Bio A 201 Final UW
Australopithecus Aethiopicus
- 'The Black Skull' - 2.5 mya - Flattened cranial base - Small brain 410cc - Very large teeth - Perhaps ancestral to A. Boisei
Zhoukoudian, China: 'Peking Man'
- 1920: Pei Wenshong - 1930s: Franz Weidenreich (Fossils lost in late 1930s) - Cave site: 1) Dates to 670,000 to 410,000 ya 2) At least 14 individuals 3) Cultural debris 4) Evidence of fire? 5) Hunting?
Early Homo
- 2.5 - 1.5 mya - East Africa - East Turkana - Hadar - Olduvai Gorge - South Africa: Swartkrans
Australopithecines: Australopithecus Garhi
- 2.5 mya - Small brain 450cc - Some features indicated it may be ancestral to homo: 1) Gracile features 2) Smaller teeth - Used tools?
Robust Australopithecines: Parantrhopus
- 3-1mya - Characteristics: 1) 410 - 530 cranial capacity 2) Sagittal crest 3) Very large teeth 4) Dish faced - 3 members of genus: 1) A. Boisei 2) A. Aethiopicus 3) A. Robustus (South Africa)
Australopithecines: Australopithecus Platypos
- 3.5 mya - 400 - 500 cc - Derived characteristics: 1) Flat faced 2) Small molars
Australopithecines: Australopithecus Anamensis
- 4 mya - Aramis, Ethiopia - Ape-like characteristics: 1) Large canines 2) Parallel tooth rows - Bipedal femur
Homo Habilis
- 550 - 800 cc (631 avg) - Sexual dimorphism: 1) Females: 70lbs/4'1" 2) Males: 114lbs/5'2" - Human-like dentition - Reduced face/larger cranium - Neurocranium = Where the bran is ----> expands ---> brain expanding
Early Hominins: Orrorin Tugenesis
- 6 mya - Tugen Hills, Kenya - Mostly post-cranial elements (Mandible fragments) - suggestive of efficient bipedalism, spent time in trees - Chimpanzee-like teeth - Lived in a dry forest environment
Kebara Cave, Isreal
- 60kya - Nearly complete skeleton Neanderthal - Included a hyoid bone (Speech?) - Similar to H. sapiens - Large brain - Neurological differences with H. Sapiens?
OH 62
- 62nd homo found in Olduvai Gorge - Found in the 1980s - Donald Johnson - Australopithecine-like post cranial remains - Skull cannot be reconstructed - Australopithecus? Cant be fully sure
Early Hominins: Sahelanthropus tchadensis
- 7 - 6mya - Discovered in 2001 by M. Brunet (French) - Found in Chad - 350cc (Ape like) - Massive brow ridge - Non-honing chewing complex - Forest environment near a lake
Homo Heidelbergensis
- 700 - 200 kya - Broadly defined category: 1) Named for mandible discovered near Heidelberg, Germany 2) Sometime called 'Archaic' Homo Sapiens 3) Wide range of variation
Skip
- 781 - 126 kya - Larger brained hominins emerged - Derived features: 1) Brain size 1200-1300 cc 2) More rounded skull 3) Large avg. body size (200lbs) 4) Double-arched 5) Supra orbital torus Ancestral features: 1) Large brow ridges 2) Thick cranial bones 3) Large, prognathic face 4) No chin
Homo Erectus Culture
- Acheulean Technology: Africa, Europe, and East Asia? - Tool differentiation in later H. Erectus sites - Tools found on Indonesian Islands (How did they get there?) - Homo Erectus embraced culture as a survival strategy
Hypothesis of Bipedalism: Chimpanzee Hypothesis
- Adrienne Zihlman - Early hominins did not form pair bonds - Chimpanzees mate have multiple partners and live in groups
Early Homo Sapiens Fossils
- African sites - Earliest dates: 200 kya - Unique H. Sapiens morphology: 1) High forehead 2) Reduced brow ridge 3) Chin 4) Rounded Cranium 5) Less robust overall
Homo Heidelbergensis Asia
- Also display a suite of primitive and derived characteristics - Dali, China - 230 - 180 kya - 1120 cc Jinnushan, China - 200 kya - 1260 cc - Modern H. Sapiens-like braincase
Homo Heidelbergensis Europe
- Argo France - 400 - 300 kya - 23 individuals discovered - Steinheim, Germany - Rounded occipital - Large braincase - Broken cranial base - Petralona, Greece - 300 - 250 kya - Swanscombe, England - 300 kya - Female - Aceulean tools present
'Late Archaic' Homo Sapiens
- Asia - 60,000 - 40,000 ya - Found in Amud, Kebara, and Tabun - Shanidar site
Late African Homo Erectus
- Bodo, Ethiopia - John Kalb - 600k ya - Very robust - Cutmarks? -Bouri, Ethiopia - Very robust
Australopithecus Ghari
- Bouri, Ethiopia - 2.5 mya - Small brain 450cc - Larger teeth than A. Afarensis - Some features indicate it may be ancestral to early homo 1) Gracile features 2) Arm/leg ratio more human-like - Used tools?
