bio exam 1

The fungus gives the lichen:

- its overall shape and structure - most of its mass - a suitable growth environment - increased surface area for the uptake of gases, water, and minerals

Paleozoic Era (542 - 251 Million Years Ago) (cont.) There are several hypotheses regarding the cause of the Cambrian explosion and decline of Ediacaran biota:

- new predator-prey relationships - a rise in atmospheric oxygen - the evolution of the Hox gene complex

Differ from chordates in that adult echinoderms:

- radial symmetry - no head (no cephalization) - 5 arms for movement

Major groups in the Excavata:

-Diplomonads -parabasalids -Eugleonozoans (include: Kinetoplastids, Euglenids)

Major groups in SAR clade:

-Stramenopiles (include: diatoms, golden algae, brown algae) -Alveolates (include: dinoflagellates, Apicomplexans, Ciliates) -Rhizarians (include: radiolarians, forams, cercozoans)

Key characteristics in Unikonta

-amoebas with lobe-shaped or tube-shaped pseudopodia

functions of prokaryotic cell wall:

-composed of peptidoglycan (sugar crossed-linked with polypeptides) -archaeal cell walls contain polysaccharides and proteins, but no peptidoglycan -eukaryotic cell walls are made of cellulose or chitin.

Prokaryotes can move themselves via:

-flagella (most common) -corkscrew motion (spirochetes) -secretion of slimy threads

Key characteristics of the SAR clade:

-hairy and smooth flagella -membrane-enclosed sacs (alveoli) beneath plasma membrane -amoebas with threadlike pseudopodia

How do prokaryotes move?

-many prokaryotes exhibit taxis, the ability to move in response to a stimulus (positive or negative chemotaxis or phototaxis)

Excretory organs in flatworms:

-pharynx -mouth -eyespots -ganglia -ventral nerve cords -gastrovascular cavity

Key characteristics of Archaeplastida

-phycoerythrin (photosynthetic pigment) -Plant-type chloroplasts

2 main groups of Primates:

-prosimians (lemurs and tarsiers -anthropoids (monkeys and apes)

Characterisitics of prokaryotic endospore:

-some bacteria can withstand harsh conditions (lacking an essential nutrient) by forming resistant cells called endospores -endospores can withstand boiling water and can remain dormant for centuries

Characteristics of prokaryotic fimbriae and pili

-some prokaryotes stick to their substrate or to one another by means of hair-like appendages called fimbriae -shorter structures called pili can pull two cells together, such as in conjugation

Characteristics of prokaryotic capsule

-sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein -enable prokaryotes to adhere to substrate or other individuals to form a colony -protect against dehydration or shield pathogenic species from host's immune system

Dates of the neoproterozoic era

1 billion - 542 million years ago

3 domains of life are:

1. Bacteria 2. Archaea 3. Eukarya

4 major classes of Molluscs:

1. Chitons 2. Gastropods 3. Bivalves 4. Cephalopods

The protists are a polyphyletic group, not a kingdom. Instead, all eukaryotes are arranged into four supergroups. 1. 2. 3. 4.

1. Excavata 2. Archaeplastida 3. SAR clade 4. Unikonta

Within the Rhizarians, name the 3 groups.

1. Forams 2. Cercozoans 3 Radiolarians

_____________ and ____________ are part of the Excavates. What are their characterisitics?

Diplomonads Parabasalids 1. no plasmids 2. modified mitochondria 3. live in anaeobic environments

- young develop inside mother's body - embryo nourished by a ___________ (= organ that allows diffusion of substances between maternal and embryonic bloodstreams) - only mammals to live in the seas and fly

Eutherians (mammals) placenta

Include sharks and their relatives, ray-finned fishes, lobe-finned fishes, amphibians, reptiles (including birds), and mammals.

Gnathostomes

The __________ is a valuable tool for identifying specific bacteria based on differences in cell wall composition of prokaryotes

Gram stain

____________ bacteria are more threatening. Why?

Gram-negative Why? -LPS is toxic -outer membrane protects against host defenses -resistant to typical antibotics (penicillin inhibits cross-linkages in cell wall)

marine, bottom-dwelling scavengers

Hagfishes

____________ is an enormous clade including insects and their relatives.

Hexapoda

____________(formerly called hominids) are more closely related to humans than to chimpanzees. __________ have discovered fossils of about 20 species of extinct hominins.

Hominins Paleoanthropologists

- possibly wings - one pair of antennae - two compound eyes - respiratory system: _________________ and ____________ - excretory organs: Malpighian tubules to conserve water

Insects tracheal tubes spiracles

Heteroloboseids are a part of the Excavates -the parasite ___________ (brain-eating amoeba)

Naegleria fowleri

_____________, Homo neanderthalensis, lived in Europe and the Near East from 350,000 to 28,000 years ago. They were thick-boned with a larger brain, they buried their dead, and they made hunting tools.

Neanderthals

Recent genetic analysis indicates that gene flow occurred between ___________ and ___________.

Neanderthals and Homo sapiens

Humans first arrived in the New World sometime before 15,000 years ago. Homo sapiens were the first group to show evidence of symbolic and sophisticated thought; in 2002, a 77,000-year-old artistic carving was found in _________.

South Africa

Examples of pathogenic bacteria

Streptococcus pneumoniae live in throats of healthy people, but cause pneumonia when defenses down. Staphylococcus aureus is normally found on the skin, but can cause skin infections if they get inside a cut. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a problem in hospitals. Clostridium difficile causes diarrhea and colitis. C. difficile infections are also frequent in hospitals.

- lobe- or tube-shaped pseudopodia - common unicellular protists in soil as well as freshwater and marine environments - most are heterotrophic and actively seek and consume bacteria and other protists

Tubulinids

- more closely related to other chordates than are lancelets - resemble chordates during their larval stage

Tunicates

All turtles have a boxlike shell made of an upper shield (______) and lower (______) shield that are fused to the vertebrae, clavicles, and ribs. Some turtles have adapted to deserts and others live entirely in ponds and rivers.

Turtles carapace plastron

Fungi, animals, and their protistan relatives are in the supergroup _______________ and the clade _______________.

Unikonta Opisthokonts

Human characteristics: 1. 2. Larger brains capable of language, symbolic thought, artistic expression, the manufacture and use of complex tools 3. Reduced jawbones and jaw muscles 4.

