APUSH Chapter 9

hard-money beliefs

-believed that gold and silver were the only basis for money -disapproved of all that issued bank notes, including the Bank of the United States -believed in rapid economic growth and speculation -embraced older ideas of "public virtue" and looked with suspicion on expansion and speculation

Calhoun

-distinguished past and apparently promising future -issue of the tariff created a dilemma for him

Jackson's inauguration

-thousands of Americans from all regions of the country crowed before the capitol to witness -after the ceremonies, the crowd poured down Pennsylvania Avenue, following their hero to the White House, and here there was a public reception open to all

how were Jefferson and Jackson different?

-unlike Jefferson, Jackson was no democratic philosopher -Democratic party, much less than Jefferson's Republicans, embraced no clear or uniform ideological position

Van Buren compared to Jackson

-very different and far less fortunate -never able to match Jackson's popularity -his administration encountered economic difficulties that devastated the Democrats and helped the Whigs

what were the five civilized tribes?

-Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole -most established settled agricultural societies with successful economies -Cherokees in Georgia formed a particularly stable and sophisticated culture, with their own language and formal constitution that created an independent Cherokee Nation

election of 1832

-Clay ran for National Republicans -Bank War failed to provide him with the winning issue for which he hoped -Jackson, with Van Buren as his running mate, overwhelmingly defeated Clay -results were not only defeat for Clay, but also Biddle

aftermath of the Bank War

-president appointed Roger B. Taney as new Chief Justice after Marshall died -gradually helped modify Marshall's vigorous nationalism

Treaty of Wang Hya

-1842 England forced China to open its ports to foreign trade -American mercantile interests persuaded Congress to send a commissioner, Caleb Cushing, to China to negotiate a treaty giving the US some part in the China trade -treaty of Wang Hya gave the Americans the same privileges as the English -also won for Americans the right of extraterritoriality, which is the right of Americans accused of crimes in China to be tried by Americans, not Chinese officials

how were Democrats and Whigs different (simple overview)? how were they similar?

-different in their philosophies, constituencies, and character of their leaders -became similar in the way they approached the process of electing their followers to office

John Calhoun

-never considered himself a true Whig -identification with the nullification controversy disqualified him from national leadership -but he had large strength in south, supported a national bank, and shared with other two a strong animosity toward Washington

what cultures/religions supported the Whigs?

-Evangelical Protestants -associated the party with constant development and improvement

Cherokee removal

-1,000 Cherokees fled across the state line to North Carolina, where the federal government eventually provided a small reservation for them in the Smoky Mountains -most of the rest made the long journey to the "Indian Territory" (later Oklahoma) beginning in winter of 1838

what was the purpose of democratization to national leaders?

to challenge the power of eastern elites for the sake of the rising entrepreneurs of the South and West

how was the Bucktails idea spreading beyond New York?

election of Jackson in 1828, result of a popular movement that seemed to stand apart from the usual political elites, further legitimized the idea of a party as a popular, democratic institution

what were the alternatives to the removal of the eastern Indians?

never any realistic possibility that the government could stop white expansion westward

how did the idea of political parties change during the 1820s and 1830s?

new view that permanent, institutionalized parties were a desirable part of the political process and essential to democracy

what was the Bank of the United States like?

-mighty institution -headquarters in Philadelphia symbolized its arrogant superior image of itself -had branches in 29 other cities, making it the most powerful and far-flung financial institution in the nation -only place the federal government could deposit its own funds, in turn, the government owned 1/5 of the Bank's stock -provided credit to growing enterprises, issued bank notes (served as a dependable medium of exchange though the country,) and exercised a restraining effect on the less well-managed state banks -Nichola Biddle was president from 1823 and on, did little to put the institution on a sound and prosperous basis

the Aroostook War

-tensions flared over the boundary between Canada and Maine -1838, group of Americans and Canadians, mostly lumberjacks, began moving into the Aroostook River region in the disputed area, precipitating a violent fight

what did some whites argue about the Cherokees?