Shanidar, Iraq
- Cave - 10 Neanderthal individuals - 60,000 - 35,000 yrs ago - Another cemetary, 35 individuals dating to 10,500 yrs ago - Shanidar 1 had several injuries, Shanidar 4 was ritually buried
Index Fossils
- Certain fossils used to date strata (Trilobytes) - Changes in fossil organisms can reflect changes in paleoenvironments - Useful in paleontology and economic geology
Hypothesis of Bipedalism: Seed Eating Hypothesis
- Clifford Jolly - Efficient for gathering seeds - Can see predators more easily
The Upper Paleolithic
- Cultural period began in Western Europe apprx. 40,000 years ago - Industries based on sophisticated tool technologies 1) Fine, thin blades are produced 2) Atl-Atl
Ileret, Kenya
- Dated 1.51 - 1.53mya - Anatomy almost identical to homo sapiens - Features in line hallux and an arch - Reveals truly human form of bipedalism
Hypothesis of Bipedalism: Thermoregualtion Hypothesis
- Dean Falk - Radiator Hypothesis: The placement of cranial blood vessels were key in hominin brain evolution
Australopithecus Africanus
- Discovered in 1925 (The 'Taung Baby') - Raymond Dart (Not immediately accepted as a hominin) - 'Piltdown Man'
Australopithecus sediba
- Discovered in 2008 (Malapa Cave, South Africa) - 2 individuals - 2-1.8 mya - Characteristics: 1) Small teeth 2) Pelvis similar to homo 3) Arm/leg ratio like Australopithecines
The Denisovans
- Discovered in 2008, Altai Mountains - DNA differs from human by 385 bases - Equally distant from Neanderthals and H. Sapiens
Individual Homo Erectus: Found out of Africa
- Dmanisi, Georgia (Republic of Georgia) - Found in the 1990s - Dated to 1.7mya - Six individuals - Relatively small brained - Evidence Homo Erectus left Africa early in its evolutionary history
Early Hominins: Ardipithecus Ramidus
- Ethiopia - 5.5 - 4.5 mya - part-time biped, quadruped 1) Opposable hallux 2) Not flexible for grasping - Many primitive ape-like characteristics - Thin enamel - Forward foramen magnum
South African Homo Habilis: SK 847
- Evidence for early homo in South Africa - Homo Ergaster? - Other fossils present (Mostly small pieces and teeth)
Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 mya - 11,700 ya)
- Extreme world cooling - First recorded migrations out of Africa - Homo Erectus Evolution - The epoch of the cenozoic from 1.8mya until 10,000ya - Frequently referred to as the Ice Age, this epoch is associated with continental glaciations in northern latitudes -
Miocene Epoch (23 - 5mya): The First hominins
- First biped fossils found ~8mya - Adaptive radiation of apes - Probably time of the split between humans and chimpanzees
Homo Erectus
- First discovered in 1891 in Java - Eugene Dubois (1858 - 1940) - Skull cap and femur - Later dated to 1.6mya - Called it 'Pithecanthropus Erectus'
Hypothesis of Bipedalism: Hunting Hyposthesis
- First proposed by Charles Darwin - Raymond Dart: the Taung child, Au. africanus - Human ancestors became efficient hunters - Osteodontokeratic technology: hypothesis that detailed the predatory habits of Australopithecines
Homo Erectus (1.8mya - 300k ya): Full Interpretations
- First to leave Africa - Efficient bipedalism - Human-like body size/proportions - Hunting - Sweating? - Clothing? - Dependence on technology - The first biocultural creature - Homo sapiens?
Precision Grip
- Flexor pollius longus - Precision grip - Originates at radius - Inserts on the ventral surface of the first terminae or phalanx (manual dexterity)
Homo Floresiensis 'The Hobbit'
- Flores, Indonesia - Discovered in 2003 - Several individuals - Dated to 18,000 years ago - Small stature (3.5 feet) - New species? - Development or genetic disorder?