Upright posture and bipedal locomotion Shorter digestive tract

_________________ mammals nourish their young by a placenta and lactation. Caseins in milk have similar functions as VTG.

Viviparous

Earthworms eat through soil, extracting nutrients as the soil moves through the _______________. Most are hermaphrodites but cross-fertilize via ____________

alimentary canal clitella

disposes metabolic wastes

allantois

Alveolates have membrane-enclosed sacs (_________) just under the plasma membrane. The alveolates include dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and ciliates.

alveoli

fluid-filled cavity

amnion

Many species in the rhizarian clade are ___________ (ie, protists that move and feed by pseudopodia). Rhizarian amoebas differ from amoebas in other clades by having __________________. Rhizarians include radiolarians and forams.

amoebas threadlike pseudopodia

Although the Hox family of genes has been highly conserved, it can produce a wide diversity of ____________.

animal morphology

Insects with _________________ have larval stages known as maggot, grub, or caterpillar. The larval stage looks entirely different from the adult stage (eg, butterfly).

complete metamorphosis

When ascomycetes reproduce asexually, they produce large numbers of asexual spores called __________. Conidia are not formed inside sporangia, but at the tips of specialized hyphae called ___________.

conidia conidiophores

Most amphibians have moist skin that complements the lungs in gas exchange (ie, ____________________ breathing).

cutaneous

Ecdysozoans are covered by a tough coat called a _______ that is shed or molted through a process called __________. The two largest phyla are nematodes and arthropods.

cuticle ecdysis

in the ____________, photosynthetic cells and nitrogen-fixing cells called _________ exchange metabolic products

cyanobacterium anabaena heterocysts

CESTODA Humans acquire larva by eating undercooked meat contaminated with ________. Large tapeworms (> 20 m) can lead to intestinal blockage and nutritional deficiencies.

cysts

- two flagella - each cell is reinforced by _________ plates - abundant components of both marine and freshwater phytoplankton - diverse group of aquatic phototrophs, mixotrophs, and heterotrophs - toxic "red tides" are caused by dinoflagellate blooms

dinoflagellates *cellulose

Most animals reproduce sexually, with the _________stage usually dominating the life cycle. After a sperm fertilizes an egg, the zygote undergoes rapid cell division called _________.

diploid cleavage

In kinetoplastids, the parasites have multiple hosts, and ______ can be controlled in any one of these.

disease

Pathogenic Bacteria (cont.) Some bacterial diseases are transmitted by other species (ie, ______________). Ex: Lyme disease is caused by a bacterium and carried by ticks.

disease vectors

Animals with bilateral symmetry have: - a __________ (top) and a ________ (bottom) side - a right and left side - _________ (front) and __________ (back) ends - (possibly) sensory tissues, such as a brain, concentrated in their anterior end (_____________)

dorsal ventral anterior posterior cephalization

Ecdysozoa is a clade of protostomal invertebrates that shed their exoskeletons through a process called __________.

ecdysis

_______ and ________ are deuterostomes

echinoderms chordates

Fungi as Mutualists Fungi form mutualistic relationships with plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and animals. All of these relationships have significant _____________.

ecological effects

Reptiles (class Reptilia) Most are ____________, absorbing external heat as the main source of body heat. Ectotherms regulate their body temperature through behavioral adaptations. ____________ are capable of maintaining body temperature through metabolism.

ectothermic Endotherms

Much of protist diversity is due to _________________, a relationship between two species in which one organism lives inside the cell or cells of the other organism (the host).

endosymbiosis

Prokaryotes can be categorized by:

energy and carbon

Benefits to life on land: - - access to new food resources (eg, plants, insects)

escape aquatic predators

Benefits to flight: - enhances hunting and scavenging - - migration

escape from terrestrial predators

Kinetoplastids are ____________, which is within the excavates.

euglenozoans

Flagella likely evolved as existing proteins were added to an ancestral secretory system. This is an example of _____________, where existing structures take on new functions through descent with modification Flagella of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes are composed of different proteins and likely evolved independently.

exaptation

Some members of _______________ have a deep ("excavated") feeding groove, distinctive flagella, and atypical or absent mitochondria.

excavates

__________ are secreted and cause disease even if the prokaryotes that produce them are not present.

exotoxins

Pathogenic prokaryotes typically cause disease by releasing ____________ or ___________

exotoxins endotoxins

The evolution of flight is one of the great successes of insects: 1. allowing them to feed on gymnosperms and angiosperms 2. 3. escape predators, find food, and disperse to new habitats much faster than organisms that can only crawl

expand the diversity of angiosperms

Some archaea live in extreme environments and are called __________. Extreme ________ live in high-salt environments (eg, > seawater, 3.5%). Extreme __________ thrive in very hot environments (eg, > 90 - 121oC).

extremophiles halophiles thermophiles

In Euglenids.... - ________: blocks light and reflects light to the light detector -________________: senses direction of light -_________________ pumps excess water out of cell -____________ protein bands that provide strength and flexibility

eyespot light detector contractile vacuole: pellicle:

can survive with or without O2

facultative anaerobes

The Origin of Tetrapods Tiktaalik, nicknamed a "____________," shows both fish and tetrapod characteristics, as well as a transition to life on land.

fishpond

1. related to the tsetse fly range 2. related to reduviid range......organism multiplies in host brain, liver, spleen and heart; common cause of heart transplants

sleeping sickness chagas disease

_____________ and __________ are kinetoplastids.

sleeping sickness chagas disease

The fungi of lichens can reproduce sexually and asexually. Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation or the formation of_______________, small clusters of hyphae with embedded algae.

soredia

In humans: 1. Notochord is replaced by the: 2. Nerve cord develops into the: 3. Pharyngeal slits form the: 4. Postanal tail:

spine/vertebrae central nervous system eustachian tubes coccyx

_______ are basal animals that lack true tissues

sponges

Asexual _____________ produce haploid spores. The life cycle of black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer) is fairly typical is representative of the phylum. Its hyphae are coenocytic.

sporangia

Fungi propagate themselves by producing vast numbers of _________, either sexually or asexually. _________ are microscopic and light, and therefore can travel long distances, usually by wind.

spores

Crinoidea exhibit _________. ___________ (crinoids) live attached to the substrate by a stalk. ____________ can crawl using long, flexible arms. Both are suspension feeders.