-they should be able to retain their eastern lands because they had become such a civilized society and gave up many of their traditional ways under pressure from missionaries and government agents -men gave up most of their hunting and took over farming, women restricted themselves to daily domestic tasks

trail of tears

-thousands perished before or soon after reaching their unwanted destination -survivors called the journey "The Trail Where They Cried," the Trail of Tears

Cherokee resistance to treaty

-1835, federal government got a treaty from a minority faction of the Cherokees that ceded the tribes lands to Georgia in return for $5 million and a reservation west of the Mississippi -great majority of 17,000 Cherokees did not recognize the treaty as legitimate and refused to leave -Jackson sent an army of 7,000 to round them up and drive them westward at bayonet point

penny press

-1840 campaign was first in which penny press carried news of candidates to a large audience -illustrated how fully the concept of party competition had established itself in America -started because of the New York Sun written by Benjamin Day that sold for a penny -was possible because of new technologies, rising literacy rates, and changing culture (spread of urban, market economy)

what groups were excluded from this widening of political opportunity? why?

-African Americans, Indians, and women (but for different reasons) -they believed that the white-male democracy could only be preserved if they kept these groups from the body politic

problems on Creole

-Creole was an American ship -1841, it sailed from Virginia for New Orleans with more than 100 slaves -the slaves took possession of the ship and took it to the Bahamas -British officials declared the slaves free and the English government refused to overrule -many Americans, especially southerners, were furious

where were democrats united in election of 1836? what was the Whig strategy in this election? who won?

-Democrats were united behind Jacksons choice for president, Van Buren -Whigs ran several candidates hoping to profit from the regional strength of each -these people were Webster that represented the party in New England, Hugh Lawson that ran in the South, and William Henry, former Indian fighter and hero of the War of 1812, that ran in the middle states and the west -hoped that the three candidates together would get enough votes to prevent Van Buren from getting the majority, but they were wrong -Van Buren easily won

how was the panic not only a result of federal policies?

-England and Western Europe were also facing panics that caused European investors to withdraw funds from America -succession of crop failures on American farms reduced the purchasing power of farmers and required more food imports, which sent more money out of the country

what cultures/religions supported the Democrats?

-Irish and German Catholics -shared their own vague aversion to comical development and entrepreneurial progress -family and community centered values and habits

what was Jackson's theory on democracy?

-Jackson believed that his democracy should offer equal protection and benefits to all white male citizens and favor no region or class over another -in practice, this meant an assault on what Jackson and his associates considered the citadels (fortresses) of the eastern aristocracy -an effort to extend opportunities to the classes that were rising in West and the South

the spoils system

-Jackson believed that offices belonged to people, not the entrenched officeholders -in the end, he removed a total of no more than 1/5 of the federal officeholders during his 8 years in office -by embracing the spoils system, his administration helped make the right of elected officials to appoint their own followers to public office a feature of American politics, instead of officeholders that had been there for many generations

national party convention in 1832

-Jackson supporters worked to transform the process by which presidential candidates won their party's nomination -long resented the congressional caucus, they believed it worked to restrict access to the office to the favored by entrenched elites -president's followers staged a national party convention to renominate him for presidency -some Americans would see the party convention as a source of corruption and political exclusivity -those who created it considered it a great triumph for democracy -they believed power would arise directly from the people, not from aristocratic political institutions such as the caucus

specie circular

-Jackson was always suspicious of paper money and was unhappy that the government was selling good land and receiving in return state bank notes -before leaving office he issued an order that provided that in payments for public land the government would accept only gold or silver coins or currency securely backed by gold or silver

panic of 1837

-Jackson's specie circular produced a panic that began in beginning of Van Buren's presidency -hundred of banks and businesses failed -unemployment grew -bread riots broke out in some larger cities -prices fell, especially land prices -many railroad and canal projects failed -several of the state governments that were in debt stopped paying interest on their bonds -it was the worst depression in American history to that point and lasted for 5 years -political catastrophe for Van Buren and Democrats

how did Jacksons beliefs of power and the Union contradict each other?

-Jacksons commitment to extending power beyond the entrenched elites led him to want to reduce the functions of the federal government -he believed a concentration of power in Washington would restrict opportunity to people with political connections -he also believed in forceful presidential leadership and was strongly committed to the preservation of the Union -so, at the same time Jackson was promoting an economic program to reduce the power of the national government, he was asserting the supremacy of the Union in the face of a potent challenge