Geography of Early hominins
- Found in Djurab Desert (Chad), African Rift Valley, and Limestone Caves (South Africa)
Homo Erectus (Homo Ergaster)
- Found in East Africa - 1.8 - .3 mya - 900 cc - Human-like limb proportions - Human-like teeth - Less sexually dimorphic - First individual to be a biocultural creature
Australopithecines: Australopithecus Afarensis
- Found in early 1970s - Donald Johnson - Found 40% of the skeleton ('Lucy') - Many ape-like characteristics - A true biped
Atepuerca, Spain
- Gran Dolina - Discovered in Railway cut - Dates to 850 - 780 kya - 28 individuals - 'Homo antecessor' - 1000 cc cranium - Homo erectus-like morphology - Occipital bun - Human-like body size
Homo Heidelbergensis ('Archaic' Homo Sapiens)
- Homo Erectus population begin to differentiate (Retain many H. Erectus characteristics) - Derived characteristics appear 1) Increased brain size 2) More rounded brain cases 3) Dental reduction 4) Less angled occipital
Bernard Wood and Mark Collard
- Homo Habilis is very different from later homo - Primitive face - Primitive limb proportions - Should be considered Australopithecine
Long Distance Running Hypothesis
- Humans were designed for long distance running - Takes evidence from several American Indian tribes and physiology/anatomy
KNMER 1470 (Kenya National Museum, East Rudolf)
- Koobi Foora, Kenya - 1.8 mya - Larger brain: 775 cc - Large premolars and molars - Larger body size - Sometimes considered Homo Rudolfensis
Homo Heidelbergensis Africa
- Kwabe (Broken Hill), Zambia - 600 - 125 kya - Erectus-like brow ridge - Low vault - Large occipital torus - Modern cranial base - Thinner cranial bones - 1300 cc
Intermixing?: Neanderthals and Humans
- Lagar Velho, Portugal - 24.5 kya - Modern features: 1) Chin - Neanderthal features: 1) Robust 2) Short limbs and body size
Australopithecus (Kenyanthropus) platyops
- Lomekwi, Kenya - 3.5 mya - 400 - 500 cranial capacity - Contemporary with A. Afarensis Derived characteristics: - Flat faced - Small molars
Early Hominins: Ardipithecus Kadabba
- Middle Awash, Ethiopia - Fossils include post-cranial bones and teeth; perihoning - 5.8 - 5.2 mya - Lived in a mixed woodland environment - Big toe is broad and flat: 1) Indicates push off by big toe during locomotion 2) But was it really a biped?
Archaic Homo Sapiens
- Middle Pleistocene - Middle between H. sapiens and H. erectus - 1000cc
La Chapelle aux Saints, France
- Neanderthal 'Old Man' discovered - A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon - Discovered 1908 - 40 yrs old
Teshik-Tash,Uzbekistan
- Neanderthal skull found - A.P. Okladnikov - Bajsuntau Cave - Child male 8-9yrs - Horns found around body suggest ritual burial
Stone Tools: Oldowan Complex
- Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania - Louis Leakly - Stone tools at the same level as habilis and late australopithecines - Simple stone tools - Simple reduction process - Represents abstract thought - Best stone tool to use is obsidian: Extremely sharp
Feldhofer Cave, Germany
- One of the first places fossils were found - Neander Valley (Neanderthals named after this)
Hypothesis of Bipedalism: Male Provisioning Hypothesis
- Owen Lovejoy - Monogamous pair bonding - Males assisted with Child-Rearing - Provide food and protection
Scavenger Model: Scavenger Hypothesis
- Pat Shipman - Groups of Habilis began to eat meat - Opportunistic scavenging - Oldowan tools Meat Eating Advantages: 1) Increase in calories 2) Digestive system 3) Expansion of brain 4) Early weaning off of milk, reproduce faster 5) Aids childhood growth and development
Hypothesis of Bipedalism: Patchy Forests Hypothesis
- Peter Rodman and Henry McHenry - African forests became fragmented - Bipedalism may have begun in trees (Gibbons) - Used to walk between patches of food resources
Asian Homo Erectus
- Physiology: Human-like post cranial skeleton - Characteristics: 1) 850 - 1100 cc 2) Heavy brow ridges 3) Low forehead 4) Sagittal Keel 5) Nuchal torus
Anatomy of Bipedalism: Derived traits of bipeds
- Position of foramen magnum (Where the spinal cord connects to the skull) - Shape of pelvis (Wide and short) - Arched foot - In line big toe (hallux) - Limb proportions (Shorter arms, longer legs) - Musculature
Marcellin Boule
- Published first analysis of a complete Neanderthal - His publication wasn't correct, highly discredited
Fossilization