stasis Sea lilies feather stars

most have a hariy flagellum paired with a smooth flagellum

stramenopiles

is an ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact: a larger host and smaller symbiont

symbiosis

One of the most significant events in vertebrate history was when the fins of some lobe-finned fishes evolved into the limbs and feet of ________ (~365 mya).

tetrapods

Brown algal seaweeds have plantlike structures called _______

thallus

Many insects have one or two pairs of wings that emerge from the ___________. Because the wings are an extension of the cuticle, they can fly without sacrificing any walking legs

thorax

Frogs (anurans) lack tails and have powerful hind legs for locomotion on land. Frogs with leathery skin are called "_________."

toads

Apicomplexans (cont.) Toxoplasma gondii, causes _______________, which is usually not problematic in most people except those who are pregnant or have a weakened immune system. Eating T. gondii cysts in undercooked meat or changing cat litter boxes increases the risk of infection.

toxoplasmosis

Parasitic nematodes include pinworms, heartworms, and Trichinella. Trichinella spiralis can be acquired by humans from undercooked pork (_____________).

trichinosis

Lophotrochozoans are ______________ bilaterial animals that are either acoelomates, pseudocoelomates, or coelomates. These include flatworms, rotifers, molluscs, and annelids.

triploblastic

As an adult, a _________ draws in water through an incurrent siphon, filtering food particles. When attacked, tunicates, or "sea squirts," shoot water through their excurrent siphon.

tunicate

Diplomonads characteristics: - reduced mitochondria (mitosomes) - __________________ - the parasite Giardia lamblia (or G. intestinalis) causes severe diarrhea (giardiasis)

two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella

Mutualistic Bacteria Human intestines are home to about 500-1,000 species of bacteria. Many of these are mutualists and break down food that is undigested by our intestines, and some produce _________ (eg, K, B2, B12). Others protect us by preventing the growth of ________________ or fungi.

vitamins pathogenic bacteria

Eukaryote characteristics: nucleus? Size? unicellular/multicellular? chromosome? reproduction? motility? cell wall? simple or complex? nutrition?

yes some small, some large both (mostly unicellular) linear asexual or sexual varys (some by flagella, some by cilia, some by pseudopods, some by appendages) some made of cellulose, fungal cell wall are composed of chitin, some do not have a cell wall complex depends

nutrient and water storage

yolk sac

Some dinoflagellates form a symbiotic relationship with coral in the form of __________.

zooxanthellae

The ___________ (phylum Zygomycota) include fast-growing molds, parasites, and commensal symbionts.

zygomycetes

The zygomycetes are named for their sexually-produced ____________that are the site of karyogamy and then meiosis. Zygosporangia, which are resistant to freezing and drying, can survive unfavorable conditions.

zygosporangia

major groups in Unikonta

- Amoebozoans (include: slime mods, tubulinids, Entamoebas) -Opisthokonts

4 orders of Reptiles

- Chelonia (turtles and tortoises) - Rynchocephalia (tuataras) - Squamata (snakes and lizards) - Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators)

3 orders of Amphibians

- Urodela ("tailed ones") - Anura ("tailless") - Apoda ("legless")

The photosynthetic partner gives the lichen:

- carbon compounds - fixed nitrogen - nitrogen compounds

The versatility of these enzymes contributes to fungi's ecological success. Fungi function as:

- decomposers (saprobes) - parasites - mutualists

Fungi and animals are more closely related to each other than they are to plants. Why?

1. Fungi are heterotrophs vs. plants are autotrophs 2. Fungi store excess glucose as glycogen vs. plants store excess glucose in the form of starch 3. Fungi cell walls are composed of chitin vs. plants cell walls are made of cellulose

Two clades in Cnidarians

1. Medusozoans (jelly fish) 2. Anthozoans (colorful anemones)

Prokaryotic Internal Organization **some prokaryotes have specialized membranes that perform metabolic functions **these membranes are usually infoldings of the plasma membrane

1. Respiratory membrane: ETC for ATP synthesis (like cristae of mitochondria) 2. Thylakoid membrane: pigments for photosynthesis (like those of chloroplasts)

Zoologists sometimes categorize animals according to a body plan, a set of morphological and developmental traits, which include:

1. Symmetry 2. Tissues 3. Body Cavities 4. Protostome vs. Deuterostome Development

Vertebrate characteristics: 1. 2. Skull encloses and protects brain; high degree of cephalization with complex sense organs 3. 4. Internal organs and a large coelom; includes complete digestive tract; closed circulatory system; respiratory system (gills or lungs); kidneys; sexual reproduction

1. Vertebral column replaces the embryonic notochord 3. Endoskeleton to protect internal organs; attachment for muscle

3 types of lichens

1. fruticose (shrublike) 2. foliose (leaflike) 3. crustose (encrusting)

Kinetoplastids characteristics: 1. 2. 3. parasites in the genus Trypanosoma cause sleeping sickness (T. brucei) and Chagas disease (T. cruzi) ***The cell surface of trypanosomes is coated with millions of copies of a single protein, but the next generation switches to a different protein. These frequent changes prevent the host from developing immunity.

1. have a single mitochondrion with an organized mass of DNA (kinetoplast) 2. free-living species are consumers of prokaryotes

Four key characters of chordates:

1. notochord 2. dorsal, hollow nerve cord 3. pharyngeal slits or clefts 4. post-anal tail

Major groups of bacteria

1. proteobacteria 2. alpha subgroup 3. beta subgroup 4. gamma subgroup 5. delta subgroup 6. epsilion subgroup 7. chlamydias 8. spirochetes 9. cyanobacteria 10. gram-positive bacteria

Factors that contribute to genetic diversity:

1. rapid reproduction and mutation 2. genetic recombination

Key features of prokaryotic reproduction:

1. small 2. binary fission 3. short generation times

dates of the mesozoic era

251 - 65.5 million years ago

date of the paleozoic era

542- 251 million years ago

dates of the cenozoic era

65.5 million years ago - present

Primate characteristics: 1. Most have hands and feet adapted for grasping, and flat nails 2. 3. Forward-looking eyes close together on the face, providing depth perception 4. 5. A fully opposable thumb (in monkeys and apes)

A large brain and short jaws Complex social behavior and parental care

- jawless fishes - belong to the clade Cyclostoma (jawless vertebrates) - cartilaginous skeleton - no scales or paired fins

Agnathans

Plastids arose when a heterotrophic protist acquired a ___________________. The photosynthetic descendants of this ancient protist evolved into red algae and green algae. Land plants are descended from the green algae. Archaeplastids include:

ARCHAEPLASTIDS cyanobacterial endosymbiont red algae, green algae, and land plants

Advantages and Disadvantages of ectothermy

Advan: Dont need a constant food supply to drive metabolism, have simple control mechanisms Disadvantages: can not survive in as wide a range of conditions and habitats

Advantages or Disadvantages of Endothermy

Advantages: Can survive in a wide range of conditions and habitats Disadvantages: Must have a constant food supply to drive metabolism, have complex control mechanisms

Five important points about the relationships among living animals are reflected in their phylogeny: 1. 2. Sponges are basal animals 3. 4. Most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria 5. There are three major clades of bilaterian animals, two of which are invertebrates (ie, animals that lack a backbone), and the third include the vertebrates.

