han China extend its authority westward?

It sought to control the nomadic Xiongnu and to gain access to the powerful "heavenly horses" that were so important to Chinese military forces. (Original: p. 220; With Sources: p. 336)

4. How was Athenian democracy different from modern democracy?

It was a direct democracy, rather than representative, and it was distinctly limited. Women, slaves, and foreigners, together far more than half the population, were totally excluded from political participation. (Original: p. 104; With Sources: p. 150)

20. In the case of Southeast Asia, why didn't imperial control accompany Indian cultural influence?

It was a matter of voluntary borrowing by independent societies that found Hindu or Buddhist ideas useful and were free to adapt those ideas to their own needs and cultures. (Original: p. 230; With Sources: p. 346)

5. How was Indian society divided? How did the Vaisya and Sudra classes change? What class ranked lower than the Sudras?

It was divided into four great classes known as varna. Everyone was born into and remained within one of these classes for life. At the top of this hierarchical system were the Brahmins— priests whose rituals and sacrifices alone could ensure the proper functioning of the world. Next was the Ksatriya class—warriors and rulers charged with protecting and governing society. This was followed by the Vaisya class—originally commoners who cultivated the land. These three classes came to be regarded as pure Aryans and were called the "twice born," for they experienced not only a physical birth but also a formal initiation into their respective varnas and status as people of Aryan descent. The fourth group was the Sudras—native peoples incorporated into the margins of Aryan society in very subordinate positions. Regarded as servants of their social betters, they were not allowed to her or repeat the Vedas or to take part in Aryan rituals. Vaisya—originally cultivators—evolved into a business class that included merchants. Sudras became the domain of peasant farmers. The lowest class was the Untouchables—these people did the work considered most unclean and polluting, such as cremating corpses, dealing with the skin of dead animals, and serving as executioners. (Original: pp. 161-162; With Sources: pp. 243-244)

6. Why was Jenne-jeno important?

It was important because it was a transshipment point in which goods were transferred from boat to donkey or vice versa in the long-distance trade network of the western Sahara. (Original: p. 189; With Sources: p. 289)

4. What is the fundamental assertion of philosophical Hinduism?

It was that the individual human soul, or atman, was in fact a part of Brahman—the World Soul, the final and ultimate reality. Beyond the quest for pleasure, wealth, power, and social position, the final goal of humankind was to unite with Brahman to end our illusory perception of a separate existence—to become one with the surrounding atmosphere. This was moksha, or liberation of one's self. (Original: p. 134; With Sources: p. 198)

1. What is Africa's one distinctive environmental feature?

It's bisected by the equator and is the most tropical of the world's three supercontinents. (Original: p. 184; With Sources: p. 284)

12. In what ways did Teotihuacan shape the history of Mesoamerica?

Its military conquests brought many regions into its political orbit and made Teotihuacán a presence in the Maya civilization. It was at the center of a large trade network. The architectural and artistic styles of the city were imitated across Mesoamerica. (Original: pp. 195-197; With Sources: pp. 295-297)

21. In what ways was Christianity transformed in the five centuries following the death of Jesus?

Jesus became divine in the eyes of his followers. Christianity developed from a small Jewish sect into a world religion that included non-Jews. It spread throughout the Roman Empire, at first via the lower-class, and then Roman rulers used its popularity as glue to hold together a diverse population in a weakening imperial state. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the fourth century, and all polytheistic religions were banned. Christianity adopted elements of religious practice as it spread. It developed a hierarchical organization, with patriarchs, bishops, and priests. It ultimately developed a patriarchal, male-dominated clergy. Ultimately, permanent divisions formed because of the disunity in matters of doctrine and practice. (Original: pp. 147-150; With Sources: pp. 211-214)

1. What three major schools of thought emerged from the Warring States period (403-221 B.C.E.), what were their guidelines and beliefs, and with whom were they associated?

Legalism—was a philosophy that spelled out and strictly enforced rules or laws through a system of rewards and punishments. Legalists had a pessimistic view of human nature. Most people were stupid and shortsighted. Only the state and its rulers could act in their long-term interests. Legalists regarded farmers and soldiers as necessary because they performed essential functions, while suppressing artisans, merchants, aristocrats, scholars, and other classes who were seen as useless. Han Feizi Confucianism—was very different from Legalism. Not laws and punishments, but the moral example of superiors was the Confucian key to a restored social harmony after the Zhou and Qin dynasties. For Confucius, human society consisted primarily of unequal relationships as expressed through filial piety. If the superior party in each of the relationships behaved with sincerity, benevolence, and genuine concern for others, then the inferior party would be motivated to respond with deference and obedience. Harmony would then prevail. He emphasized the importance of education, striving for moral improvement, and good government. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) Daoism—was associated with the legendary figure Laozi. In many ways, Daoism ran counter to that of Confucianism regarding those ideas as artificial and useless, and making things worse. Daoists urged withdrawal into the world of nature and encouraged behavior that was spontaneous, individualistic, and natural, whereas Confucius focused on the world of human relationships. Daoism invited people to withdraw from the world of politics and social activism, to disengage from the public life, and to align themselves with way of nature. It meant simplicity in living, in small self-sufficient communities, in limited government, and the abandonment of education and active efforts at self-improvement. (Original: pp. 128-132; With Sources: pp. 192-197)

11. What were some similarities between the Roman Catholic Church and the Buddhist establishment in China?

Like the Buddhist establishment in China, the Church later became extremely wealthy, with reformers accusing it of forgetting its central spiritual mission. With the wealth and protection of the powerful, ordinary people followed their rulers into the fold of the Church. This process was similar to Buddhism's appeal for the nomadic rulers of northern and western China following the collapse of the Han Dynasty. Christianity, like Buddhism, also bore the promise of superior supernatural powers, and its spread was frequently associated with reported miracles of healing, rainfall, fertility, and victory in battle. (Original: p. 281; With Sources: p. 437)

17. How were Afro-Eurasian peoples linked to one another by the fifteenth century and how was this changing?

Long established patterns of trade linked these people but by the 15th century the balance among them was changing. The Silk Roads overland trade network slowed down in the 15th century as the Mongol Empire broke up and the devastation of the plague reduced demand for its products. The rise of the Ottoman Empire also blocked direct commercial contact between Europe and China, but oceanic trade form Japan, Korea, and China through the islands of Southeast Asia and across the Indian Ocean picked up considerably. Larger ships made it possible to trade in bulk goods such as grain as well as luxury products. (Original: p. 389; With Sources: p. 595)

20. Beyond the devastation of a greatly decreased population, what were the longer-term changes in European society and what were the larger consequences from the impact of the plague?

Longer-term changes were labor shortages that provoked conflict between scarce workers, who sought higher wages or better conditions, and the rich, who resisted such demands. A series of peasant revolts in the 14th century reflected this tension, which also undermined the practice of serfdom. Also, that labor shortage may have fostered a greater interest in technological innovations, and created more employment opportunities for women. A larger consequence was the demise of the Mongol Empire's network of trade in the 14th and 15th centuries. Population decreased, cities declined, and the volume of trade diminished all across the Mongol world. By 1350, the Mongol Empire was in disarray, and within a century, the Mongols had lost control of Chinese, Persian, and Russian civilizations. The Central Asian trade route, so critical to the entire AfroEurasian world economy, largely closed. (Original: p. 358; With Sources: pp. 546-547)#

Tikal

Major Maya city with a population of perhaps 50,000 people. (Original: p. 194; With Sources: p. 294)

13. What was the importance of Malacca?

Malacca was strategically located on the waterway between Sumatra and Malaya. During the 15th century, it was transformed from a small fishing village to a major Muslim port city and became a springboard for the spread of Islam throughout the region. The Islam of Malacca, however, demonstrated much blending with the local Hindu/Buddhist traditions. Malacca, like Timbuktu, became a center for Islamic learning. (Original: p. 382; With Sources: p. 588)

5. Why did the Chinese interact with their nomadic neighbors to the north?

Many nomadic pastoral or semi-agricultural peoples of the steppes lived in areas unable to sustain Chinese-style farming. They focused their economies around the raising of livestock and the mastery of horse riding. These kin-based groups periodically created much larger and powerful states that could draw on military skills when necessary. Such specialized pastoral societies needed grain and other agricultural products from China, and their leaders developed a taste for Chinese manufactured and luxury goods—wine and silk for example—with which they could attract and reward followers. Yet, the Chinese needed the nomads for their horses, so essential for the Chinese military, as well as skins, furs, amber and other products. (Original: p. 248-249; With Sources: pp. 386-387)

Samarai

Members of Japan's warrior class, which developed as political power became increasingly decentralized. (Original: p. 257; With Sources: p. 395)

12. How did Mesopotamia and Egyptian patriarchy differ from each other?

Mesopotamia: By 2,000 B.C.E, various written laws codified and sought to enforce a patriarchal family life that offered women a measure of paternalistic protection while insisting on their submission to the unquestioned authority of men. Central to these laws was the regulation of female sexuality. Women in Mesopotamia were sometimes divided into two sharply distinguished categories. Respectable women, those under the protection and sexual control of one man, were required to be veiled when outside the home, whereas non-respectable women, such as slaves and prostitutes, were forbidden to do so and were subject to severe punishment if they presumed to cover their heads. The powerful goddesses of early times were gradually relegated to the home and hearth and were replaced by dominant male deities, who now were credited with the power of creation and fertility and viewed as the patrons of wisdom and learning. Egypt: Egypt, while clearly patriarchal, afforded its women grater opportunities than did most other First Civilizations. Women were recognized as legal equals to men, able to own property and slaves, to administer and sell land, to make their own wills, to sign their own marriage contracts, and to initiate divorce. Royal women occasionally exercised significant political power, acting as regents for their young sons or more rarely as queens in their own right. Married women in Egypt were not veiled as in Mesopotamia. Statues and paintings often showed men and women in affectionate poses and as equal partners. (Original: pp. 67-68; With Sources: pp. 97-98)

14c. Compare and Contrast Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations' culture. (Original: pp. 73-78; With Sources: pp. 103-108)

Mesopotamians viewed humankind as caught in an inherently disorderly world, subject to the whims of capricious and quarreling gods, and facing death without much hope of a life beyond. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, death is described as a journey from which there is no turning back with no hope of light or sustenance. Perhaps it was their environment that gave them this bleak outlook on life and death. By contrast, elite literate culture in Egypt, produced a rather more cheerful and hopeful outlook on the world, perhaps because of its more predictable, stable, and beneficent environment. The rebirth of the sun every day and of the river every year seemed to assure Egyptians that life would prevail over death.