Dorr Rebellion

-Rhode Island constitution barred more than half of the adult males from voting -conservative legislature consistently blocked efforts at reform -in 1840, Thomas W. Dorr and a group of his followers formed the "People's party", held a convention, drafted a new constitution, and submitted it to popular vote, it was overwhelming approved -existing legislature refused to accept this and submitted a new constitution that was narrowly defeated -Dorrites, in the meantime, set up a new government, under their constitution, with Dorr as governor -two governments were claiming legitimacy to Rhode Island -old state government proclaimed that Dorr and his followers were rebels and imprisoned them -the Dorrites made a quick effort to capture the state arsenal, but the Door Rebellion failed -Dorr surrendered and was imprisoned -helped pressure the old guard to draft a new constitution which greatly expanded the suffrage

the Seminole War

-Seminoles in Florida managed to resist relocating -they had agreed to a settlement (treaties of Payne's Landing) that ceded their lands to the government and agreed to move to Indian Territory within three years -substantial minority, under leadership of chieftain Osceola, refused their lands (had help from runaway black slaves) -Jackson sent troops to Florida, but the Seminoles with their African-American associates were masters of guerrilla warfare -followers remained in Florida even after Osceola had been captured and died, white troops engaged in a campaign of extermination against the resisting Indians and their black allies, and 1,500 white soldiers died and the federal government spent $20 million on the struggle -government finally abandoned the war (many Seminoles had either been killed or forced west) -but relocation of Seminoles was never complete

what were the new techniques of political campaigning?

-Whigs emerged partly because of their opposition to Jackson's common-man democracy, so they presented themselves as the party of the common people -so did Democrats -both parties used same techniques of mass voter appeal, same evocation of simple values, so what mattered was the party's ability to win votes -Whigs were effective in portraying William Henry Harrison as a simple man who loved log cabins and hard cider, they accused Van Buren of being an aloof aristocrat who used cologne, drank champagne, and ate from gold plates -Harrison won

how were both parties responsible for the panic?

-Whigs fault for distribution of surplus, which weakened banks and help cause crash -Democrats fault bc of Jackson's specie circular that started a run on the banks as land buyers rushed to trade in their bank notes for specie

election of 1840

-Whigs held first nominating convention in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania because they realized they would need one candidate if they wanted any hope of winning -Whigs chose Henry Harrison and John Tyler of Virginia for vice president -Democrats nominated Van Buren -Democrats failed to nominate Vice President because they were not much more united than Whigs

what happened one month after the Whigs took office?

-William Henry Harrison died and Vice President Tyler took over -the whig party had relatively weak leadership ties, Harrison had generally deferred (postponed idk man) to Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, who he named secretary of state -things quickly changed under Tyler

Webster-Ashburton Treaty

-a new government that wanted to reduce the tensions with the US came to power in Great Britain -in 1842 they sent lord Ashburton to negotiate on the Maine boundary and other matters -the treaty established a firm northern boundary between the US and Canada along the Maine-New Brunswick border -new border gave US a bit more than half of the previously disputed territory -other smaller provisions appeased Maine and Massachusetts and protected critical trade routes in both the northern US and southern Canada -in separate exchange of notes, Ashburton eased the memory of the Caroline and Creole affairs by expressing regret and promising no future of officious interference with American ships

Van Buren

-about the same age as Calhoun and equally ambitious -won election to the governorship of New York in 1828, but resigned in 1829 when Jackson appointed him secretary of state -established himself as a member of both the official cabinet and the kitchen cabinet

what struck Alex de Tocqueville when he visited the United States in 1831? what did he fear?

-america had no rigid distinction of rank -feared industrialism would create a large class of dependent workers and a small group of new aristocrats

what did Biddle advisors persuade him to do? what was Congress's and Jackson's response?

-apply to Congress in 1832 for a bill to renew the Bank's charter -4 years early, but forcing the vote now would allow the Bank to become a major issue in the 1832 national elections -Congress passed the recharter bill, Jackson vetoed, Congress failed to override -1832 campaign now centered on the future of the bank

why did Calhoun have to establish his nullification theory?

-at one point he supported the tariff of 1816 and was a strong protectionist -many South Carolinians had come to believe that the tariff of abominations was responsible for the stagnation of their states economy (really it was because of the exhaustion of the farmland, which couldn't compete with the fertile lands of the Southwest) -Carolinians were ready for succession -developed a theory that offered a moderate alternative to succession, and would use it to nullify the 1828 tariff

what did Biddle do to try to preserve the Bank?

-began granting financial favors to influential men who he thought might help -particular close friendship with Daniel Webster -named Webster the Bank's legal counsel and director of its Boston branch -Webster, himself a heavy borrower from the bank, helped Biddle win the support of other important figures, like Henry Clay

what was Jackson's reaction to South Carolina's attempt at nullification?

-believed that nullification was treason and those implementing it were traitors -strengthened the federal forts in South Carolina and ordered a warship and several revenue ships to Charleston -when Congress convened in early 1833, Jackson proposed a force bill authorizing the president to use the military to see that acts of Congress were obeyed -violence seemed a real possibility

how did the Taney court differ from the Marshall court?