All animals share a common ancestor Eumetazoa ("true animals") is a clade of animals with true tissues

__________ are a group of tetrapods whose living members are the reptiles (including birds) and mammals.

Amniotes

Amniote characteristics: 1. _____________ (shelled) with 4 extraembryonic membranes 2. Embryos in amniotic eggs are bathed in fluid 3. Skin rich in _________, preventing it from drying out 4. Lungs throughout their life 5. r 6. Internal fertilization

Amniotic egg keratin Kidneys conserve wate

________________ are amoeba that have lobe- or tube-shaped pseudopodia. They include slime molds, tubulinids, and entamoebas.

Amoebozoans

- aquatic or terrestrial - bilateral symmetry; triploblastic; coelomate - hermaphrodites, but some can't fertilize its own eggs - free-living or parasitic - move by longitudinal and circular muscles, and _______ (= bristles made of chitin) - __________ (repetition of body units) - closed circulatory system - includes earthworms and leeches

Annelids chaetae segmentation

- parasites of animals; some cause serious human diseases - spread through their host as infectious cells called sporozoites - complex of organelles at one end, the apex - most have sexual and asexual stages that require two or more different host species for completion

Apicomplexans

___________ have six pairs of appendages: - chelicerae -______________ (sensing, feeding, defense) - four pairs of walking legs

Arachnids (type of chelicerates) pedipalps

______________ extend hyphae through the cell walls of root cells and into tubes formed by invagination of the root cell membrane

Arbuscular mycorrhizae

Major features: - exoskeleton composed of chitin that can be shed - segmentation (head, thorax, abdomen) - nervous system (brain, ventral nerve cord, simple and compound eyes, antennae) - various respiratory organs (gills, book lungs, trachaea) - open circulatory system in which _________ is circulated into the spaces surrounding the tissues and organs - ____________ (larvae, adult)

Arthropods hemolymph metamorphosis

_____________ (phylum Ascomycota) are commonly called sac fungi, and live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. Ascomycetes produce sexual spores (_____________) inside saclike ________ contained in fruiting bodies called __________.

Ascomycetes ascospores asci ascocarps

__________ (or __________) _______ lack septa and have a continuous cytoplasmic mass with hundreds or thousands of nuclei.

Coenocytic fungi aseptate

Crustaceans (cont.) Krill are shrimplike marine (planktonic) crustaceans that are a major food source for whales, and are harvested for food and oils. ___________ are a group of mostly sessile crustaceans. They have a cuticle that is hardened into a calcium carbonate shell.

Barnacles

_______________ (phylum Basidiomycota) are commonly called club fungi, and include mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi. Some basidiomycetes form _______________, and others are plant parasites or decomposers of wood.

Basidiomycetes ectomycorrhizae

___________animals often move actively and have a central nervous system.

Bilateral

____________ was energy efficient in the arid environments inhabited by hominins at the time (vs. walking on all fours).

Bipedal walking

- clams, oysters, scallops - shell divided into two halves drawn together by _____________ - some have eyes and sensory tentacles along the edge of their mantle - mantle cavity contains gills used for feeding as well as gas exchange - most species are sedentary

Bivalves (kind of Molluscs) adductor muscles

- superficially resemble clams and other bivalves - marine and most attach to the seafloor by a stalk - some species unchanged from 400 mya (______)

Brachiopods stasis

What clade are brittle stars found in? Brittle stars have a distinct central disk and long, flexible arms, which they use for movement. Some species are _______________, while others are predators or scavengers

CLADE Ophiuroidea suspension feeders

After a diatom population has bloomed, many dead individuals fall to the ocean floor. This removes___________ from the atmosphere and "pumps" it to the ocean floor. Some scientists advocate fertilizing the ocean to promote diatom blooms and the movement of CO2 from the atmosphere to the ocean floor.

CO2 ***helps global warming

__________________ (apoda) are legless, nearly blind, and resemble earthworms. The absence of legs is a secondary adaptation (ie, evolved from a legged ancestor).

Caecilians

Early in the _______________, about 530 million years ago, an astonishing variety of invertebrate animals inhabited Earth's oceans. One type of animal gave rise to vertebrates, one of the most successful groups of animals. The animals called vertebrates get their name from __________, the series of bones that make up the backbone.

Cambrian period vertebrae

The beginning of the ______________ followed mass extinctions of both terrestrial and marine animals. These extinctions included the large, nonflying dinosaurs and the marine reptiles. Mammals increased in size and exploited vacated ecological niches. The global climate cooled.

Cenozoic era

- squids, octopuses, chambered nautiluses, cuttlefish - closed circulatory system - well-developed sense organs, including a brain - carnivores with beak-like jaws surrounded by tentacles of their ___________ - immobilize prey with a poison present in their saliva - most octopuses creep along the sea floor in search of prey - squids use their siphon to fire a jet of water, which allows them to swim very quickly - cuttlefish can change color for communication, camouflage or warning

Cephalopods (kind of mollusc) modified foot

Phylum Platyhelminthes - Flatworms (cont.) Parasitic species (cont.) _____________: - tapeworms that parasitize vertebrates - lack a digestive system; absorb nutrients across its body wall - _________ contains suckers and hooks for attaching to the host - hermaphrodites have sacs of sex organs (___________) loaded with fertilized eggs - fertilized eggs leave the host's body in feces

Cestoda scolex proglottids

- ____________ (= paired feeding appendages) - cephalothorax and abdomen - no antennae - horseshoe crabs exhibit _______ - modern chelicerates are __________ (spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, chiggers)

Chelicerates (type of arthropods) chelicerae stasis arachnids

_______________ function as decomposers, breaking down dead organisms and waste products.

Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes

- oval-shaped marine animals encased in an armor of eight dorsal plates - use their foot like a suction cup to grip rock - use their radula to scrape algae off the rock surface

Chitons

- cartilaginous fishes - uncovered gills slits - includes sharks rays, and skates

Chondrichthyans (Jawed fishes)

____________ (phylum Chytridiomycota) are found in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine habitats including hydrothermal vents. They can be decomposers, parasites, or mutualists. Chytrids are unique among fungi in having flagellated spores, called ____________.