Yuan Dynasty

Mongol dynasty that rule China from 1271-1368; created under Khubilai Khan, its name means "great beginnings" (Original: p. 348 ; With Sources: p. 536)

13. What eventually happened to Western Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire?

Most of Western Europe dissolved into a highly decentralized political system involving kings with little authority, nobles, knights and vassals, various city-states in Italy, and small territories ruled by princes, bishops, or the pope. From this point on, Europe would be a civilization without a surrounding imperial state. (Original: p. 118; With Sources: pp. 164-165)

Johannes Gutenberg

Moveable type was re-invented by this man in the 15th century and he printed the largest Bible in the vernacular of the Germanic people, at that time. (Original: p. 259; With Sources: p. 397)

24. Why was commerce in the Islamic world valued as a positive thing?

Muhammad himself had been a trader, and the pilgrimage to Mecca likewise fostered commerce. The extraordinary spurt of urbanization that accompanied the growth of Islamic civilization also promoted trade. (Original: p. 325; With Sources: p. 497)

1. How were the new civilizations different from the earlier agricultural villages, pastoral societies, and chiefdoms?

New civilizations encompassed far larger populations. In these cities, people were organized and controlled by powerful states whose leaders could use force to compel obedience. Profound differences in economic function, skill, wealth, and status sharply divided the people of civilizations, making them far less equal, and subject to much greater oppression, than had been the case in the earlier societies. (Original: p. 56; With Sources: p. 86)

6. Why was constructing large empires among pastoralists no easy task?

Nomadic pastoral societies generally lacked the wealth needed to buy professional armies and bureaucracies that everywhere sustained the states and empires of agricultural civilizations. Additionally, the fierce independence of widely dispersed pastoral clans and tribes, as well as their internal rivalries, made an enduring political unity difficult to achieve. (Original: p. 337; With Sources: p. 525)

11. Fill in the chart. (Original: pp. 378-380; With Sources: pp. 584-586)

OTTOMAN EMPIRE SAFAVID EMPIRE POLITICAL Turkic Ottomans claimed the legacy of the earlier Abbasid Empire and sought to bring a renewed unity to the Islamic world. They also saw themselves as successors to the Roman Empire. In 1529, they laid siege to Vienna in the heart of Central Europe to expand their empire and Islam. Politically cohesive Periodic military conflict erupted between these 2 empires, reflecting both territorial rivalry and sharp religious differences. East of the Ottoman Empire, this Islamic state was created by a Turkic leader who was from a Sufi religious order. By 1550, the Safavid Empire decided to forcibly impose a Shia version of Islam as the official religion of the state. Politically cohesive Military power RELIGION Islam--Sunni Other religions tolerated The seizure of Constantinople in 1453 marked the end of Christian Byzantium. Islam—Shia By 1500, the empire decided to forcibly impose a Shia version of Islam as the official religion of the state.

15. What was a reason offered for the change in women's opportunities by the 15th century?

Opportunities for women were declining because most women's guilds were gone, and women were restricted or banned from any others. Even brothels were run by men. Technological progress may have been one reason for this change. Water and animal-powered grain mills replaced the hand-grinding previously done by women, and larger looms making heavier cloth replaced the lighter looms that women had worked. Men increasingly took over these positions and trained their sons as apprentices, so they took these jobs away from women. (Original: p. 285; With Sources: pp. 440-441)

Pure Land Buddhism

One of the most popular forms of Buddhism in China, in which faithfully repeating the name of an earlier Buddha, the Amitabha, was sufficient to ensure rebirth in a beautifully described heavenly realm, the Pure Land. In its emphasis on salvation by faith, without arduous study or meditation, Pure Land Buddhism became a highly popular and authentically Chinese version of the Indian faith. (Original: p. 264; With Sources: p. 402)

9. What happened to trade in Western Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E.?

Outside Italy, long-distance trade dried up as Roman roads deteriorated, and money exchange gave way to barter in many places. (Original: p. 279; With Sources: p. 435)

11. How could outsiders become Masai?

Outsiders could become Masai, and many did so by obtaining a herd of cattle, by joining a Masai age-set, by learning the language, or by giving a woman in marriage to a Masai man and receiving "bride-wealth" in cattle in return. (Original: p. 341; With Sources: p. 529)

13. Why didn't the Japanese succeed in creating an effective centralized and bureaucratic state to match that of China?

Over many centuries, the Japanese combined what they had assimilated form China with elements of their own tradition into a distinctive Japanese civilization, which differed from Chinese culture in many ways. Although the court and the emperor retained an important ceremonial and cultural role, their real political authority over the country gradually diminished in favor of competing aristocratic families, both at court and in the provinces. As political power became increasingly decentralized, local authorities developed their own military forces. (Original: p. 257; With Sources: p. 395)

12. Describe the 3 different kinds of societies that emerged out of the Agricultural Revolution. Who were they? How were they organized?

Pastoral Societies: These were in regions where farming was difficult or impossible. The people came to depend on their animals, such as sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels, or reindeer. These people, known as herders, pastoralists, or nomads, emerged in Central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, the Sahara, and in parts of eastern and southern Africa. What they had in common was mobility, for they moved seasonally as they followed the changing patterns of vegetation necessary as pasture for their animals. Although organized primarily in kinship-based clans or tribes, these nomads periodically created powerful military confederations, which played a major role in the history of Eurasia for thousands of years. Agricultural Village Societies: These were settled village-based farmers. Such societies retained much of the equality and freedom of hunting and gathering communities, as they continued to do without kings, chiefs, bureaucrats, or aristocracies. These societies organized themselves in terms of kinship groups or lineages, which incorporated large numbers of people well beyond the immediate or extended family. Such people traced their descent through either the male or the female line to some common ancestor, real or mythical. This system provided the framework within which many people could make and enforce rules, maintain order, and settle disputes without going to war. Despite their democratic qualities and the absence of a central authority, village-based lineage societies developed modest social and economic inequalities. Elders could exploit junior members of their village and sought to control women's reproductive powers, which were essential for the growth of the lineage. Chiefdoms: In this kind of an agricultural society, chiefdoms were inherited positions of power and privilege which introduced a more distinct element of inequality. Since chiefs could seldom use force to compel the obedience of their subjects, they relied on their generosity of gift giving, their ritual status, or their personal charisma to persuade their followers. Chiefs usually derived from a senior lineage, tracing their descent to the first son of an ancestor. With both religious and secular functions, chiefs led important rituals and ceremonies, organized the community for warfare, directed its economic life, and sought to resolve internal conflicts. They collected tribute from commoners in the form of food, manufactured goods, and raw materials. These items in turn were redistributed to warriors, craftsmen, religious specialists, and other subordinates, while the chief kept enough to maintain his position. (Original: pp. 48-52; With Sources: pp. 62-66)

9. How did the impact of the long-distance trade of silk economically and socially affect the Chinese peasants?

Peasants in the Yangzi River delta of southern China sometimes gave up the cultivation of food crops, choosing to focus instead on producing silk, paper, porcelain, lacquer-ware, or iron tools, much of which was destined for the markets of the Silk Roads. In this way the impact of long-distance trade trickled down to affect the lives of ordinary farmers. (Original: p. 222; With Sources: p. 338)

3. How did the scholar gentry view the peasants?

Peasants were the solid productive backbone of the country, and their hard work and endurance in the face of difficulties were worthy of praise. (Original: p. 160; With Sources:)

15. Why do you think many Greek intellectuals abandoned this mythical religious framework?

Perhaps they wanted to bring some order to their understanding of the world, by affirming that the world was a physical reality governed by natural laws, and to assert that human rationality could both understand these laws and work out a system of moral and ethical life. (Original: p. 141; With Sources: p. 205)

10. What replaced the Roman order in Western Europe?

Politically, the Roman imperial order collapsed, to be replaced by a series of regional kingdoms ruled by Germanic warlords. However, these states maintained some Roman features, including written Roman law and the use of fines and penalties to provide order and justice. Some of the larger Germanic kingdoms, including the Carolingian Empire and the empire of Otto I of Saxony, also had aspirations to recreate something of the unity of the Roman Empire, although these kingdoms were short-lived and unsuccessful in reviving anything like Roman authority. In the West, a social system developed that ws based on reciprocal ties between greater and lesser lords among the warrior elites, which replaced the Roman social structure. Roman slavery gave way to serfdom. The Roman Catholic Church increased its influence over society. (Original: pp. 279-281; With Sources: pp. 435-438)

3. How did the Persian and Greek civilizations differ in their political organization and values?

Persians: The Persians built an imperial political system that drew upon previous Mesopotamian polities, including the Babylonian and Assyrian empires. The Persian Empire was larger than its predecessors, stretching from Egypt to India, and ruled over 35 million subjects. The empire was centered on an elaborate cult of kingship in which the emperor was secluded in royal magnificence and was approachable only through an elaborate ritual. Emperors were considered absolute in their power and possessed divine right to rule by the will of the Persian god Ahura Mazda. They had an effective administration system that placed Persian governors, called satraps, in each of 23 provinces, while lower-level officials were drawn from local authorities. This system was monitored by imperial spies. Persia's rule of its many conquered peoples was strengthened by a policy of respect for the empire's non-Persian cultural traditions. Greeks: In contrast, the Greek political organization was based on hundreds of independent city-states or small settlements of between 500-5,000 male citizens. The Greeks didn't build an empire but did expand through the establishment of colonies around the Mediterranean and Black seas. Participation in Greek political culture was based on the unique ideas of "citizenship," of free people running the affairs of state, and of equality for all citizens before the law. Political participation in Greek city-states was much wider than in Persia, but it varied considerably between city-states and over time. Early on, only the wealthy and wellborn had the rights of full citizenship, but middle and lower-class men gradually obtained these rights in some city-states. Participation wasn't universal but was widest in Athens. The reforming leader, Solon, took Athenian politics in amore democratic direction to break the hold of a small group of aristocratic families. Public office was open to a wider group of men and even the poorest could serve. Athenian democracy was direct rather than representative. Nonetheless, women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from the political process. (Original: pp. 99-103; With Sources: pp. 145-150)

15. Why were centralized empires so much less prominent in India than in China?

Politically, the civilization emerged as a fragmented collection of towns and cities. Indian empires failed to command the kind of loyalty or exercise the degree of influence that Chinese empires did. An astonishing range of ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity characterized this civilization, as an endless variety of peoples frequently invaded and migrated into India from Central Asia across the mountain passes in the northwest. In contrast to China, India's social structure, embodied in the caste system linked to occupational groups, made for intensely local loyalties at the expense of wider identities that might have fostered empires. (Political fragmentation and vast cultural diversity) (Original: p. 119 and p. 121; With Sources: pp. 165-167)

4. In what political, economic, and cultural ways was the Byzantine Empire linked to a wider world?

Political—On a political and military level, Byzantium continued the long-term struggle with the Persian Empire. Economic—Economically, the Byzantine Empire was a central player in the long-distance trade of Eurasia, with commercial links to Western Europe, Russia, Central Asia, the Islamic world, and China. Cultural—Culturally, Byzantium preserved much of ancient Greek learning and transmitted this classical heritage to both the Islamic world and the Christian West. Byzantine religious culture spread widely among Slavic-speaking peoples in the Balkans and Russia. (Original: p. 276; With Sources: p. 432)

13. In what ways did European civilization change after 1000, during the High Middle Ages?

Population grew; new lands had to be opened for cultivation to accommodate the population growth; growth in long-distance trade; population of towns grew on the sites of older Roman towns; these towns gave rise to and attracted ne groups of people, particularly merchants, bankers, artisans, and university-trained professionals such as lawyers, doctors, and scholars. (Original: p. 282-284; With Sources: pp. 438-440)

4. In what ways did pastoral societies differ from their agricultural counterparts?

Population—Pastoral societies generally had less productive economies and needed large grazing areas for their stock. This meant that they supported far smaller populations than did agricultural societies. Family unit—Pastoralists generally lived in small and widely scattered encampments of related kinfolk rather than in villages, towns, and cities. Social structure—Beyond the family unit, pastoral peoples organized themselves in kinship-based groups or clans that claimed a common ancestry, usually through the male line. Related clans might come together as a tribe, which could also absorb unrelated people into the community. Although values stressing equality and individual achievement were strong, in some pastoral societies clans were ranked as noble or commoner and considerable differences emerged between wealthy aristocrats owning large flocks of animals and poor herders. Status of women—Nomadic societies generally offered women a higher status, fewer restrictions, and a greater role in public life than their sisters in agricultural civilizations enjoyed. Most characteristic feature—The most characteristic feature of pastoral societies was their mobility. As people frequently on the move, they are often referred to as nomads because they shifted their herds in regular patterns. (Original: pp. 334-335; With Sources: pp.522-524)