-believed, unlike the Marshall court, that the object of government was to promote general happiness -this took precedence over the rights of contract and property -therefore, a state had the right to amend or repeal a contract if such action was necessary to advance the well-being of the community

how did Biddle respond to the administration beginning to transfer funds directly from the Bank to the pet banks?

-called in loans and raised interest rates, saying that without the government deposits the bank's resources were stretched too thin -realized his actions were likely to cause financial distress -hoped a short recession would persuade Congress to recharter the bank -struggle had become a bitter and personal battle between the two men, both of them acting recklessly in an effort to humiliate and defeat the other.

what unpopular tactics did Biddle do?

-contracted credit too far even for his own allies, they began to fear that in his effort to save his bank he was threatening their interests -to appease them, he reversed himself and began to grant credit in abundance and on reasonable terms -his unpopular tactics ended his chances of winning a recharter of the bank

what did the controversy over nullification produce in 1832? what happened because of this?

-crisis when South Carolinians responded angrily to a congressional tariff bill that offered them no relief from the 1828 tariff of abominations -the legislature summoned a state convention, which voted to nullify the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 and to forbid the collection of duties within the state -during this time, Hayne was elected to serve as governor of South Carolina, and Calhoun replaced Hayne as senator

misconceptions about the "age of Jackson"

-did not advance the cause of economic equality (distribution of wealth and property was little different at the end of the Jacksonian era than at the start) -did mark a transformation of American politics that extended the right to vote widely to new groups

what was Calhoun's nullification theory?

-drew from the ideas of Madison and Jefferson and their Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, also cited the 10th amendment -argued that since the federal government was a creation of the states, the states (not the Courts or federal laws) were the final arbiters of the constitutionality of federal laws -if a state concluded that Congress had passed an unconstitutional law, then it could hold a special convention and declare the federal law null and void within the state -this nullification doctrine, and the idea of using it to nullify the 1828 tariff, attracted support from South Carolina -did nothing to help Calhoun's standing within the new administration

what was the high level of voter participation a result of?

-expanded electorate -growing interest in politics and strengthening of party organization -party loyalty

Whig beliefs

-favored expanding the powers of the federal government, encouraging industrial and commercial development, and uniting the country into a consolidated economic system -embraced material progress, but they were cautious of westward expansion because they feared that rapid territorial growth would produce instability -visioned a nation embracing the industrial future and becoming a great commercial and manufacturing power in the world -unlike Democrats, they favored establishing banks, corporations, and other institutions

Removal Act

-federal government worked to negotiate treaties with the southern Indians that would remove them from the West and open their lands for white settlement -the negotiating process often did not proceed fast enough to satisfy the whites.... -legislatures in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi began passing laws to regulate the tribes remaining in their states, received assistance from Congress when they passed the Removal Act in 1830 -appropriated money to finance federal negotiations with the southern tribes aimed at relocating them to the West -president quickly dispatched federal officials to negotiate nearly a hundred new treaties with the remaining tribes -southern tribes faced pressure from both the state and federal governments, and they were too weak to resist

what was Jacksons response to the Webster-Hayne debate?

-finally heard his response at the annual Democratic Party banquet in honor of Thomas Jefferson -president delivered a toast and said "Our Federal Union-it must be preserved" (he was looking directly at Calhoun) -also said "The Union, next to out liberty most dear"

Daniel Webster

-greatest orator of his era -won abroad support with his passionate speeches in defense of the Constitution and the Union -his close connection with the Bank, the protective tariff, his reliance on rich men for financial support, and his excessive fondness of brandy prevented him from winning the office he wanted so badly

what did Jackson believe about Indian removal

-he claimed that the remnants of the Indians were now beyond the reach of injury or oppression -apparently trying to convince himself or others that he supported removal as a way to protect the tribes

what led up to the whigs breaking ties with Tyler? what happened because of this?