Chytrids zoospores

Phylum Echinodermata - Echinoderms (cont.) What clade are sea stars found in? Sea stars have multiple arms radiating from a central disk. Tube feet grip substrate with adhesive chemicals. Sea stars feed on _________ by prying them open with their tube feet, everting their stomach, and digesting their prey externally with digestive enzymes. Sea stars can regrow lost arms.

Clade Asteroidea bivalves

What clade are sea lillies and feather stars found?

Clade Crinoidea

What clade are sea urchins and sand dollars found? Sea urchins and sand dollars have no arms but have five rows of tube feet. Their ________ are used for locomotion and protection. Sea urchins feed on seaweed using a jaw-like structure on their underside.

Clade Echinoidea spines

WHat clade are sea cucumbers found? Sea cucumbers lack spines, have a very reduced endoskeleton, and do not look much like other echinoderms. Sea cucumbers have five rows of tube feet; some of these are developed as feeding tentacles.

Clade Holothuroidea

Birds (class Aves) _____________ are the closest relatives to birds: - vocal - _____________ (nest building, egg guarding) - 4-chambered heart, so O2-poor blood doesn't mix with O2-rich blood

Crocodilians parental behavior

- many have specialized appendages (eg, antennae, mouthparts, abdominal legs) - small crustaceans exchange gases through the cuticle; larger crustaceans have gills ____________ include terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species (eg, pill bugs). _____________ have claws and are all relatively large crustaceans; include lobsters, crabs, crayfish, and shrimp.

Crustaceans Isopods Decapods

__________________ includes hemichordates (acorn worms), echinoderms (sea stars and relatives), and chordates. This clade includes a few invertebrates and all vertebrates

Deuterostomia

The bilaterians are divided into three clades:

Deuterostomia Ecdysozoa Lophotrochozoa

- unicellular algae with a unique two-part, glass-like wall of silicon dioxide (SiO2) - major component of phytoplankton - highly diverse - deposits mined as diatomaceous earth (abrasives: eg, toothpaste, slug killer)

Diatoms

Within the Stramenopiles, name the 3 groups.

Diatoms Golden algae Brown algae

Within the alveolates, name the 3 groups

Dinoflagellates Apicomplexans Ciliates

Experiments using prokaryotes have led to important advances in DNA technology. - _________ is used in gene cloning, and have been engineered to produce vitamins, antibiotics, and hormones. - __________________ is used to make transgenic plants.

E. coli Agrobacterium tumefaciens

- marine - deuterostomes - bilateral symmetry (larva), radial symmetry (adult) - tripoloblastic; coelomate - sexual reproduction - free-living and sessile - ______________ composed of CaCO3 - no brain, but do have a nerve net; no head - ________________________, a network of hydraulic canals branching into tube feet that function in locomotion and feeding - includes starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and crinoids

ECHINODERMS endoskeleton should be in lecture recording

- one or two flagella that emerge from a pocket at one end of the cell - some species are ___________

EUGLENIDS mixotrophs

Tissues During development, two to three germ layers give rise to the tissues and organs of the animal embryo. ____________ is the germ layer covering the embryo's surface. ____________ is the innermost germ layer and lines the developing digestive tube, called the ______________.

Ectoderm Endoderm archenteron

________________form sheaths of hyphae over a root and grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex.

Ectomycorrhizae

Two types of mycorrhizae:

Ectomycorrhizae Arbuscular mycorrhizae

- sessile colonial animals that superficially resemble plants - hard exoskeleton encases the colony - some species are reef builders

Ectoprocts

___________ are lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membranes of certain Gram-negative bacteria, and are released when the bacteria die and their cell walls break down. Ex: Salmonella typhi (typhoid fever)

Endotoxins

- parasites of vertebrates and some invertebrates - Entamoeba histolytica causes _______________ (bloody diarrhea), the 3rd-leading cause of human death due to eukaryotic parasites

Entamoebas -amebic dysentery

Many fungi are extremely dangerous if ingested (eg, Aspergillus flavus, Amanita phalloides). _____________, caused by Claviceps purpurea (ergot of rye), is characterized by nervous spasms, burning sensations, hallucinations, and temporary insanity.

Ergotism

- most are mobile, marine organisms - many have a pair of paddle-like or ridge-like ___________ on each body segment - each parapodium has numerous chaetae

Errantians (kind of annelid) parapodia

_________ are Euglenozoans, which is within the Excavates

Euglenids

_____________ are apart of Excavates. - distinguishable spiral or crystalline rod inside their flagella - predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, mixotrophs, and parasites

Euglenozoans

____________ is external in most species, and the eggs require a moist environment. In some species, males or females care for the eggs on their back, in their mouth, or in their stomach.

Fertilization

- aka forams, named for porous shells called ________ (CaCO3) - pseudopodia (____________) extend through the pores in the test - many have endosymbiotic algae

Foraminiferans -tests -reticulopodia

Tetrapod characteristics: 1. 2. Neck, which allows separate movement of the head 3. Fusion of the pelvic girdle to the backbone 4. The absence of gills (except some aquatic species) 5.

Four limbs, and feet with digits Ears for detecting airborne sounds

______ are heterotrophic eukaryotes that include yeasts, molds and mushrooms. Fungi are essential for the well-being of most terrestrial ecosystems because they break down organic material and recycle vital nutrients (ie, decomposers). The largest organism on Earth is the mushroom Armillaria ostoyae. It lives in Oregon, covers ~2000 acres and is ~2000 years old.