Quipus

Quipus were colored knotted cords that served as an accounting device that recorded births, deaths, marriages, and other population data. (Original: p. 386; With Sources: p. 593)

10. Where was agriculture sometimes resisted? Why?

Resistance to agriculture occurred in areas that were unsuitable to farming or in regions of particular natural abundance where the population did not need to farm intensively. It also helped to not be in the direct line of an advancing, more powerful agricultural people. Many hunters and gatherers knew of the farming practices of their nearby neighbors but chose to resist them, preferring the freer life of their Paleolithic ancestors. (Original: p. 46; With Sources: p. 60)

12. How was the collapse of the Roman Empire different from the Han Empire in China?

Roman Empire: The Roman Empire ended in 476 C.E. after a long decline; only the western half collapsed; the Eastern Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire and maintained a tradition of Imperial Rome for another 1,000 years. Unlike the nomadic groups in China, who largely assimilated Chinese culture, Germanic kingdoms in Europe developed their own ethnic identity—Visigoths, Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and others—even as they followed Roman laws and adopted Roman Christianity. The population decline by 25% over two centuries meant diminished production, less revenue for the state, and fewer men available for the defense of the empire's long frontiers. In the western part of the Roman Empire, no large-scale, centralized, imperial authority, encompassing all of Western Europe, has ever been successfully reestablished for any length of time. Han Empire: The Han Dynasty ended in 220 C.E. after a long period of corruption, peasant unrest, and a major peasant revolt in 184 C.E. Internal problems were combined with external problems, as was the Roman Empire. There was an added growing threat from nomadic or semi-agricultural peoples occupying the frontier regions of both empires. The Chinese had built the Great Wall to keep out the Xiongnu and other nomadic tribes in the north. Various ways of dealing with these people was developed but over time the Han dynasty weakened and a succession of "barbarian states" had been set up in north China. Many of these rulers were assimilated into Chinese culture. The most significant difference between the collapse of the Roman and Chinese empires was what happened in China after the Han Dynasty. After 350 years of disunion, disorder, frequent warfare, and political chaos, a Chinese imperial state, similar to the Han dynasty, was reassembled under the Sui, Tan, and Song dynasties. Once again a single emperor ruled; a bureaucracy selected by examinations governed; and the ideas of Confucius informed the political system. (Original: pp. 117-118; With Sources: pp. 163- 165)

17th Article Constitution

Shotoku Taisha issued the Seventeen Article Constitution, proclaiming the Japanese ruler as a Chinese-style emperor and encouraging both Buddhism and Confucianism. In good Confucian fashion, the document emphasized the moral quality of rulers as a foundation for social harmony. (Original: p. 256; With Sources: p. 394)

Charlemagne

Ruler of the Carolingian Empire (ruled 768-814), who staged an imperial revival in Western Europe. (Original: p. 280; With Sources: p. 436)

8. Why did Russian leaders proclaim the doctrine of a "third Rome?"

Russian leaders believed the original Rome had betrayed the faith, and the second Rome, Constantinople, had succumbed to Muslim infidels. Moscow was now the third Rome, the final protector and defender of true Orthodox Christianity. This notion reflected the "Russification" of Eastern Orthodoxy and its growing role as an element of Russian national identity. (Original: p. 278; With Sources: p. 434)

12. Fill in the chart. (Original: pp. 380-382; With Sources: pp. 586-589)

SONGHAY MUGHAL POLITICAL A monarch—Sonni Ali--who gave alms and fasted during Ramadan in proper Islamic style. It was a substantial Islamic state on the African frontier of a still expanding Muslim world Military power Created by an Islamized Turkic group. Had inclusive policies to accommodate the Hindu subjects Military power RELIGION Islam was a growing faith in Songhay but it was limited largely to urban cities. Islam and Hindu Provided religious autonomy for Christians

Kami

Sacred spirits associated with ancestors and various natural phenomena. Much later referred to as Shinto, this tradition provided legitimacy to the imperial family based on claims of descent from the sun goddess. Because veneration of the kami lacked an elaborate philosophy or ritual, it conflicted very little with Buddhism. In fact, numerous kami were assimilated into Japanese Buddhism as local expressions of Buddhist deities or principles. (Original: p. 257-258; With Sources: p. 395)

2. In what regions did pastoralists/herders shape their societies?

Such societies took place in the vast grasslands of Inner Eurasia and sub-Saharan Africa, in the Arabian and Saharan desert, in the subarctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and in the high plateau of Tibet. (Original: p. 334; With Sources: p. 522)

1. Why was the location of Arabia important?

Scattered oases, the highlands of Yemen, and interior mountains supported sedentary village-based agriculture, and in the northern and southern regions of Arabia, small kingdoms had flourished in earlier times. Arabia also sat astride increasingly important trade routes, which connected the Indian Ocean world with that of the Mediterranean Sea and gave rise to cosmopolitan commercial cities, whose values and practices were often in conflict with those of traditional Arab tribes. (Original: p. 303; With Sources: pp. 474-475)

3. How were settlements in Africa planned?

Settlements were planned around the seasonal movement of game and fish. (Original: p. 13; With Sources: p. 13)

17. What are the features of the Hopewell culture?

Significant are the burial mounds and geometric earthworks, sometimes covering areas equivalent to several city blocks. The mounds themselves were no doubt the focus of elaborate burial rituals, but some of them were aligned with the moon with such precision as to allow the prediction of lunar eclipses. There was a measure of cultural borrowing and exchange from other regions as evidenced by Hopewell style earthworks, artifacts, and ceremonial pottery found throughout the eastern woodlands region of North America. Hopewell centers in Ohio contained mica from the Appalachian Mountains, volcanic glass from Yellowstone, conch shells and sharks' teeth from the Gulf of Mexico. All of this suggests an enormous "Hopewell Interaction Sphere." (Original: p. 203; With Sources: p. 203)

8. What made silk such a highly desired commodity across Eurasia?

Silk symbolized luxury. China held a monopoly on silk-producing technology, and the demand for silk as well cotton textiles from India was great in the Roman Empire. (Original: p. 221; With Sources: p. 337)

14. Describe some ways of the Mongol's military effectiveness and success.

Since Mongols didn't enjoy any technological superiority over their many adversaries, their success lay in their armies, who were simply better led, organized, and disciplined than those of their opponents. An impressive discipline and loyalty to their leaders characterized Mongol military forces, and discipline was reinforced by the provision that should one or two members of unit desert in battle, all were subject to the death penalty. Also, loyalty was cemented by the leaders' willingness to share the hardships of their men. To compensate for their own small population, the Mongols incorporated huge numbers of conquered peoples into their military forces. A further element in the military effectiveness lay in a growing reputation for a ruthless brutality and utter destructiveness. Unskilled civilians served as human shields for attacks on the next city or were used as human fill in the moats surrounding those cities. "Extremely conscious of their small numbers and fearful of rebellion, Chingiss often chose to annihilate a region's entire population, if it appeared too troublesome to govern." These policies also served as a form of psychological warfare. Underlying the Mongol's success was an impressive ability to mobilize both the human and material resources of their growing empire. (Original: pp. 345-347; With Sources: pp. 532-535)

13. What were the incentives for the conquered people to claim a Muslim identity?

Slaves and prisoners of war were among the early converts, particularly in Persia. Converts could avoid the jizya, a tax imposed on non-Muslims. In Islam, merchants found a religion friendly to commerce, and in the Arab Empire they enjoyed a juge and secure arena for trade. People aspiring to official positions found conversion to Islam an aid to social mobility. (Original: p. 310; With Sources: p. 482)

11. How did the inequalities of slavery differ from those of caste? (Think status, work, rights, and opportunities.)

Slaves possessed the status of outsiders, whereas each jati possessed a recognized position in the social hierarchy. Slaves worked without pay, unlike the individuals in the caste system. Slaves lacked any rights or independent personal identity, unlike caste members In some traditions, children of slaves were free at birth which offered more opportunities for social mobility than did the caste system. (Original: pp. 165-167; With Sources: pp. 247-249)

9. Describe slavery in all of the First Civilizations.

Slaves-derived from prisoners of war, criminals, and debtors—were available for sale; for work in the fields, mines, homes, and shops of their owner; or on occasion for sacrifice. From the days of the earliest civilizations until the nineteenth century, the practice of "people owning people" has been an enduring feature of state-based societies everywhere. (Original: p. 65; With Sources: p. 95)

20. How did the rise of Islam change the lives of women?

Socially: The Quran provided a mix of rights, restrictions, and protections for women. The earlier Arab practice of infanticide was now forbidden. Women were given control over their own property, dowries, and were granted rights of inheritance, but at half the rate of their male counterparts. Marriage was a contract between consenting parties, thus making marriage by capture illegitimate. Divorce was possible for both parties, but was more readily available for men. In pre-Islamic Arab tribes, taking multiple husbands was legal, but now it was prohibited, while polygamy was permitted for husbands. Now veiling and the seclusion of women became standard practice among the upper and ruling classes, removing them form public life. Spiritually: In early Islamic times, a number of women played visible public roles. Women prayed in the mosques, although separately, standing beside the men. However, Islam offered new outlets for women in religious life. The Sufi practice of mystical union with Allah allowed a greater role for women than did mainstream Islam. Some Sufi groups had parallel groups for women, and a few welcomed them as equal members. In Shia Islam, women teachers of the faith were termed mullahs, like their male counterparts. Islamic education, either in the home or Quranic schools, allowed some to become literate. (Original: p. 315-316; With Sources: pp. 487-488)

9. Did the Chinese convert large numbers of the northern nomads to Chinese cultural ways? Why or Why not?

Some nomads adopted Chinese ways as they ruled parts of China. They employed Chinese advisors, governed according to Chinese practice, and at least for the elite, immersed themselves in Chinese culture and learning. The Jurchens learned to speak Chinese, wore Chinese clothing, married Chinese husbands and wives, and practiced Buddhism or Daoism. On the whole however, Chinese culture had only a modest impact on the nomadic people of the northern steppes. Unlike the native peoples of southern China, who were gradually absorbed into Chinese culture, the pastoral societies north of the Great Wall generally retained their own cultural patterns. Few of them were incorporated, and not for long, since most lived in areas where Chinesestyle agriculture was simply impossible. (Original: p. 251; With Sources: p. 389)

16. What were the major sources of opposition to Buddhism in China?

Some perceived the Buddhist establishment as a challenge to imperial authority, and there was a deepening resentment of its enormous wealth. Buddhism was clearly of foreign origin and therefore offensive to some Confucian and Daoist thinkers. For some Confucian thinkers, the celibacy of monks and their withdrawal from society undermined the Confucian-based family system of Chinese tradition. (Original: p. 264; With Sources: p. 402)#

14. What does the presence of Venus figurines across Europe suggest?

Some scholars believe that Paleolithic religious thought had a strongly feminine dimension, embodied in a Great Goddess and concerned with the regeneration and renewal of life. It seems likely that many gathering and hunting peoples developed a cyclical view of time that drew on the changing phases of the moon and on the cycles of female fertility—birth, menstruation, pregnancy, new birth, and death. (Original: p. 22; With Sources: p. 22)

9. What did a revived Hinduism indicate?

Some scholars have seen this phase of Hinduism as a response to the challenge of Buddhism. Revived Hinduism indicated more clearly that action in the world and the detached performance of caste duties might also provide a path to liberation. (Original: p. 137; With Sources: p. 201)