- Rare process - Conditions must be right Types of Fossils: - Sedimentary Rock - Volcanic Activity
Derived Human-like traits
- Reduced Canines - Reduced masticatory muscles - Enlarged brain (cranial capacity): Orangutans: 340 - 440 cc Gorillas: 455 - 530 cc Chimpanzees: 320 - 480 cc Humans: 1250 - 1500 cc - Enamel Thickness
Neanderthal Genetics
- Series of studies - mtDNA - Show Neanderthals are not within range of normal human genetic variation - Diverged between 690 and 500 kya - Neanderthal genome: 1-4% of non-African DNA is Neanderthal
Homo Neanderthalensis
- Shorter and more robust than humans - Sexual dimorphism - Larger brain size ~1500cc - Brow ridge, short forehead - Engis Caves, Belgium - Phillipe-Charles Schmerling
Taphonomy
- Study of decomposition - Process may be arrested by 1) Dry 2) Cold 3) Wet (anaerobic environments)
Middle Pliestocene (780 - 125kya)
- The Ice Age - Glacials - Interglacials - Restricted or encouraged hominid migrations - Seal levels drop during glacials - Food resources change
Paleoanthropology
- The Study of immediate ancestors of humans (hominins) - Relies on fossils - Geographically specific: 1) East and South Africa 2) East Asia 3) Middle East
Archaeological Recovery
- Used in paleo-anthropological context - Mapping of fossil rich areas - Recording of strata/geology
Homo Erectus (Ergaster): KNM WT 1500
- West Turkana, Kenya - Aged 8 - 11 years - 5'3" tall (taller as adult) - 880cc - Very human-like body proportions - 1.8 mya
Cladistics/Cladogram
- time is not a factor Timeline: Au. Ramidus ---> Au. Anamensis ---> Afarensis ---> Robustus (Boisei, Aethiopithecus) ---> Africanus ----> Homo
Absolute Dating Techniques
1) Dendrochronology - Based on number of tree rings - Wide rings = wet years, Narrow rings = dry years 2) RadioCarbon Dating - Decomposition rates of C-14 3) Chemical Dating Tecniques - Rely of half-lives of radioactive elements - Potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating - Uranium series (fission track) dating
Bipedalism
1) Facultative bipedalism: occuring optionally, with regards to circumstances such as nature - Some primates 2) Habitual bipedalism - Birds - Macropods (Kangaroos) - Dinosaurs - Homo sapiens
Relative Dating Techniques
1) Flourine Dating - Flourine found in soil - Leaches into bones - Amount of flourine gives a relative age - Amount of flourine depends on the soil 2) Cultural Dating - Common in Archaeological contexts - Analyze the change in material culture over time
Glacials
A period of time of colder global average temp than regular. Presence of extensive ice/glaciers
Interglacials
A period of time of warmer global average temperature than during glacial periods
'Gracile' Australopithecines
Australopithecus Africanus: - 3.0 - 2.3 mya - South Africa - Projecting face - Small canines - Post-orbital constriction - Fossil found in rock quarries (Ancient sinkholes)
Australopithecus Robustus
Behavior: - 2-1mya - Lived in large groups? - Specialized diet: Seeds, Nuts, Tubers - Robustus Austalopithecines thought to be an evolutionary 'Side Branch' (Disappear ~1mya)
H. Sapien Evolution: Assimilation Model
Erectus comes out of Africa, occupies areas, and Homo sapiens originated in Africa, spread out, and mostly replaced these other species. Explains the 1-4% genetic similarity between Neanderthals and Humans.
Lateoli, Kenya
Footprints found indicating a true biped that lived 3.6 mya
H. Sapien Evolution: Multiregional Evolution
Gradual change from Erectus to Homo Sapiens and all in between
H. Sapien Evolution: Out of Africa
Homo Erectus comes out of Africa but origin of Homo Sapiens occured in isloation and invaded/replaced species out there
Acheulian Technology
Stone tool manufacture characterized by distinctive oval and pear-shaped "hand-axes" associated with early humans
Parallel Evolution
The independent evolution of similar traits, starting from a similar ancestral condition
Law of superposition
The oldest strata is the deepest, youngest strata is more shallow; Niels Stensen/Nicolaus Steno
Convergent Evolution
The process whereby organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches
Primitive Trait (Ancestral)
Trait or feature of a lineage or taxon that is inherited from the common ancestor
Derived Trait
Trait that is present in an organism, but was absent in the last common ancestor of the group being considered