-he did agree to bills abolishing Van Buren's independent treasury system and raising tariff rates, but he refused to support Clay's attempt to recharter a Bank -also vetoed several internal improvement bills that Clay and other congressional Whigs sponsored -finally a conference of whigs read Tyler out of the party -every cabinet member but Webster resigned, five former Democrats took their places -when Webster finally left, Tyler appointed Calhoun, who rejoined the Democratic Party, to replace him

Tyler's political views

-he was a former democrat who left the party because of what he considered Jackson's egalitarian program and imperious methods -there were still signs to his Democratic past in his approach to public policy

Webster side of the Webster-Hayne Debate

-he was a nationalist Whig -attacked Hayne, and through him Calhoun, for what he considered their challenge to the integrity of the Union -in effect, he challenged Hayne to a debate onto the issue of states' rights versus national power, not on public lands and the tariff -Hayne, with the help of Calhoun, responded with a defense of the theory of nullification -Webster then spent two afternoons delivering what became known as his "Second Reply to Hayne" -"Liberty and the Union, now and forever, one and inseparable"

what did Jackson think of the Bank? why?

-he was determined to destroy it -based these views off a past experience, he had been involved in some land and commercial speculations based on paper credit, in the Panic of 1797, his business had failed, and he fell into debt, because of this, he was suspicious of all banks and paper currency -supported hard-money position -made it clear that he would not favor renewing the charter, which was supposed to expire in 1836

the second party system

-in 1830s a fully formed two-party system began to operate at the national level -anti-Jacksons called themselves the Whigs -Jackson's followers called themselves Democrats (no longer Democratic Republicans)

what was the American economy's condition in 1836?

-in 1836, when Van Buren won the election, a nationwide boom that was reaching its height was taking place -there was peak activity with canal and railroad builders, prices were rising, there was plenty of money, credit was easy as banks increased their loans and notes with little regard to their reserves of cash -particularly, the land business was booming; speculators were purchasing large tracts of land in hopes of selling them at a profit -all the land sales and revenues the government received from the tariff of 1833 created federal budget surpluses and made possible a reduction of the national debt -for the first and only time in its history, the government had a substantial surplus in the Treasury

what were the changing attitudes toward the Indians? how did this contribute to the decision in favor of removal?

-in 18th century, they viewed them as noble savages, people without real civilization but with an inherent dignity that made civilization possible among them -started viewing the tribes as savages -they were not only uncivilized but uncivilizable -believed whites should not be expected to live in close proximity to the tribes -contributed to white westerners favoring removal because they feared that continued contact between the expanding white settlements and the Indians would produce endless conflict and violence -also favored Indian removal because of their own desire for territory, most of the land the whites wanted were possessed by tribes

explain the Supreme Court's decisions regarding the Indian tribes and Jackson's response

-in Georgia, Cherokees tried to stop the white encroachments by appealing to the Supreme Court -in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia and Worcester v. Georgia, the Court partially cleared the tribes from accusation -Jackson's hostility toward the tribes left him with little sympathy for the Cherokees, and he had little patience with the Court -he really wanted to maintain support from white southerners and westerners in the increasing partisan battles his administration was beginning to become engaged in -he reportedly responded with contempt by saying, "John Marshall has made his decision,. Now let him enforce it" but the decision was not enforced

Black Hawk War

-in Old Northwest, long process of expelling the woodland Indians culminated in a last battle in 1831-1832 between white settlers in Illinois and an alliance of Sauk and Fox Indians under the warrior Black Hawk -earlier treaty ceded tribal lands in Illinois to the United States, but Black Hawk and his followers refused to recognize the legality of the agreement, which a rival tribal faction signed -this war was mainly notable for the viciousness of the white military efforts -white leaders in western Illinois vowed to exterminate the collection of Indians and attacked them even when Black Hawk attempted to surrender -US troops captured Black Hawk and sent him on a tour of the East, where Jackson was one of the many whites who arranged to meet him

example of how forces of democratization prevailed in the states

-in the New York convention, conservatives led by James Kent insisted that a taxpaying requirement for voting was not enough, and there should also be property requirements -property qualification was abolished because the main concerns of society and government were life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness

how was the democratization process far from complete?

-in the south, election laws still favored planters and politicians of the older counties and to limit the influence of more newly settled western areas -slaves were not considered citizens and were believed to have no legal or political rights -free black could vote nowhere in the south and hardly anywhere in the north -women could vote in no state -voters often had to cast a spoken vote, not written, which mean that political bosses could bribe and intimidate them

Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge

-involved a dispute between 2 Massachusetts companies over the right to build a bridge across the Charles River between Boston and Cambridge -one company had longstanding charter from the state to operate a toll bridge and claimed that this charter guaranteed it a monopoly of the bridge traffic -another company applied to the legislature for authorization to construct a second, competing bridge that would reduce the value of the first company's charter since it would be toll free -first company said that in granting the second charter the legislature was engaging in a breach of contract and noted that the Marshall Court ruled that states had no right to repeal contracts -Taney supported second charter

what new model did white Americans adopt as they contemplated westward expansion by the mid-nineteenth century?