16. How did Spartan society solve the problem of a permanent threat from the helots?

Sparta's answer was a militaristic regime that was constantly ready for war. To maintain such a system, all boys were removed from their families at the age of seven to be trained by the state in military camps, where they learned the ways of war. There they remained until the age of thirty. The ideal Spartan male was a warrior, skilled in battle, able to endure hardships, and willing to die for his city. (Original: p. 175; With Sources: p. 257)#

Emperor Wendi

Sui dynasty emperor (581-604) that unified China. He used Buddhism to justify his military campaigns. He had monasteries constructed at the base of China's five sacred mountains, further identifying the imported religion with traditional Chinese culture. (Original: p. 264; With Sources: p. 402)

Wendi

Sui dynasty emperor (ruled 581-604 C.E.) who reunified China after 350 years of turmoil from the collapse of the Han Dynasty (Original: p. 115; With Sources: p. 161)

2. In what way did the Sui Dynasty unify China from 589-618?

Sui emperors solidified the unity by a vast extension of the country's canal system, stretching some 1,200 miles in length. Those canals linked northern and southern China economically and contributed much to the prosperity that followed. (Original: p. 242; With Sources: p. 380)

2. Where and when did the first civilizations emerge?

Sumer in Mesopotamia, by 3,000 B.C.E. Egypt in the Nile River Valley, by 3,000 B.C.E. Norte Chico along the coast of central Peru, by 3,000 B.C.E. Indus Valley civilization in the Indus and Saraswati River valleys of present day Pakistan, by 2,000 B.C.E. China, by 2,200 B.C.E. The Olmec along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico near present day Veracruz in southern Mexico, around 1,200 B.C.E. (Original: p. 56-60; With Sources: pp. 86-91)

14a. Compare and Contrast Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations' politics. (Original: pp. 73-78; With Sources: pp. 103-108)

Sumer was organized in a dozen or more separate and independent city-states. Each city was ruled by a king, who claimed to represent the city's patron deity and who controlled the affairs of the walled city and surrounding rural area. Nevertheless, frequent warfare among these Sumerian city-states caused people living in rural areas to flee to the walled cities for protection. With no overarching authority, rivalry over land and water often led to violent conflict. Egyptian civilization, by contrast, began with the merger of several earlier states or chiefdoms into a unified territory that stretched some 1,000 miles along the Nile. Egypt maintained that unity and independence, though with occasional interruptions. Cities in Egypt were far less important than in Mesopotamia, although political capitals, market centers, and major burial sites gave it an urban presence as well. The focus of the Egyptian states resided in the pharaoh, believed to be a god in human form, he alone ensured the daily rising of the sun and the annual flooding of the Nile. All of the country's many officials served at his pleasure; the law of the land was simply the pharaoh's edict; the access to the afterlife lay in proximity to him and burial in or near his towering pyramids.

3. What was unique about each of the initial six civilizations?

Sumer—world's earliest written language; city-states; temples Egypt—pharaohs and pyramids; a unified territorial state unlike Sumer Norte Chico—cities were smaller than those of Mesopotamia; monumental architecture in the form of earthen platform mounds; quipu for recordkeeping/accounting purposes; self-contained civilization Indus Valley--elaborately planned cities; standardized weights and measures; architectural styles, even the size of bricks; irrigated agriculture provided the economic foundation for the civilization; written language; little indication of a political hierarchy or centralized state China—Shang and Zhou dynasties; lavish tombs for their rulers; ruler known as "Son of Heaven" who served as an intermediary between haven and earth and ruled by the Mandate of Heaven; early form of written Chinese on oracle bones Olmecs—cities rose from a series of competing chiefdoms and become ceremonial centers filled with elaborately decorated temples, alters, pyramids, and tombs of rulers; colossal basalt heads weighing twenty tons or more; mound building; artistic styles; urban planning; a game played with a rubber ball; ritual sacrifice; and bloodletting by rulers. (Original: p. 56-61; With Sources: pp. 86-91)

19. How had Greek works of science and philosophy been preserved for Europeans and how had it stimulated Muslim thinkers?

Systematic translations of Greek works of science and philosophy into Arabic, together with Indian and Persian learning, stimulated Muslim thinkers and scientists, especially in the fields of medicine, astronomy, mathematics, geography, and chemistry. It was in fact largely from Arabic translations of Greek writers that Europeans became reacquainted with the legacy of classical Greece. (Original: p. 144; With Sources: p. 208)

16. According to Richard Lee, what were the most prominent features of the various aspects of San life?

Technology—The Ju/'hoansi have about 28 tools for gathering, hunting, and preparing food. The most important implements include an all-purpose digging stick, a large leather garment used for carrying things, a blanket, a knife, a spear, a bow and arrow tipped with potent poison, woven ropes, and nets. Diet/Food—They consume about 2,355 calories on average every day, about 30% from meat and 70% from vegetables. Work— An average workweek involved about seventeen hours of labor in getting food and another twenty-five hours in housework and making and fixing tools, with the total work divided equally between men and women. (Original: p. 26; With Sources: p. 26)

12. After the spread of the Black Death to Europe, what were two economic consequences of the disease?

Tenant farmers and urban workers, now in short supply, could demand higher wages or better terms. Some landowning nobles, on the other hand, were badly hurt as the price of their grains dropped and the demands of the dependents grew. (Original: p. 224; With Sources: pp. 340-341)

Brahman

The "World Soul" or final reality in upanishadic Hindu belief (Original: p. 134; With Sources: p. 198)

Bushido

The "way of the warrior" referring to the military virtues of the Japanese samurai, including bravery, loyalty, and an emphasis on death over surrender. (Original: p. 257; With Sources: p. 395)

Floating gardens

The Aztecs surrounded their city with "floating gardens," artificial islands created from swamplands that supported a highly productive agriculture. (Original: p. 384; With Sources: p. 590)

7. In what ways did the arrival of Bantu-speaking peoples stimulate cross-cultural interaction?

The Bantu-speaking peoples brought agriculture to regions of Africa south of the equator, enabling larger numbers of people to live in a smaller area than was possible before their arrival. They brought parasitic and infectious disease, to which hunters and gatherers had little immunity. They also brought iron. Many Bantu languages of southern Africa retain to this day distinctive "clicks" in their local dialects that they adopted from the now vanished hunter/gatherers that preceded them in the region. They participated in networks of exchange with forest-dwelling Batwa (Pygmy) peoples. The Batwa adopted Bantu languages, while maintaining a nonagricultural lifestyle and separate identity. The Bantu farmers regarded their Batwa neighbors as first-comers to the region and therefore closest to the ancestral and territorial spirits that determined the fertility of the land and the people. Bantu farmers in East Africa increasingly adopted grains as well as domesticated sheep and cattle from the already established people of the region. They also acquired a variety of food crops from S.E. Asia, including coconuts, sugarcane, and especially bananas, which were brought to East Africa by Indonesian sailors and immigrants early in the first millennium C.E. (Original: pp. 190-191; With Sources: p. 290-291)

Siddhartha Gautama

The Buddha (ca. 566-486 B.C.E.)—the Indian prince turned ascetic who founded Buddhism (Original: p. 137; With Sources: p. 199)

7. What is the difference between the Theravada and Mahayana expressions of Buddhism?

The Buddha had taught a rather austere doctrine of intense self-effort, undertaken most actively by monks and nuns who withdrew from society to devote themselves fully to achieving enlightenment. This early version of Buddhism, known as Theravada, portrayed the Buddha as immensely wise teacher and model, but not one who was divine. It was more psychological than religious, a set of practices rather than a set of beliefs. The gods played little role in assisting believers in their search for enlightenment. A modified form of Buddhism, Mahayana, had taken root in the early centuries of the Common Era. It asserted that help was available for the strenuous voyage to enlightenment through bodhisattvas—spiritually developed people who postponed their own entry into nirvana in order to assist those who were still suffering. Elaborate descriptions of these supernatural beings, together with various levels of heavens and hells, transformed Buddhism into a popular religion of salvation. (Original: pp. 136-137; With Sources: p. 201)

12. How did the Roman Catholic Church deal with the considerable range of earlier cultural practices, with regard to the conversion of Western Europe to Christianity?

The Church proved willing to accommodate a considerable range of earlier cultural practices, absorbing them into an emerging Christian tradition. Amulets and charms to ward off evil became medals with the image of Jesus or the Virgin Mary; traditionally sacred wells and springs became the sites of churches; festivals honoring ancient gods became Christian holy days. December 25 was selected as the birthday of Jesus, for it was associated with the winter solstice. The spreading Christian faith, like the new political framework of European civilization, was a hybrid. (Original: p. 282; With Sources: pp. 437-438)

18. After the 12th century C.E., how was the Greek legacy viewed?

The Greek legacy was viewed as a central element of an emerging "Western" civilization. It played a role in formulating an updated Christian theology, in fostering Europe's Scientific Revolution, and in providing a point of departure for much of European philosophy. (Original: p. 144; With Sources: p. 208)

5. What had the Greek victory against the Persians do for Athenian democracy?

The Greeks' victory radicalized Athenian democracy, for it had been men of the poorer classes who had rowed their ships to victory, and now they were in a position to insist on full citizenship. (Original: p. 105; With Sources: p. 151)

Heian period of Japanese history

The Heian period of Japanese history (794-1192) was a highly refined esthetic culture that found expression at the imperial court, even as the court's real political authority melted away. Court aristocrats and their ladies lived in splendor, composed poems, arranged flowers, and conducted their love affairs. One scholar wrote, "What counted was the proper costume, the right ceremonial act, the successful turn of phrase in a poem, and the proper expression of refined taste." (Original: p. 258; With Sources: p. 396)

14. What distinguished the Aztec and Inca empires from each other?

The Inca Empire was larger than the Aztec. The Aztec Empire controlled only part of the Mesoamerican cultural regions, while at its height the Inca state encompassed practically the whole of the Andean civilization. In the Aztec realm, the Mexica rulers largely left their conquered people alone, and no elaborate administrative system arose to integrate their people to Aztec culture. On the other hand, the Incas erected a more bureaucratic empire. The Aztec extracted tribute in the forms of goods from its populations, while the Incas primarily extracted labor services form their subjects. The Aztecs had a system of commercial exchange that was based on merchants and free markets, whereas the Inca government played a major role in both the production and distribution of goods. The authority of the state penetrated and directed the Incas' society and economy far more than did the Aztecs. (Original: pp. 382-388; With Sources: pp. 588-594)

14. What features of Moche life characterize it as civilization?

The Moche civilization dominated a 250-mile stretch of Peru's northern coast, incorporated 13 river valleys, and flourished for 700 years beginning in 100 C.E. Moche economy was rooted in a complex irrigation system that required constant maintenance. Politically, the civilization was governed by warrior-priests, who sometimes lived atop huge pyramids, the largest of which was constructed out of 143 million sun-dried bricks. The wealth of the warrior-priest elite and the remarkable artistic skills of Moche craftspeople are related in the elaborate burials accorded the rulers. The craftspeople are renowned for their metalworking, pottery, waving, and painting. (Original: pp. 198-199; With Sources: pp. 298-300)

19. In what ways did the Mongol Empire contribute to the globalization of the Eurasian world?

The Mongols actively promoted international commerce, and the Mongol trading circuit that stretched form China to the Near East was a central element in an even larger commercial network that linked much of the Afro-Eurasian world in the 13th century. It also prompted diplomatic relationships from one end of Eurasia to the other, especially between Western Europe and the Mongols and between Persia and China. The Mongol Empire also spurred a substantial exchange of peoples and cultures through its policy of forcibly transferring many thousands of skilled craftsmen and educated people from their homelands to distant parts of the empire. Through its religious tolerance and support of merchants, the Mongols facilitated the spread of religions. Mongol authorities actively encouraged the exchange of ideas and techniques. A great deal of Chinese technology and artistic conventions flowed westward, including painting, printing, gunpowder weapons, compass navigation, high-temperature furnaces, and medical techniques. Meanwhile, Muslim astronomers brought their skills and knowledge to China. (Original: pp. 354-356; With Sources: pp. 542-544)