Fungi

- snails and slugs - about 75% of molluscs - most are marine, but many are freshwater and terrestrial species - move slowly by a rippling motion of the foot or by cilia - single, spiraled shell functions in protection from injury, dehydration, and predation - most gastropods are herbivores, but some species use radula to feed on prey

Gastropods (kind of molluscs)

1. ________ 2. Use teeth to grip food firmly and slice 3. Enlarged forebrain associated with enhanced smell and vision 4. ____________________ in aquatic gnathostomes, which is sensitive to vibrations

Gnathostome characteristics Jaws lateral line system

Misconceptions about human evolution: 1. Early hominins were chimpanzees Correction: . 2. Human evolution is like a ladder leading directly to Homo sapiens Correction:

Hominins and chimpanzees shared a common ancestor Hominin evolution included many branches or coexisting species, though only humans survive today

___________ appeared in Africa by 195,000 years ago. All living humans are descended from these African ancestors. The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens outside Africa date back about 115,000 years and are from the Middle East.

Homo sapiens

Genetic Recombination -______________________ is the movement of genes from one organism of one species to another organism of a different species Prokaryotes do so by:

Horizontal gene transfer -transformation (know what these are) -transduction -conjugation

Bird characteristics: 1. __________________ derived from scales, and function in insulation, courtship, flight, and to keep skin dry. 2. Lightweight: thin bones, no urinary bladder, no teeth, females have one ovary 3. Lungs are connected to ________ that "store" O2 (cellular respiration). 4. 4-chambered heart 4. _____________ 5. Well-developed sense organs and nervous system (eg, acute vision) 6. Internal fertilization.

Keratinized feathers air sacs Endothermic

Animals defined: 1. Multicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes that ingest their food 2. Store carbohydrate reserves as glycogen 3. __________ 4. Collagen, a structural protein, is the most abundant protein 5. ____________________________ 6. Most produce sexually 7. Diploid stage usually dominates life cycle

Lack cell wall Contain nervous and muscle tissue

parasites of live fish

Lampreys

___________ (subphylum Cephalochordata) - named for their bladelike shape - marine suspension feeders

Lancelets

- thick, fleshy fins supported by bones (pelvic and pectoral fins) - swim and "walk" underwater - three extant lineages are the coelacanths, lungfishes, and tetrapods

Lobe-finned fish (Osteichthyans...jawed fishes)

________________ is a clade of protostomal invertebrates, in which some have a feeding structure called a lophophore. Others go through a distinct developmental stage called the _______________.

Lophotrochozoa trochophore larva

Mammal characteristics: 1. _____________, which produce milk 2. 3. High metabolic rate due to endothermy 4. Larger brain than other vertebrates of equivalent size 5.

Mammary glands Hair Differentiated teeth

Pyhlum Cnidaria - Cnidarians Characteristics: - aquatic - radial symmetry; diploblastic - ____________ = jelly-like substance between two cell layers - 2 body forms: - tentacles surround the mouth/anus for movement or capturing prey - gastrovascular cavity (extracellular digestion), gastrodermis (intracellular digestion) - nerve net (= mesh of nerve cells with no central control organ) - ____________ that contain ____________ - includes jellyfish, corals, and sea anemones

Mesoglea polyp & medusa Cnidocytes nematocytes

Coral reefs emerged, becoming important marine ecological niches for other organisms. The ancestors of plesiosaurs were reptiles that returned to the water. During the Mesozoic era, dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates. The first mammals emerged. Flowering plants and insects diversified.

Mesozoic era

Fungus-Plant Mutualisms (cont.) _____________ is an endophyte and insect pathogen. Nitrogen-carbon exchange in fungal-plant symbioses involve an insect intermediate.

Metarhizium robertsii

_____________ live in swamps and marshes to use CO2 to oxidize H2, and produce methane (CH4) as a waste product. ________________ are strict anaerobes and are poisoned by O2. ****they are a type of archaea

Methanogens

___________ are filamentous fungi that produce haploid spores and form visible mycelia. Yeasts do not produce spores. Instead, they undergo __________. Many molds and yeasts have no known sexual stage. Mycologists have traditionally called these "imperfect fungi" _____________ (ie, second fungus).

Molds budding deuteromycetes

By the early Cretaceous (~65 mya), three living lineages of mammals emerged: - Prototherians (________________) - Metatherians (________________) - Eutherians (________________)

Monotremes Marsupials mammals

Chordate characteristics: 1. Bilateral symmetry; tripoloblastic; coloemate; deuterostomes 2. Complete digestive system, closed circulatory system 3. 4. Two groups of invertebrates; all vertebrates

Most have an endoskeleton

______________ are mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots. ________________ deliver phosphates and minerals to plants, and the plants provide the fungi with carbohydrates. Most vascular plants have mycorrhizae.

Mycorrhizae Mycorrhizal fungi

Fungus-Plant Mutualisms _____________ are enormously important in natural ecosystems and agriculture. All plants harbor symbiotic _____________, that are typically ascomycete fungi that live inside leaves or other plant parts. Endophytes make toxins that deter herbivores and defend against pathogens.

Mycorrhizae endophytes

Early members of the animal fossil record include the _____________, which dates back to about 560 million years ago. Early animal embryos and evidence of predation have also been found in ______________ rocks.

NEOPROTEROZOIC ERA Ediacaran biota Neoproterozoic

Characteristics of prokaryotes: - nucleus and membrane-bound organelles? - size? - unicellular? multicellular? - chromosome? - reproduction? - motility? - cell wall? - simple or complex? - nutrition?

No small unicellular 1 circular binary fission flagella, cilia yes (most) surrounds plasma membrane simple some autotrophs, heterotrophs

- bony fishes (and tetrapods) - aquatic osteichthyans are fishes - gill slits covered with bone (______________) - lateral line system - _______________ - most are oviparous; some have internal fertilization and birthing

Osteichthyans (jawed fishes) operculum swim bladder

_________ animals produce egg yolk (___________), which include vitellogenin (VTG) proteins encoded by VIT genes.

Oviparous vitellogenesis

The _____________ (535 to 525 million years ago) marks the earliest fossil appearance of many major groups of living animals. Most of the fossils from the Cambrian explosion are of ___________ with a complete digestive tract and three tissue layers.

PALEOZOIC ERA Cambrian explosion bilaterians

Salamanders and newts (urodeles) are amphibians with tails. ___________________, the retention of juvenile features in sexually mature organisms, is common in aquatic species (eg, axolotl).

Paedomorphosis

Animal diversity continued to increase through the __________, but was punctuated by mass extinctions. Animals began to make an impact on land by 450 million years ago, and vertebrates made the transition to land around 365 million years ago.