-just like British settlers created plantations where natives were to be excluded, whites came to imagine territories they were entering as virgin land, with no preexisting civilization -believed natives could not be partners in the creation of new societies in the west, they were obstacles to be removed and isolated -by dismissing Native American cultures in that way, white Americans justified to themselves a series of harsh policies that they believed (incorrectly) would make the West theirs alone

who had authority to negotiate with the Indians over land? how was this debatable tho?

-legally only the federal government had the authority to negotiate with the Indians over land, this was because of Supreme Court decisions that established the tribes as "nations within the nation" -but, the nations that the court was talking about were no longer really a thing -the tribes were relatively new entities -they created larger tribes when they realized they would need some collective strength to deal with the whites, but as new political entities, they were often weak and divided -Marshall Court seemed to acknowledge this in declaring the tribes not only sovereign nations, but also dependent ones, for whom the federal government had to take considerable responsibility -through most of 19th century, government interpreted that responsibility as finding ways to move the Native Americans out of the way of expanding white settlement

how did Jackson now feel about the Bank? what did he do?

-more determine than ever to destroy it -could not legally abolish it before its expiration, so he tried to weaken it by removing the government's deposits from the bank -his secretary of treasury said this would destabilize the financial system and refused to give the order -Jackson fired him, new secretary of treasury also refused, finally hired Attorney General Roger B. Taney -Taney began placing the government's deposits not in the bank, but in a number of state banks (enemies called them pet banks)

where were the Whigs the strongest?

-more substantial merchants and manufacturers of the Northeast -wealthier planters of the South, those who favored commercial developments with North -ambitious farmers and rising commercial class of west, usually migrants of NE who advocated internal improvements, expanding trade, and rapid economic progress -also tended to be wealthier, have more aristocratic backgrounds, and be more commercially ambitious

independent treasury

-most important and controversial achievement of Van Buren -new financial system to replace the Bank -government would place its funds in an independent treasury at Washington and in sub treasuries in other cities -no private banks would have the government's money or name to use as a basis for speculation -government and banks would be divorced lol

Distribution Act

-needed to do something with the Treasury surplus -support grew for returning the federal surplus to the states -this act required the federal government to pay its surplus funds to the states each year in four quarterly installments as interest free, unsecured loans

what was the limited nature of democratic reforms?

-neither spoils system nor political convention really transferred power to the people -appointments to office almost always went to prominent political allies of the president and his associates -delegates to national conventions were less often common men than members of local party organizations -political opportunity within the party was expanding, but much less so than Jacksonian rhetoric suggested

Whig national leadership

-no single person was able to command like the Democrats -divided their loyalties among three figures, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John Calhoun -known as the "Great Triumvirate"

did expansion really require removal?

-no, there were several alternatives to the removal policy -many examples in the west of white settlers and native tribes living side by side and creating a shared world -even during Lewis and Clark expedition, white explorers lived with western Indians on terms of such intimacy that many of them contracted diseases from Indians sexual partners -demonstrated ways in which the two cultures could interact, each shaping each other

what did the convention in South Carolina do, not allowing Congress to have the last word?

-nullified the force act (a purely symbolic act, because the tariff toward which the force act was directed had already been repealed) -Calhoun and his followers claimed a victory for nullification, which had, they insisted, forced the revision of the tariff -this taught Calhoun and his allies that no state could defy the federal government alone

what were some of the democratic reforms?

-number of voters increased way more quickly than the population as a whole -change in the method of choosing presidential electors and dramatic increase in popular participation in the process -by 1828, electors were chosen by popular vote in every state but South Carolina

Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1820

-reform-minded delegates complained that in the Massachusetts government the rich were better represented than the poor, because of restrictions on voting and officeholding and because of the system by which members of the state senate represented property rather than the people -Daniel Webster, conservative delegate, opposed democratic changes on the grounds that "power naturally follows property" and "property as such should have its weight and influence in political arrangement" -conservatives could not prevent the reform of the rules for representation in the state senate or prevent elimination of the property requirement for voting -however, new constitution enquired every voter be a taxpayer and that the governor be the owner of considerable real estate

the Caroline Affair

-residents of the eastern provinces of Canada launched a rebellion against the British colonial government -some of the rebels chartered an American steamship, the Caroline, to ship supplies across the Niagara River to them from NY -British authorities in Canada seized the Caroline and burned it, killing one American in the process -British refused to provide compensation for it and people in the US resented them for that -authorities in New York arrested a Canadian named Alexander McLeod and charged him with the murder of the American who died in the incident -British government insisted that McLeod not be accused of murder because he was acting under official orders, they said that his execution would bring immediate and frightful war -Webster, secretary of state, didn't think McLeod was worth a war, but he was powerless to release him because he had to be tried in state courts -New York did what Webster wanted and stopped the crisis by clearing McLeod