18. How was the Russian experience of Mongol domination different from that of Persia or China?

The Mongols conquered Russia but did not occupy it as they had in Persia and China. Instead, Russian princes received appointment from the khan and were required to send substantial tribute to the Mongol capital at Sarai. Russia was still exploited, but the Mongol impact there was much more uneven than it had been in Persia or China. The absence of direct Mongol rule meant that the Mongols were far less influenced by or assimilated within Russian cultures than their counterparts. On the other hand, Russians were, it anything, more affected by Mongol domination than the Persians and Chinese had been. Russians princes found it useful to adopt the Mongol's weapons, diplomatic rituals, court practices, taxation system, and military draft. (Original: pp. 351- 353; With Sources: pp. pp. 539-541)

15. How did Mongol rule change China?

The Mongols united a divided China, and moved their capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to a new capital city known as Khanbalik, (present-day Beijing) the "city of the khan." They ignored the using the traditional civil service examination system and relied heavily on foreigners. Mongols kept the top decision-making posts for themselves, Few Mongols learned Chinese and Mongol law discriminated against the Chinese, reserving for them the most severe punishments. In social life, the Mongols forbade intermarriage and prohibited Chinese scholars from learning the Mongol script. Mongol women never adopted foot binding and scandalized the Chinese by mixing freely with men at official gatherings and riding to the hunt with their husbands. Furthermore, the Mongols honored and supported merchants and artisans far more than Confucian bureaucrats had been inclined to do. (Original: pp. 348-350; With Sources: pp. 536-538)

19. In what ways, and why, did Chumash culture differ from that of the San?

The San were a semi-nomadic hunting and gathering society; the Chumash are more representative of the peoples who settled in permanent villages and constructed more complex gathering and hunting societies; The Chumash experienced remarkable technological innovation that led to the creation of a planked oceangoing vessel, while the San maintained only Stone-Age technologies; Greater social inequality in the Chumash than in the San; Canoes stimulated trade on a scale unseen in San society; Material life of the Chumash was much more elaborate than the San, perhaps because of the Chumash technological innovations; The Chumash developed a market economy and the private ownership of many goods, whereas the San system of exchange was more about the establishment of relationships than the accumulation of goods. (Original: pp. 30-31; With Sources: p. 30-31)

2. In what ways was Arabia another point of contact with the larger world for African peoples?

The arrival of the domesticated camel generated a nomadic pastoral way of life among some of the Berber peoples of the western Sahara during the first three centuries C.E. Later, camels also made possible trans-Saharan commerce, which linked interior West Africa to the world of Mediterranean civilization. Over many centuries, the East African coast was a port of call for Egyptian, Roman, and Arab merchants, and that region subsequently became an integral part of Indian Ocean trading networks. (Original: p. 184; With Sources: p. 284)

8. In what ways was the young Islamic community seen as revolutionary and distinct from Christianity?

The birth of Islam differed sharply from that of Christianity. Jesus' teaching about "giving to Caesar what is Caesar's and to God what is God's" reflected the minority and subordinate status of the Jews within the Roman Empire. The answer lay in the development of a separate church hierarchy and the concepts of two coexisting authorities, one religious and one political, an arrangement that persisted even after the state became Christian. By contrast, the young Islamic community found itself constituted as a state, and soon a huge empire. Muhammad was not only a religious figure but also, unlike Jesus or the Buddha, a political and military leader able to implement his vision of an ideal Islamic society. Nor did Islam give rise to a separate religious organization. No professional clergy mediating between God and humankind emerged within Islam. Teachers, religious scholars, prayer leaders, and judges within an Islamic legal system did not have the religious role that priests held within Christianity. No distinction between religious law and civil law, so important in the Christian world, existed within the realm of Islam. (Original: p. 307; With Sources: p. 478)

Iconoclasm

The destruction of holy images; a term used most often to describe the Byzantine state policy of image destruction form 726- 843. (Original: p. 275; With Sources: p. 431)

2. Why has Confucianism been defined as a "humanistic philosophy" (for a tranquil society) rather than a supernatural religion? What does Confucius say about gods and spirits?

The driving force of Confucian teaching was distinctly this-worldly and practical, concerned with human relationships, effective government, and social harmony. Confucianism is based on the cultivation of ren— translated as human heartedness, benevolence, goodness, nobility of heart. Ren isn't achieved through divine intervention but is nurtured within the person through personal reflection, education, and a willingness to strive to perfect one's moral character. Confucius did not deny the reality of spirits and gods. In fact he advised people to participate in family and state rituals "as if the spirits were present," and he believed that the universe had a moral character with which human beings should align themselves. (Original: pp. 129-131; With Sources: pp. 193-195)

16. How was the Mississippi River valley, (and the eastern woodlands), different than the Chaco region in the southwest?

The eastern woodlands and the Mississippi River valley hosted an independent Agricultural Revolution. (Original: p. 203; With Sources: p. 303)

17. What is the idea behind the system of unequal gift exchange?

The exchanging of gifts need not be equivalent in value. This system of exchange had more to do with establishing social relations than with the accumulating of goods. It is an economic system that aimed at leveling wealth, not accumulating it, and that defined success in terms of possessing friends or people with obligations to oneself, rather than possessing goods. (Original: p. 27; With Sources: p. 27)

15. Describe the first dynasty after the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs.

The first dynasty came from the Umayyad family (ruled 661-750). Under its rule, the Arab Empire expanded greatly, caliphs became hereditary rulers, and the capital moved from Medina to Damascus in Syria. Its ruling class was an Arab military aristocracy, drawn from various tribes. (Original: p. 312; With Sources: p. 484) 16. Why did Umayyad rule provoke growing criticism and unrest? The Shia viewed the Umayyad caliphs as illegitimate usurpers, and non-Arab Muslims resented their secondclass citizenship in the empire. Many Arqabs protested the luxurious living and impiety of their rulers. (Original: p. 312; With Sources: p. 484)

16. What are the reservations some scholars have with the term "civilization?"

The first is its implication of superiority. In popular usage, "civilization" suggests refined behavior, a "higher" form of society, something positive. The opposite of "civilized"—barbarian, savage, or "uncivilized"—is normally understood as an insult implying inferiority, and that of course, is precisely how the inhabitants of many civilizations have viewed those outside their own societies. A second reservation about using the term derives from its implication of solidity—the idea that civilizations represent distinct and widely shared identities with clear boundaries that mark them off from other such units. At best, members of an educated upper class who shared a common literary tradition may have felt themselves part of some more inclusive civilizations, but that left out most of the population. Moreover, unlike, modern nations, none of the earlier civilizations had definite borders. The line between civilizations and other kinds of societies is not always clear. (Original: pp. 83-84; With Sources: pp. 112-113)

The Tale of Genji

The first written novel by a woman, Murasaki Shikibu, that provided an intimate picture of the intrigues and romances of Heian court life. (Original: p. 258; With Sources: p. 396)

5. What was the basis for long-distance commerce in the middle Niger flood-plain?

The middle Niger flood-plain supported a rich agriculture and had clay for pottery, but it lacked stone, iron ore, salt, and fuel. This scarcity of resources was the basis for the long-distance trade which operated by boat. (Original: p. 189; With Sources: p. 289)

14. Why were Europeans unable to reconstruct something of the unity of their classical empire while China did?

The greater cultural homogeneity of Chinese civilization made the task easier than it was amid the vast ethnic and linguistic diversity of Europe. The absence in the Roman legacy of a strong bureaucratic tradition contributed to European difficulties, whereas in China the bureaucracy provided stability even as dynasties came and went. The Roman Catholic Church in Europe was frequently at odds with state authorities and its "otherworldliness" did little to support the creation of large empires. European agriculture was not as productive as the Chinese agriculture, and didn't have as many resources available to them. (Original: pp. 118-119; With Sources: p. 165)

5. Explain the concept of the umma.

The just and moral society of Islam was the umma, the community of all believers, replacing tribal, ethnic, or racial identities. Such a society would be a witness over the nations, for according to the Quran, "You are the best community evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong." In this community, women, too, had an honored and spiritually equal place. The umma was to be a new and just community, bound by a common belief, rather than by territory, language, or tribe. (Original: p. 305; With Sources: p. 477)

Borobudur

The largest Buddhist monument ever built, Borobudur is a mountainous ten-level monument with an elaborate carving program, probably built in the ninth century C.E. by the Sailendras rulers of central Java; it is an outstanding example of cultural exchange and syncreticism.

9. In the centuries that followed, what civilizations became part of the new Arab state?

The new Arab state became a huge empire, encompassing all or part of Egyptian, Roman/Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian, and Indian civilizations. (Original: p. 308; With Sources: p. 480)

Chang'an

The new capital Korean city of Kumsong was modeled directly on the Chinese capital of Chang'an. The Silla dynasty of Korea had sought to turn their small state into a miniature version of Tang China (Original: p. 253; With Sources: p. 391)

the pochteca

The professional merchant class of the Aztecs of the fifteenth century. Pochteca undertook large-scale tradiing expeditions both within and well beyond the borders of their empire, sometimes as agents for the state or for menmbers of the nobility, but more often acting on their own as private businessmen.

14. In what ways was the mythical religion of the Greek city-states brought together and expressed?

The religion of the Greek city-states brought together the unpredictable, quarreling, and lustful gods of Mount Olympus, secret fertility cults, oracles predicting the future, and the ecstatic worship of Dionysus, the god of wine. (Original: p. 141; With Sources: p. 205)

1. What were the revolutionary transformations brought about by the Neolithic or Agricultural Revolution?

The revolutionary transformations were growing populations, settled villages, animal-borne diseases, horse-drawn chariot warfare, cities, states, empires, civilizations, writing, literature, and much more. (Original: p. 36; With Sources: p. 50)

7. How was the umma different from the traditional tribes of Arab society?

The umma was kind of a supertribe. Membership was a matter of belief rather than birth, allowing it to expand rapidly. This was very different from the traditional tribes of Arab society. Furthermore, all authority, both political and religious, was concentrated in the hands of Muhammad, who proceeded to introduce the radial changes. Usury was outlawed, tax-free marketplaces were established, and a mandatory payment to support the poor was imposed. (Original: p. 306; With Sources: p. 478)

4. What did large-scale empires and long-distance trade facilitate?

The spread of ideas, technologies, food crops, and germs far beyond their points of origin. (Original: p. 218; With Sources: pp. 334-335)

15. Why did the Aztecs perform ritual human sacrifice?

The sun was central to all of Aztec life. To replenish the sun's energy and to postpone the descent into endless darkness, the sun required the life-giving force found in human blood. The high calling of the Aztec state was to supply this blood, largely through its wars of expansion and from prisoners of war, who were destined for sacrifice. Sacrifice helped to avoid encroaching darkness and this ideology also shaped the techniques of Aztec warfare, which put a premium on capturing prisoners rather than killing the enemy. (Original: p. 385; With Sources: p. 591)

15. Why did the tempo of Indian Ocean commerce pick up in the era of classical civilizations?

The tempo of Indian Ocean commerce picked up because the mariners learned how to ride the monsoons. Merchants from the Roman Empire--mostly Greeks, Syrians, and Jews--established settlements in southern India and along the East African coast. (Original: p. 227; With Sources: p. 343)

7. Why did the peoples of America lack sources of protein, manure, and power to pull carts?

There was an absence of animals that could be domesticated. Of the fourteen major species of large mammals that have been brought under human control, only one, the llama/alpaca, existed in the Western Hemisphere. Without goats, sheep, pigs, cattle, or horses, the peoples of the Americas lacked these sources that were widely available to societies in the Afro-Eurasian world. (Original: p. 41; With Sources: p. 55)

21. How did the struggle among the elites elevate the European urban-based merchant class? How does this compare with China?