Paleozoic

Recent evidence indicates that terrestrial insects are more closely related to crustaceans than myriapods. Some lineages of crustaceans are more closely related to insects than other crustaceans.

Pancrustaceans (type of arthropod)

- aka mycetozoans, were once thought to be fungi - DNA sequence analyses indicate that the resemblance between slime molds and fungi is a result of convergent evolution

Slime molds

Several groups of birds are flightless: - ratites (ostrich, rhea, emu) - penguins and some species of rails, ducks, and pigeons Most birds belong to the order ____________ (ie, perching birds).

Passeriformes

Energy source: light Carbon source: organic compounds types of organisms: unique to certain aquatic and salt-loving prokaryotes (Rhodobacter)

Photoheterotroph

- aquatic or terrestrial - bilateral symmetry; triploblastic; coelomate - sexual reproduction - free-living, some parasitic - most diverse phylum - 2 out of 3 species of animals are arthropods - found in nearly all habitats of the biosphere - includes chelicerates (eg, arachnids), myriapods (eg, centipedes), and pancrustaceans (eg, crabs, insects)

Phylum Arthropoda - Arthropods

- aquatic or terrestrial - bilateral symmetry; triploblastic; pseudocoelomate - sexual reproduction - free-living or parasitic - alimentary canal - no circulatory or respiratory organs - contraction of longitudinal muscles produces a thrashing motion - includes pinworms and heartworms

Phylum Nematoda - Roundworms

_____________ is the union of cytoplasm from two parent mycelia. In most fungi, the haploid nuclei from each parent do not fuse right away; they coexist in the mycelium, called a _______________. In other fungi, the haploid nuclei pair off two to a cell; such a mycelium is said to be____________

Plasmogamy heterokaryon dikaryotic.

The mammalian order ___________ includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. Humans are members of the ape group.

Primates

________ dominate the biosphere a) combined mass 10X> than all eukaryotes combined b) exhibit all 4 nutritional modes c) found wherever there is life; some thrive in extreme habitats of temperature and salinity (extremophiles) d) most are benign or beneficial, but some cause illness

Prokaryotes

___________ are so important that if they were to disappear the prospects for any other life surviving would be dim

Prokaryotes

________ inhabit every environment known to support life. Advances in _______ are beginning to reveal the extent of prokaryotic diversity.

Prokaryotes genomics

- streamlined body; swift swimmers - uncovered gill slits - acute senses including sight, smell, and the ability to detect electrical fields from nearby animals (_____________) - larger sharks are suspension feeders, but most are carnivores

Sharks (Chondrichthyans...Jawed Fishes) ampullae of Lorenzini

In conjugation..... -_______ carry genes for antibiotic resistance -Antibiotics kill sensitive bacteria, but not bacteria with specific R plasmids -Through ______________, the fraction of bacteria with genes for resistance increases in a population exposed to antibiotics -Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria are becoming more common (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA)

R plasmids natural selection

- aka rhodophytes - ___________ masks chlorophyll - greenish-red in shallow water; dark red or almost black in deep water - usually multicellular; seaweeds - source of _______, which is used as a growth medium for bacteria and fungi, and _________, which is used as a food thickener

RED ALGAE phycoerythrin agar carrageenan

- fins derived from skin - most fishes are ray-finned

Ray-finned fish (Osteichthyans..jawed fishes)

Major Groups in Archaeplastida

Red algae Green algae Land plants

Phylum Rotifera - __________ Characteristics: - freshwater - bilateral symmetry; triploblastic; pseudocoelomate - _____________, a digestive tube with a separate mouth and anus - some are all female and develop from unfertilized eggs (_______________), or sexual reproduction - moving cilia (resembling a wheel) draw food into mouth - ______________ - no circulatory or respiratory organs

Rotifers alimentary canal parthenogenesis protonephridia

This clade is a diverse monophyletic supergroup named for the first letters of its three major clades: stramenopiles, alveolates, and rhizarians. This group is one of the most diverse and controversial of the four supergroups.

SAR clade

Schistosoma mansoni (blood fluke) parasitize humans, but spend part of their lives in snail hosts. ______________ affects 200 million people, and kills 200,000 a year. **People infected with Schistosoma experience pain, anemia, and diarrhea.

Schistosomiasis

___________ lack arms; only three species are known. Sea daisies live on submerged wood and absorb nutrients through a membrane that surrounds their body.

Sea daisies found in Clade Asteroidea

Phylum Platyhelminthes - Flatworms (cont.) Parasitic species _____________: - flukes that parasitize a wide range of hosts - suckers for attachment - tough outer covering - most have complex life cycles with alternating sexual and asexual stages - may require intermediate host (eg, snail) where larvae live

Trematoda

Crocodiles and alligators belong to an archosaur lineage that dates back to the late _________ (~200 mya). Living crocodilians are restricted to warm regions.

Triassic

Pathogenic Bacteria (cont.) ____________ caused the most notable pandemic of the bubonic plague (Black Death) occurred in the 14th century. Mongols would catapult dead infected bodies into besieged cities. People fled west into Europe, where it killed roughly 33% of the population. Also during this time in Europe, black cats were associated with bad luck and disease and were killed by the thousands (↓ cats → ↑ rats → ↑ plague).

Yersinia pestis

The supergroup Unikonta includes:___________. Two clades: ______________ and ____________ (animals, fungi, and related protists; to be discussed in later chapters). It is unclear whether unikonts separated from other eukaryotes relatively early or late.

animals, fungi, and some protists amoebozoans opisthokonts

The first monkeys evolved in the Old World. In the New World (South America), monkeys first appeared ~25 mya. NW and OW monkeys underwent separate adaptive radiations (eg, NW monkeys are strictly ________ and have a ____________).

arboreal prehensile tail

- represent ~20% of oceanic prokaryotes - generate ~85% of methane

archaea

examples of ascomycetes

bakers or brewers yeast

Basidiomycetes produce sexual spores (______________) externally on clublike ___________ of fruiting bodies called ____________.

basidiospores basidia basidiocarps

Prokaryotic Reproduction -process is called: -divide every:

binary fission 1-3 hours, some can divide every 20 minutes ***with unlimited resources, growth is geometric **can reach incredible densities: 1x10^11 mL in human colon

Metabolic cooperation also occurs between different prokaryotic species in surface-coating colonies called ______ ***They will grow on rocks, pipes, teeth, and medical implants. ________ can cause infections and are often resistant to antibiotics.