Peggy O'Neale ordeal

-she was the attractive daughter of a Washington tavern keeper with whom both Jackson and his friend John H. Eaton had taken lodgings while serving as senators from Tennessee -she was married, but rumors circulated that she and the unmarried Senator eaton were having an affair -her husband died in 1828, and she and Eaton were soon married -few weeks later, Jackson named Eaton secretary of war, making Mrs. Eaton a cabinet wife -the administration wives, led by Mrs. Calhoun, refused to receive her socially -Jackson remembered what happened to his wife and demanded that they accept her into their social world -Calhoun, under pressure from his wife, refused -Van Buren, who was a widow, befriended the Eaton and thus integrated himself with Jackson -by 1831, partly because of the Peggy Eaton affair, Jackson chose Van Buren to succeed him in the White House, ending Calhoun's dreams of presidency

where were the Democrats the strongest?

-smaller merchants and working of Northeast -southern planters suspicious of industrial growth -westerners, usually with southern roots, who favored a mostly agrarian economy and opposed the development of powerful economic institutions in their region

what did different groups fear? who ended up seizing control?

-some feared the nation's rapid growth would produce social chaos, they insisted the country's first priority must be to establish order and a clear system of authority -others thought the greatest danger facing the nation was privilege and societies goal should be to eliminate the favored status of elites and make opportunity more widely available, they seized control when Jackson was inaugurated

why did the Whigs form? what were they named after?

-started to arise from Jackson's tactics in crushing the nullification movement and then Bank -Whigs named after the party in England that had worked to limit the power of the king -nation now had second party system

where did the elevation of the idea of political parties first occur? why?

-state levels, most prominently New York -Martin Van Buren led a dissident political faction (known as Bucktails or Albany Regency) -they began to challenge the established political leadership, led by the aristocratic governor, De Witt Clinton, that dominated the state for years -nature of Van Buren's challenge was new -argued that only an institutionalized party, based in the populace at large, could ensure genuine democracy -proposed that ideological commitments would be less important than loyalty to the party itself -believed for a party to survive, it must have a permanent opposition, competing parties would give each political faction a sense of purpose, they would force politicians to remain continually attuned to the will of the people and check and balance each other

results of Distribution Act

-states spent the money quickly, mainly to encourage construction of highways, railroads, and canals -therefore, the distribution of surplus gave further stimulus to the economic boom -withdraw of federal funds from the state banks where they had been deposited made them have to call in their own loans and make the transfer of funds to the state governments

what happened as financial conditions worsened in the winter of 1833-1834?

-supporters of the bank blamed Jacksons policies for the recession -organized meetings around the country and sent petitions to Washington urging a rechartering of the Bank -Jacksonians blamed the recession on Biddle and refused to budge

what was the compromise to the nullification crisis?

-the crisis was prevented when Henry Clay intervened -he devised a compromise by which the tariff would be lowered gradually so that, by 1842, it would reach about the same level as in 1816 -compromise and force bill were both passed on March 1, 1833, Jackson signed them both -convention in South Carolina reassembled and repealed its nullification of the tariffs

what were the elites? what two things did limit the power of two entrenched elites?

-the elites were permanent officeholders and the exclusive party caucus -spoils system and political convention limited their power

Kitchen Cabinet

-the president's unofficial circle of political allies -included Democratic newspaper editors like Isaac Hill of New Hampshire and Amos Kendall and Francis P. Blair of Kentucky

Hayne side of the Webster-Hayne Debate

-there was a routine debate over federal policy toward western lands, a senator from Connecticut suggested that all land sales and surveys be temporarily discontinued -Hayne responded, charging that slowing down the growth of the west was a way for the East to retain its political and economic power -he hoped this stance would attract support from westerners in Congress South Carolinas drive to lower the tariff -he argued both the South and West were victims of the tyranny of the Northeast -he hinted that the two regions might combine to defend themselves against that tyranny

how did Van Burn administration respond to the panic?