The three-way struggle for power among kings, warrior aristocrats, and church leaders enabled urban-based merchants in Europe to achieve an unusual independence from political authority. Wealthy merchants exercised local power in many cities, and won the right to make and enforce their own laws and appoint their own officials. The relative weakness of Europe's rulers allowed urban merchants more leeway, and paved the way to a more thorough development of capitalism in later centuries. By contrast, Chinese cities, which were far larger than those of Europe, were simply part of the empire and enjoyed few special privileges. While commerce was far more extensive in China than in a developing Europe, the powerful Chinese state favored the landowner over merchants, monopolized the salt and iron industries, and actively controlled and limited merchant activity far more than the new and weaker royal authorities of Europe were able to do. (Original: p. 293; With Sources: p. 449)

22. What was Trans-African trade rooted in?

The trade was rooted in environmental variation. For instance, a. The great Sahara held---deposits of copper and especially salt, while its oases produced sweet and nutritious dates. b. The savanna grasslands immediately south of the Sahara produced—grain crops such as millet and sorghum. c. The forest areas farther south had---root and tree crops such as yams and kola nuts. (Original: p. 233; With Sources: pp. 348-349)

9. How did Rome grow from a single city to the center of a huge empire?

The values of the Roman republic, including rule of law, the rights of citizens, absence of pretension, upright moral behavior, and keeping one's word—along with a political system that offered some protection to the lower classes—provided a basis for Rome's empire-building undertaking. Victory in the Punic Wars with Carthage (264-146 B.C.E.) extended Roman control over the western Mediterranean and made Rome a naval power. As the empire grew, each addition of territory created new vulnerabilities that drove further conquests. Poor soldiers hoped for land, loot, or salaries. The aristocracy or well-connected gained great estates, earned promotion, and sometimes achieved public acclaim and high political office by participating in empire building. Roman conquests were spurred either by wealth, resources, and food supplies along the eastern and western Mediterranean. Rome's central location in the Mediterranean basin made empire building easier. Rome's army was the key to its success. It was well trained, well fed, and well rewarded. Rome's continued expansion had political support for the growing empire. This ensured that the necessary manpower and resources were committed to empire building. (Original: pp. 109- 111; With Sources: pp. 155-158)

6. What is the difference between varna and jati as expressions of classical India's caste system?

The varna system was older and provided broad categories in a social hierarchy that explained social inequality. The jatis were occupationally based groups that split the varnas and the untouchables into thousands of smaller social groupings based on occupation. Jatis became the primary cells of social life beyond the family or household. Each jati was associated with one of the great classes or with the untouchables. Marriage and eating together were permitted only within one's own jati, which had its own duties, rules, and obligations. (Original: pp. 163-164; With Sources: pp. 245-246)

3. What accounts for the emergence of agriculture after countless millennia of human life without it?

The warmer, wetter, and more stable conditions, particularly in the tropical and temperate regions of the earth, also permitted the flourishing of more wild plants, especially cereal grasses, which were the ancestors of many domesticated crops. The knowledge and technology necessary for agriculture were part of a longer process of more intense human exploitation of the earth. Using such technologies, and benefiting from the global warming at the end of the last Ice Age, gathering and hunting peoples in various places were able to settle down and establish more permanent villages, abandoning their nomadic ways. The disappearance of many large mammals, growing populations, newly settled ways of life, and fluctuations in the process of global warming—all of these represented pressures or incentives to increase food production and to minimize the risks of life in a new era. (Original: pp. 37-38; With Sources: pp. 51-52)

15. In what few ways were the histories of the Ancestral Pueblo and the Mound Builders similar to each other?

Their settlements were linked into trading networks, and they also participated in long-distance exchange, because they eventually both adopted maize from Mesoamerica. The both created structures to track the heavens to observe the sun and moon. (Original: pp. 201-204; With Sources: 301-304)

4. What were the indications that the transition to a fully agricultural and domesticated new way of life took place quickly in the Fertile Crescent region?

There were large increases in the size of settlements which showed the use of sun-dried mud bricks; monumental architecture; displays of cattle skulls; more elaborate human burials; and more sophisticated tools, such as polished axes and sickles. Environmental deterioration in ecologically fragile regions was indicated. Numerous settlements in the Jordan River valley and Palestine were abandoned as growing populations of people and goats stripped the area of trees and ground cover, leading to soil erosion and food shortages, which required their human inhabitants to move. (Original: p. 40; With Sources: p. 54)

3. What were the values of the Iroquois League?

They gave expression to values of limited government, social equality, and personal freedom, concepts that some European colonists found highly attractive. (Original: p. 368; With Sources: p. 574)

17. What did the earliest classical Greek thinkers have in common?

They had a commitment to a rational and nonreligious explanation for the material world. (Original: p. 143; With Sources: p. 207)

4. What explanations are given for the rise of civilizations?

They all had their roots in the Agricultural Revolution. Some civilizations emerged from earlier and competing chiefdoms, in which some social ranking and economic specialization had already developed. Some scholars have emphasized the need to organize large-scale irrigation projects as a stimulus for the earliest civilizations, but archeologists have found that the more complex water control systems appeared long after states and civilizations had already been established. Some scholars say that powerful states were useful in protecting the privileges of favored groups, and warfare and trade have also figured in the explanations. (Original: pp. 61-62; With Sources: pp. 91-92)

11. What was the impact on the environment from farmers and herders?

They altered the natural ecosystem by removing the natural groundcover for their fields, by making use of irrigation, and by grazing their now domesticated animals. In parts of the Middle East within a thousand years after the beginning of settled agricultural life, some villages were abandoned when soil erosion and deforestation led to declining crop yields, which could no longer support growing populations. (Original: p. 48; With Sources: p. 62)

5. What occurred as European peoples moved southward into warmer regions?

They altered their hunting habits, focusing on reindeer and horses, and developed new technologies such as spear throwers and perhaps the bow and arrow, as well as many different kinds of stone tools. They also left a record of their world in hundreds of cave paintings, depicting reindeer, bulls, horses, and other animals. Images of human beings, impressions of human hands, and various abstract designs, perhaps an early form of writing, often accompanied the cave paintings. (Original: p. 16; With Sources: p. 16)

18. What transformation in technology occurred among the Chumash and what did it bring to them?

They created a planked canoe—an oceangoing vessel some twenty to thirty feet long and with a cargo capacity of two tons. It brought immense prestige, wealth, and power to those who built and owned these vessels, injecting a new element of inequality into Chumash society. (Original: p. 29; With Sources: p. 29)

13. In what way did Paleolithic people alter the natural environment?

They deliberately set fires to encourage the growth of particular plants. (Original: p. 22; With Sources: p. 22)

9. Why did the Maya live in an "almost totally engineered landscape?"

They drained swamps, terraced hillsides, flattened ridge tops, and constructed an elaborate water management system. Much of this was in support of a flourishing agriculture, which supported a very rapidly growing population by 750 C.E. (Original: p. 194; With Sources: p. 294)

1. While culturally unique, features among each of the new "third-wave civilizations" point to what distinct patterns of development?

They featured states, cities, specialized economic roles, sharp class and gender inequalities, and other elements of civilized life. However they all employed cultural borrowing from other established centers, and they existed where none had before, and they arose after 500 C.E.—the postclassical era. (Original: p. 210-211; With Sources: pp. 326-327)

10. How did Austronesian migrations differ from other early patterns of human movement?

They occurred quite recently, beginning only about 3,500 years ago; They were waterborne migrations, making use of oceangoing canoes and remarkable navigational skills; They happened very quickly, over the course of 2,500 years, and over a huge area of the planet; Unlike other migrations, they were undertaken by people with an agricultural technology who carried both domesticate plants and animals in their canoes. (Original: p. 19; With Sources: p. 19)

26. What did the journeys, of the travelers Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo, reveal about the world of the 13th and 14th centuries? What happened after 1700?

They show that Islamic civilization was then the central fact of the Afro-Eurasian world, while Europe was still on the margins. After 1700, Europeans increasingly assumed the central role in world affairs. (Original: p. 329)#

16. In what ways were the Mongols changed by China?

They took a Chinese title, the Yuan. The Mongols made use of Chinese administrative practices and techniques of taxation and their postal system. Mongol khans made use of traditional Confucian ritual, supported the building of some Daoist temples, and were particularly attracted to a Tibetan form of Buddhism, which returned the favor with strong political support for the invaders. (Original: pp. 348-350; With Sources:) pp. 536-538

17. What were the most famous Crusades aimed at doing?

They were aimed at taking back Jerusalem and the holy places associated with the life of Jesus from Islamic control and returning them to Christendom. (Original: p. 287; With Sources: p. 443)

26. What were Inca roads used for?

They were used for transporting goods by pack animal or sending messages by foot, the Inca road network included some 2,000 inns where travelers might find food and shelter. Messengers, operating in relay, could cover as many as 150 miles a day. (Original: p. 237; With Sources: p. 353)

20. Why was the Brotherhood of the Tomol Guild so important?

This elite craft guild monopolized canoe production and held the tools, knowledge, and sacred medicine associated with these boats. The tomol stimulated a blossoming of trade along the coast and between the coast and the islands as plant food, animal products, tools, and beads now moved regularly among Chumash communities. The boats also made possible deep-sea fishing, with swordfish, central to Chumash religious practice, being the most highly prized and prestigious catch. (Original: pp. 29-30; With Sources: pp. 29-30)

4. What are the origins of classical India's caste system?

This grew out of the interaction of many culturally different peoples on the South Asian peninsula together with the development of economic and social differences among these peoples as the inequalities of civilization spread in the Ganges River valley and beyond. (Original: p. 161; With Sources: p. 243)

9. What was the Renaissance?

This was a renewed cultural blossoming (or rebirth) that occurred in Europe (and in the Ming Dynasty with the revival of all things Confucian). In Europe, the cultural rebirth celebrated and reclaimed a classical Greek tradition that earlier had been obscured or viewed through the lens of Arabic or Latin translations. In the vibrant commercial cities of Italy, the Renaissance reflected the belief of the wealthy elite that they were living in a new era, far removed from the confined religious world of feudal Europe. Returning to their roots, educated citizens of these cities sought inspiration in the art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome. Although religious themes remained prominent, Renaissance artists now included portraits and busts of wellknown contemporary figures and scenes from ancient mythology. Scholars and philosophers reflected on secular topics such as grammar, history, poetry and politics. In its focus on the affairs of this world, Renaissance culture reflected the urban bustle and commercial preoccupations of the Italian cities. Its secular elements challenged the otherworldliness of Christian culture, and its individualism signaled the dawning of a more capitalist economy of private entrepreneurs. (Original: p. 373; With Sources: pp. 579- 580)

22. Who was the 13th century theologian that thoroughly integrated Aristotle's ideas into a logical and systematic presentation of Christian doctrine?