-they strongly opposed government intervention in the economy, so they did little to fight the depression -some things they did do may have made things worse, like borrowing money to pay government debts and accepting only specie -Van Buren did succeed in establishing a ten-hour work day on all federal projects, by presidential order, but only had a few legislative achievements

what did the government think of the Indian Territory?

-thought it was safely distant from existing white settlements and consisted of land that most whites considered undesirable -also believed it was an advantage because it was on the eastern edge of what earlier white explorers christened the "Great American Desert," land unfit for habitation -seemed unlikely that whites would ever seek to settle along the western borders

Tyler's new political alignment

-tyler and small band of conservative southern whigs were preparing to rejoin the Democrats -joining the common mans party of Jackson and Van Buren was a faction with aristocratic political ideas, who thought that government had an obligation to protect and even expand the institution of slavery, also believed in states' rights with almost fanatical devotion

broadening the right to vote

-until 1820s, relatively few Americans were permitted to vote, most states restricted the franchise to white males who were property owners, taxpayers, or both -even before Jackson's election, the rules began to expand -changes started in Ohio and other new states in the west, they adopted new constitutions when they joined the union that guaranteed all adult white males the right to vote and gave all voters the right to hold public office -older states started granting similar political right, dropping or reducing the property or taxpaying requirements (they were concerned about the loss of their population to the West and thought that extending the franchise might encourage some to stay)

Democratic beliefs

-wanted a future of steadily expanding economic and political opportunities for white males -thought that governments roles should be limited, but should include efforts to remove any obstacles in the way of opportunity -this meant they defended the Union, they thought it was essential to the dynamic economic growth they favored -also meant attacking centers of corrupt privilege -Locofocos were most radical members of the party, workingmen and small businessmen in Northeast, violent assault on monopoly and privilege

soft-money beliefs

-wanted more currency in circulation -believed that issuing bank notes unsupported by gold and silver was the best way to circulate more currency -consisted largely of state bankers and their allies -objected to the Bank of the US because it restrained the state banks from issuing notes freely

what did Jackson believe about the natives?

-wanted them to move west, beyond the Mississippi, out of the war of expanding white settlement -he had a special intensity because of his own earlier experiences leading military campaigns against tribes along the southern border

Jackson and his followers

-were not egalitarians (equality for all) -did nothing to challenge slavery -supervised one of the harshest assaults on American Indians in the nation's history -accepted the necessity of economic inequality and social gradation -Jackson was an aristocrat himself, but him and his followers weren't aristocrats by birth, they thought they had got here from their talents and energies, their goal in public life was to ensure that other would have the same opportunity

where did the Indians end up living?

-west of the Mississippi between the Missouri and Red Rivers -here, they were divided by tribe into carefully defined reservations -territory was surrounded by a string of US forts to keep them (and most whites out) in a region whose climate and topography bore little relation to anything they knew before

cons to Jackson's victory

-when Bank died in 1836, the country lost a valuable financial institution and was left with a fragmented and unstable banking system that would plague the economy for more than a century

what were the Whig and Democratic politicians most interested in? what was an example of this?

-winning elections -Whigs in NY developed a following by making a connection to Anti-Masonry movement -this movement had emerged in the 1820s in response to resentment against the secret, exclusive, undemocratic Society of Freemasons -resentment increased in 1826 when former Mason, William Morgan, disappeared shortly after he was scheduled to publish a book that would expose the secrets of Freemasonry -Whigs seized control of this frenzy to launch harsh attacks on Jackson and Van Buren (both Freemasons), implying that the Democrats were part of the antidemocratic conspiracy -attacking Democrats with the Democrats' own issues

Henry Clay

-won support from many who favored his American System, program or internal improvements and economic developments -his image as a devious operator and his identification with the West proved to be serious liabilities -ran for president twice and never won

what to remember about Jackson

W- war on the bank I- indian removal T- tariff of abominations C- specie circular H- hard money

how were the Cherokees not alone in experiencing the hardships of the trail of tears?

between 1830 to 1838, virtually all the five civilized tribes were expelled from the southern states and forced to relocate in the new Indian Territory, which Congress officially created by the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834

what was Jackson's view on concentrating power?

opposed concentrating power either in the federal government or in powerful aristocratic institutions associated with it

what was one of the cornerstones of the Jacksonian ideal that was reflected in the decision in Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge?

the key to democracy was an expansion of economic opportunity, which would not occur if older corporations could maintain monopolies and choke off competition from newer companies