Thomas Aquinas (Original: p. 295; With Sources: p. 451)

2. Why was Mecca an important city? Why was Mecca's dominant tribe important?

Though somewhat off the major long-distance trade routes, Mecca was the site of the Kaaba, the most prominent religious shrine in Arabia, which housed representations of some 360 deities and was the destination for many pilgrims. Mecca's dominant tribe, the Quraysh, had come to control access to the Kaaba and grew wealthy by taxing the local trade that accompanied the annual pilgrimage season. By the sixth century, Mecca was home to people from various tribes and clans as well as an assortment of individual outlaws, exiles, refugees, and foreign merchants, but much of its growing wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few ruling Quraysh families. (Original: p. 303; With Sources: p. 475)

19. In what ways were Sufi Muslims critical of mainstream Islam?

To Sufis, establishment teachings about the law and correct behavior, while useful for daily living, did little to bring the believer into the presence of God. For some, even the Quran had its limits. They felt that many of the ulama had been compromised by their association with worldly and corrupt governments. Sufis, therefore often chartered their own course to God, implicitly challenging the religious authority of the ulama. (Original: p. 314; With Sources: p. 486)

27. Why did the Andean Inca Empire largely control trade, not allowing a professional merchant class to emerge?

Trade in the Andean Inca Empire was a state-run operation and no merchant group similar to the Aztec professional merchants emerged there. (Original: p. 238; With Sources: p. 354)#

14. How did the transportation operation of the Indian Ocean trading network differ from that of the Silk Roads?

Transportation costs were lower on the Sea Roads than the Silk Roads, because ships could accommodate larger and heavier cargoes than camels. This meant that the Sea Roads could eventually carry more bulk goods and products destined for a mass market—textiles, pepper, timber, rice, sugar, wheat—whereas the Silk Roads were limited largely to luxury goods for the few. The Sea Roads relied on alternating wind currents known as monsoons. India was the center of the Sea Roads but not of the Silk Roads. (Original: pp. 225-226; With Sources: pp. 341-342)

Turks

Turkic speakers form Central Asia, originally nomads, who spread westward into the Near East and into India; they created a series of nomadic empires between 552 and 965 C.E. but had a more lasting impact on world history when they became dominant in the Islamic heartland and founded a series of states and empires there (Original: p. 339; With Sources: p. 527)

6. After Mongol rule, how would you define the major achievements of the Ming Dynasty?

Under the Ming Dynasty, China recovered from the disruption caused by Mongol rule and the ravages of the plague to become perhaps the best governed and most prosperous of the world's major civilizations. China also undertook the largest and most impressive maritime expeditions the world had ever seen. (Original: p. 370-371; With Sources: pp. 576-577)

3. How did classical Hinduism differ from other world religions?

Unlike Buddhism, Christianity, or Islam, Hinduism had no historical founder; rather it grew up over many centuries along with the Indian civilization. Although it spread into Southeast Asia, Hinduism was not a missionary religion seeking converts but was, like Judaism, associated with a particular people and territory. It was never a single tradition at all, but was a variety of Indian cultural patterns that dissolved into a vast diversity of gods, spirits, beliefs, practices, rituals, philosophies, and associated itself with a caste system. (Original: p. 133; With Sources: p. 197)

3. How did Eastern Orthodox Christianity differ from Roman Catholicism?

Unlike Western Europe, where the Catholic Church maintained some degree of independence from political authorities, in Byzantium the emperor assumed something of the role of both "Caesar," as head of state, and the pope, as head of the Church. Thus the Byzantine emperor appointed the patriarch of the Orthodox Church, sometimes made decisions about doctrine, called church councils into session, and generally treated the Church as a government department. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Greek became the language of religious practice instead of the Latin used in the Roman Catholic Church. More so than in the West, Byzantine thinkers sought to formulate Christian doctrine in terms of Greek philosophical concepts. The Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches disagreed on a number of doctrinal issues, including the nature of the Trinity, the relative importance of faith and reason, and the veneration of icons. Priests in Byzantium allowed their beards to grow long and permitted to marry, while priests in the West shaved and, after 1050 or so, were supposed to remain celibate. Orthodox ritual called for using bread leavened with yeast n the mass, but Catholics used unleavened bread. Eastern Orthodox leaders sharply rejected the growing claims of Roman popes to be the sole final authority for all Christians everywhere. (Original: pp. 273-275; With Sources: pp. 429-431)

11. In what ways have historians tried to explain the origins of patriarchy?

Unlike earlier farming practices that relied on a hoe or digging stick, plow-based agriculture meant heavier work, which men were better able to perform. The growing population of civilization meant that women were more often pregnant and even more deeply involved in child care than before. The declining position of women was connected more generally to the growth of social complexity in civilization as economic, religious, and political "specialists" became more prominent. Because men were less important in the household they may have been more available to assume the powerful and prestigious specialist roles. Women have long been identified with nature, for they are intimately involved in the fundamental natural process of reproduction. Large-scale military conflict with professionally led armies was a feature of almost all of the First Civilizations, and female prisoners of war often were the first slaves. With military service largely restricted to men, its growing prominence in the affairs of civilizations served to enhance the power and prestige of a male warrior class. Perhaps private property and commerce also enhanced male power. Without sharp restrictions on women's sexual activity, how could a father be certain that family property would be inherited by his offspring? In addition, the buying and selling associated with commerce was soon applied to male rights over women, as female slaves, concubines, and wives were exchanged among men. (Original: pp. 66-67; With Sources: pp. 96-97)

13. What was distinctive about the Jewish religious tradition?

Unlike other Mesopotamian peoples, the Jewish people through time came to believe in a single god, whom they called Yahweh. The Jews came to understand their relationship with Yahweh as a contract or covenant. In return for their sole devotion and obedience, Yahweh would consider the Jews his chosen people. Unlike other gods in Mesopotamia, Yahweh was increasingly seen as a lofty, transcendent god of utter holiness and purity, set far above the world of nature, which he had created. Unlike the impersonal conceptions of ultimate reality found in Daoism and Hinduism, Yahweh was encountered as a divine person with whom people could actively communicate. He was also a god who acted within the historical process. Yahweh was also distinctive in that he was transformed from a god of war into a god of social justice and compassion for the poor and marginalized. (Original: pp. 140-141; With Sources: pp. 204-205)

12. Why didn't the Mongols try to spread their faith as did the Arabs?

Unlike the Arabs, the Mongols bequeathed to the world no new religion or civilization. The Mongols never tried to spread their own faith among subject peoples. At he level of family life, their religion centered on rituals invoking the ancestors, which were performed around the hearth. There was little in their tradition to attract outsiders, and in any event the Mongols proved uninterested in religious imperialism. (Original: p. 342; With Sources: pp. 530-541)

10. How and why did the making of the Chinese empire differ from that of the Roman Empire?

Unlike the Roman Empire (which was new), the Chinese empire represented an effort to revive an imperial tradition that already existed under the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. Because of the preexisting imperial tradition in China, the process of creating the empire was quicker, though it was no less reliant on military force and no less brutal than the centuries-long Roman effort. Unlike Rome's transition from republic to empire, the creation of the Chinese empire had only brief and superficial repercussions. (Original: pp. 112-114; With Sources: pp. 158-160)

4. How does the experience of the Niger Valley challenge conventional notions of "civilization?"

Unlike the cities of Egypt, China, the Roman Empire, or Axum, these middle Niger urban centers were not encompassed within some larger imperial system. Nor were they like the city-states of ancient Mesopotamia, in which each city had its own centralized political structure, embodied in a monarch and his accompanying bureaucracy. They were "cities without citadels," complex urban centers that apparently operated without the coercive authority of a state. These urban centers resemble the early cities of the Indus Valley. (Original: p. 188; With Sources: p. 288)

8. How do you describe the Bantu religion in relation to Buddhism, Christianity, or Islam?

Unlike the major monotheistic religions, Bantu religious practice was predicated on the notion of "continuous revelation" unlike the "once-and-for-all" revelations from God through the Christian Bible or the Muslim Quran. The Bantu saw the possibility of constantly receiving new messages from the world beyond. Bantu religions were geographically confined, intended to explain, predict, and control local affairs, with no missionary impulse or inclination toward universality. (Original: p. 193; With Sources: p. 292)

Fulbe

West Africa's largest pastoralist society, whose members gradually adopted Islam and took a religious leadership role that led to the creation of a number of new states (Original: p. 369; With Sources: p. 575)

1. What distinguished the northwest coast peoples from those of Australia?

What distinguished the northwest coast peoples from those of Australia were permanent village settlements with large and sturdy houses, considerable economic specialization, ranked societies that sometime included slavery, chiefdoms dominated by powerful clan leaders, and an extensive storage of food. (Original: p. 366; With Sources: p. 572)

7. What sustained the tribal nomadic states?

What sustained them was their ability to extract wealth through raiding, trading, or extortion from agricultural civilizations such as China, Persia, and Byzantium. (Original: p. 337; With Sources: p. 525)

8. What happened to Alexander's empire when he died?

When Alexander died in 323 B.C.E., his empire was divided into three kingdoms that were ruled among his three leading Macedonian generals. (Original: p. 107; With Sources: p. 153)

19. What was the importance of Srivijaya?

When Malay sailors opened an all-sea route between India and China through the Straits of Malacca around 350 C.E., the many small ports along the Malay Peninsula and the coast of Sumatra began to compete intensely to attract the growing number of traders and travelers making their way through the straits. From this competition emerged the Malay kingdom of Srivijaya, which dominated this critical choke point of Indian Ocean trade from 670-1025. A number of factors—Srivijaya's plentiful supply of gold; its access to the source of highly sought after spices, such as cloves, nutmeg, and mace; and the taxes levied on passing ships—provided resources to attract supporters, to fund an emergent bureaucracy, and to create the military and naval forces that brought some security to the area. (Original: p. 229; With Sources: p. 345)

21. As Islamic empires spread through traditional Middle Eastern cultures, what were some signs of a tightening patriarchy?

With no sanctions in the Quran or Islamic law, customs derived from local cultures crept into Islamic society, such as honor killing of women by their male relatives for violating sexual taboos, and in some places, clitorectomy. Women were viewed negatively, as weak, deficient, and a sexually charged threat to men and social stability. In any cultures, concern with family honor, linked to women's sexuality, dictated harsh punishments for women who violated sexual taboos. (Original: p. 316; With Sources: p. 488)

15. Between 300 and 800 C.E., what helped to facilitate the acceptance of Buddhism in China?

With the collapse of the Han Dynasty, the chaotic, violent, and politically fragmented centuries that followed seriously discredited Confucianism and opened the door to alternative understandings of the world. Nomadic rulers, now governing much of northern China, found Buddhism useful in part because it was foreign. Since Buddha was a "barbarian god," they believed that he was the one they should worship. Rulers and elite families provided money and land that enabled the building of many Buddhist monasteries, temples, and works of art. In southern China, where many northern aristocrats had fled following the decline of the Han Dynasty, Buddhism provided some comfort in the face of a collapsing society. Its emphasis on ritual, mortality, and contemplation represented an intellectually and esthetically satisfying response to times that were so clearly in disarray. Under the Sui and Tang dynasties, Buddhism received growing state support. (Original: p. 263; With Sources: pp. 401-402)

1. What are some of the causes that allowed Buddhism and Daoism to creep into China?

With the collapse of the Han Empire came political fragmentation and signaled the rise of powerful and locally entrenched aristocratic families. It also meant the incursion of northern nomads, many of whom learned Chinese, dressed like Chinese, married into Chinese families, and governed northern regions of the country in Chinese fashion. Such conditions of disunity, unnatural in the eyes of many thoughtful Chinese, discredited Confucianism and opened the door to a greater acceptance of Buddhism and Daoism among the elite. (Original: p. 242; With Sources: p. 380)

16. Describe the roles of Aztec and Incan women.

Within the home, Aztec women cooked, cleaned, spun and wove cloth, raised their children, and undertook ritual activities. Outside the home, they served as officials in palaces, priestesses in temples, traders in markets, teachers in schools, and members of craft workers' organizations. In the Andes, women worshipped the moon with matching religious officials, and attended to the duties like Aztec women. Among the Incas, parallel hierarchies of male and female political officials governed the empire. In the Andes, men broke the ground, women sowed, and both took part in the harvest. Both societies practiced what scholars call "gender parallelism," in which women and men operated in two separate but equal spheres, each gender enjoying autonomy in its own sphere. "Chosen women" were removed from their homes as young girls, trained in Inca ideology, and set to producing corn beer and cloth at state centers. Later they were given as wives or sent to serve as priestesses in various temples. (Original: pp. 385-387; With Sources: pp. 591-594)

9. In what ways did the Xiongnu, Arabs, and Turks make an impact on world history? (Original: pp. 338-340; With Sources: pp. 526-528)

Xiongnu Arabs Turks The empire effected a revolution in nomadic life transforming—a more centralized and hierarchical political system in which power was concentrated in a divinely sanctioned ruler and differences between junior and senior clans became more prominent The Xiongnu Empire created—a model that later Turkic and Mongol empires Arabs, Berbers, Turks, and Mongols created—the largest and most influential empires of the postclassical millennium. The most dramatic Arabian development was—the development of a reliable camel saddle that allowed nomadic Bedouins to fight effectively from atop their camels. A major turning point and new role in Turkic history occurred—with their conversion to Islam between the 10th and 14th centuries. This extended process represented a major expansion of the faith and launched the Turks into a new role as the third major carrier of Islam, following the Arabs and the Persians. In the Seljuk Turkic Empire---of the emulated. Although it subsequently disintegrated, various nomadic or seminomadic peoples played a role in the collapse of already weakened classical Chinese and Roman empires and the ensuing rebuilding of those civilizations. With this new military advantage---they came to control the rich trade routes in incense running through Arabia. Camel nomads served as—the shock troops of Islamic expansion, providing many of the new religion's earliest followers and much of the military force that carved out the Arab Empire. 11th and 12th centuries, centered in Persia and present-day Iraq, Turkic rulers began to claim the Muslim title of sultan rather than kaghan. Although the Abbasid caliph remained the formal ruler, real power was exercised by Turkic sultans In Anatolia---formerly ruled by Christian Byzantium, they brought both Islam and a massive infusion of Turkic culture, language, and people, even as they created the Ottoman Empire, which by 1500 became one of the great powers of Eurasia.

7. Why did Emperor Yongle send Zheng He on his voyages and why were the voyages stopped?

Zheng He's mission was to enroll distant peoples and states in the Chinese tribute system. The expeditions served to establish Chinese power and prestige in the Indian Ocean and to exert Chinese control over foreign trade in the region. Emperor Yongle's successors viewed expansion as a waste of time and resources. (Original: p. 371-372; With Sources: pp. 577-578)

12. What aspects of Zoroastrianism and Judaism subsequently found a place in Christianity and Islam?

Zoroastrian concepts of the conflict between God and an evil counterpart, the notion of a last judgment and resurrected bodies, a belief in the final defeat of evil, the arrival of a savior, and the remaking of the world at the end of time all influenced Judaism. Some of these teachings, especially the concepts of heaven and hell and of a coming savior, also became prominent in Christianity and Islam through this influence on Judaism. From Judaism, both Christianity and Islam drew a distinctive conception of the divine as singular, transcendent, personal, separate from nature, engaged in history, and demanding social justice and moral righteousness above sacrifices and rituals. (Original: pp. 139-141; With Sources: pp. 203-205)

8. Who were the Xiongnu, the Uighurs, the Khitan, and the Jurchen in relation to the Chinese?

Xiongnu--The Xiongnu were a powerful nomadic confederacy that was able to deal with China on at lest equal terms. They were established about the same time as the Han Dynasty and eventually reached from Manchuria to Central Asia. Devastating Xiongnu raids into northern China persuaded the Chinese emperor to negotiate an arrangement that recognized the nomadic state as apolitical equal, promised its leader a princess in marriage, and, most important, agreed to supply him annually with large quantities of grain, wine, and silk. It was a reverse tribute system so the Xiongne would refrain from military incursions into China. Uighurs—The Uighurs—a Turkic empire—actually rescued the Tang Dynasty from a serious internal revolt in the 750s. In return, the Uighur leader gained one of the Chinese emperor's daughters as a wife and arranged a highly favorable exchange of poor-quality horses for high-quality silk that brought half a million rolls of the precious fabric annually into the Uighur lands. Khitan and Jurchen—On occasion, a Chinese state broke down or collapsed and various nomadic groups moved in to pick up the pieces, conquering and governing parts of China. Such a process took place following the fall of the Han dynasty with the Xiongnu, and the Tang dynasty, when the Khitan (907-1125) and then the Jurchen (1115-1234) peoples established states that encompassed parts of northern China as well as major areas of the steppes to the north. Both of them required the Chinese Song dynasty, located farther south, to deliver annually huge quantities of silk, silver, and tea, some of which found its way into the Silk Road trading network. (Original: p. 250; With Sources: pp. 388-389)

2. Between 1000 and 1500 C.E. three different patterns of political development emerged in West Africa. Compare the following: (Original: p. 367; With Sources: p. 573)

YORUBA BENIN IGBO A series of city-states, each within a walled town, and ruled by an oba (king)—many of whom were women--who performed both religious and political functions A centralized territorial state that was ruled by a warrior king name Euware. He was said to have conquered 201 towns and villages in the process of founding the new state. His administrative chiefs replaced the heads of kinship groups as major political authorities. Rejected kings and statebuilding efforts of their neighbors. Instead they relied on other institutions--title societies in which wealthy men received a series of prestigious ranks, women's associations, hereditary ritual experts serving as mediators, a balance of power among kinship groups—to maintain social cohesion beyond the level of the village. It was a "stateless" society. TRADE ? They traded with Benin and Igbo, and the more distant peoples of the Songhay Empire in the north. TRADE ? The king sponsored extensive trading missions and patronized artists who created the remarkable brass sculptures for which Benin is so famous. Traded with Yoruba and Igbo, and the more distant peoples of the Songhay Empire in the north. TRADE ? Trades with Yoruba and Benin, and the more distant people of the Songhay Empire in the north.

11. Explain the relationship of Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu under Zoroastrianism.

Zoroastrianism recast the traditional Persian polytheism into a vision of a single unique god, Ahura Mazda who ruled the world and was the source of all truth, light, and goodness. This benevolent god was engaged in a cosmic struggle with the forces of evil, embodied in an equivalent supernatural figure, Angra Mainyu. Ultimately, this struggle would be decided in favor of Ahura Mazda, aided by the arrival of a final Savior who would restore the world to its earlier purity and peace. At a day of judgment, those who had aligned with Ahura Mazda would be granted new resurrected bodies and rewarded with eternal life in Paradise. Those who sided with Angra Mainyu were condemned to everlasting punishment. (Original: p. 139; With Sources: p. 203)

Thales

a Greek natural philosopher noted for his application of reason to astronomy and for his questioning of the fundamental nature of the universe (Original: p. 142; With Sources: p. 207)

Aristotle

a Greek polymath philosopher; student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great (p. 144; With Sources: p. 208)

Zarathustra

a Persian prophet, traditionally dated to the sixth or seventh century B.C.E. who founded Zoroastrianism (Original: p. 139; With Sources: p. 203)

Vasco da Gama

a Spanish explorer in 1497 who launched a voyage that took him around the tip of South Africa, along the East African coast, and, with the help of a Muslim pilot, across the Indian Ocean to Calicut in southern India (Original: p. 374; With Sources: pp. 580-581)

Nubia

a civilization to the south of Egypt in the Nile Valley, noted for the development of an alphabetic writing system and a major ironworking industry by 500 B.C.E. (p. 80 and 81; With Sources: p. 111 and 112)

Plato

a disciple of Socrates whose Dialogues convey the teachings of his master while going beyond them to express his own philosophy (p. 143; With Sources: p. 207)

Bhagavad Gita

a great Hindu epic text, part of the much larger Mahabharata, which affirms the performance of caste duties as a path to religious liberation (Original: p. 137; With Sources: pp. 201-202)

21. What were the economic and cultural roles of the Swahili civilization in the world of Indian Ocean trade?

a. Economically, Swahili cities...were commercial centers that accumulated goods from the interior of Africa and exchanged them for the products of distant civilizations, such as Chinese porcelain and silk, Persian rugs, and Indian cottons. While the transoceanic journeys occurred largely in Arab vessels, Swahili craft navigated the coastal waterways, concentrating goods for shipment abroad. Swahili cities were class-stratified societies with sharp distinctions between a mercantile elite and commoners. b. Culturally, many ruling families...of Swahili cities claimed Arab or Persian origins as a way of bolstering their prestige, even while they dined off Chinese porcelain and dressed in Indian cottons. (Original: p. 231; With Sources: p. 347)

23. What changes did trans-Saharan trade bring to West Africa?

a. Long-distance trade across the Sahara provided ...both incentive and resources for the construction of new and larger political structures. It was the people of the western and central Sudan, living between the forests and the desert, who were in the best position to take advantage of these new opportunities. b. Muslims traded (what?) along the Sahara...Slaves were traded. Most came from non-Islamic and stateless societies farther south, which were raided during the dry season by cavalry-based forces of West African states, though some white slave women from the eastrn Mediterranean also made an appearance in Mali. c. Sudanic states developed...substantial urban and commercial centers where traders congregated and goods were exchanged. Some of these cities (Jenne, Timbuktu, Gao, for example) also became centers of manufacturing, creating finely wrought beads, iron tools, or cotton textiles. (Original: pp. 234-235; With Sources: pp. 350-351)

Hittites

an Indo-European civilization established in Anatolia in the 18th century B.C.E. (p. 81; With Sources: p. 111)

Niccolo Machiavelli

an Italian Renaissance writer and politician (1469-1527) whose famous work The Prince was a prescription for political success based on the way politics actually operated on a highly competitive Italy of rival citystates rather than on idealistic and religiously-based principles (Original: p. 374; With Sources: p. 580)

Great Law of Peace

an agreement among five Iroquois tribes to settle their differences peacefully through a confederation council of clan leaders, some fifty of them altogether, who had the authority to adjudicate disputes and set reparation payments. This political innovation effectively suppressed the blood feuds and tribal conflicts that had been so widespread. (Original: p. 368; With Sources: p. 574)

Kipchak Khanate/Golden Horde

name given to Russia by the Mongols after they conquered it and incorporated it into the Mongol Empire in the mid-thirteenth century; known to Russians as the "Khanate of the Golden Horde" (Original: p. 352; With Sources: p. 540)

Masai

nomadic cattle-keeping people of what is now Kenya and Tanzania (Original: p. 340; With Sources: p. 528)

Xiongnu

nomadic peoples to the north of the Great Wall of China who were a frequent threat to the stability of the Chinese state (Original: p. 117; With Sources: p. 163)

7. In what ways was social inequality expressed in early civilizations?

wealth avoidance of physical labor by the elite clothing houses manner of burial class-specific treatment in legal codes (Original: pp. 64-65; With Sources: pp. 94-95)

Patricians

wealthy, privileged Romans who dominated early Roman society (Original: p. 109; With Sources: p. 155)

Cuneiform

wedged-shape writing in the form of symbols incised into clay tablets; used in Mesopotamia from around 3,100 B.C.E. to the beginning of the Common Era (Original: p. 71; With Sources: p. 101)