biofilms

Genetic research on fungi is leading to applications in biotechnology. - Saccharomyces to study homologs of the genes involved in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases - Gliocladium roseum, a fungus that produces hydrocarbons similar to diesel fuel, could be used to produce ____________

biofuels

Cleavage leads to formation of a multicellular, hollow __________. The blastula undergoes ___________, forming a __________ with different layers of embryonic tissues.

blastula gastrulation gastrula

Spiders use fang-like chelicerae, with poison glands, to attack and subdue prey. Gas exchange in spiders occurs in respiratory organs called __________. Many spiders produce silk, a liquid protein, from specialized abdominal glands.

book lungs

Amphibian means "_______________," referring to the metamorphosis of an aquatic larva into a terrestrial adult.

both ways of life

- multicellular, marine algae - largest and most complex algae - include "seaweeds" and giant kelps - polysaccharide algin (thickening or emulsifying agent) - pigment fucoxanthin (weight-loss supplement)

brown algae

an association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm.

commensalism

Cell Surface Structures of prokaryotes

cell wall capsule endospore fimbriae and pili

feed as individual cells, but can aggregate to migrate and form a fruiting body. Dictyostelium discoideum is an experimental model for studying the evolution of multicellularity

cellular slime molds

Fungi as Decomposers Fungi are efficient decomposers of "tough" organic material, such as ___________ and __________. They perform essential recycling of chemical elements between the living and nonliving world.

cellulose lignin

- one pair of legs per segment - fast-moving; predatory; venomous

centipede

Phylum Platyhelminthes - Flatworms Characteristics: - aquatic - bilateral symmetry; triploblastic; acoelomate - hermaphrodites, but some can't fertilize its own eggs - ______________________ - free-living or parasitic

cephalization

Phylum Platyhelminthes - Flatworms (cont.) Free-living species Planarians: - pharynx extends out of mouth to suck food into highly branched _____________ - ______________: auricle with sensory cells (touch and chemical), eyespot to detect light, brain composed of two ganglia, and ventral nerve cords

cephalization gastrovascular cavity

Steps of __________: 1. Infected reduviid bug takes blood meal. Saliva not infected. 2. Bug defecates during feeding. Feces contain parasites. 3. Host scratches bite wound. Parasites enter host.

chagas disease

Prokaryotes play a major role in the recycling of _____________ between the living and nonliving components of ecosystems.

chemical elements

Snakes evolved from lizards. Snakes are carnivorous with adaptations to capture and consume prey: - - heat-detecting organs - - loosely articulated jawbones and elastic skin

chemical sensors venom

Energy source: inorganic chemicals (H2S, NH3, FE2+) Carbon source: CO2, HCO3- Types of organisms: Sulfolobus

chemoautotroph

energy source: organic compounds carbon source: organic compounds types of organisms: many prokaryotes and protists, fungi, animals, some plants

chemoheterotroph

Most ______________ live in fresh water, although many are marine. Other chlorophytes live in damp soil, as symbionts in lichens, or in environments exposed to intense visible and ultraviolet radiation.

chlorophytes

The common ancestor of all living animals likely lived between 700 and 770 million years ago. Morphological and molecular evidence points to a group of protists called _______________ as the closest living relatives to animals.

choanoflagellates

Vertebrates are ________ that have a backbone

chordates

Chordate evolution: Chordates have a notochord and hollow dorsal nerve cord. Craniates are _______ that have a head. Vertebrates are _________ that have a backbone. Gnathostomes are ___________ that have jaws. Tetrapods are ____________ that have 4 limbs. Amniotes are _________ that have a terrestrially adapted egg. Mammals are _____________ that have hair and produce milk. Humans are ___________ that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion.

chordates craniates vertebrates gnathosomes tetrapods amniotes mammals

_______ have a notochord and a ______, hollow nerve cord

chordates dorsal

gas exchange

chorion

Amphibian populations have been declining in recent decades. The causes include a disease-causing ____________, habitat loss, climate change, and pollution.

chytrid fungus

- a large varied group of protists - named for their use of cilia to move and feed - large macronuclei and small micronuclei - genetic variation results from conjugation (exchange of haploid micronuclei)

ciliates

The reproductive tract, excretory system, and digestive tract empty into a common ____________. Today, sharks are severely threatened by overfishing; Pacific populations have plummeted by up to 95%.

cloaca

3 prokaryotic shapes

coccus (spherical) bacillus (rod-shaped) spirillum (spiral)

Chordates are bilaterally, symmetrical ___________ with segmented bodies. Chordates did not evolve from echinoderms, but have evolved separately from them for at least 500 million years.

coelomates

Animals are multicellular eukaryotes whose cells lack walls. Their bodies are held together by structural proteins such as ____________. ____________ are groups of similar cells that act as a functional unit. ____________ and ____________ are unique, defining characteristics of animals.

collagen Tissues Nervous tissue muscle tissue

- unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds and mushrooms) - terrestrial or aquatic habitat - reproduction: asexual, sexual - more closely related to animals than to plant -they are EUKARYOTES

fungi

Phylum Mollusca - Molluscs Characteristics: - aquatic (______) or terrestrial (______) - bilateral symmetry; triploblastic; coelomate - hermaphrodites or sexual reproduction - free-living - three-part body plan: visceral mass, mantle, foot - ___________ (contains internal organs) - ________ (= extension of the body wall that may secrete a shell) - move by muscular _______, which may be modified into arms and/or tentacles - hard, tongue-like organ: - open or closed circulatory system - heart pumps hemolymph through vessels into ________` - 2nd most diverse phylum (Arthropoda is 1st) - includes snails, slugs, clams, oysters, squids, and octopuses

gills lung visceral mass mantle foot radula hemocoel

The ____________ (phylum Glomeromycota) were once considered zygomycetes, but are now classified in a separate clade. Glomeromycetes form ______________.

glomeromycetes arbuscular mycorrhizae

- named for their color, which results from their yellow and brown carotenoids - all are photosynthetic, and some are mixotrophs - cells of golden algae have both flagella near one end - most are unicellular, but some are colonial

golden algae

In the gram stain is it positive or negative when crystal violet is easily rinsed away, revealing red dye?

gram-negative bacteria

In the gram stain is it positive or negative when peptidoglycan traps crystal violet?

gram-positive bacteria

- named for their grass-green chloroplasts - paraphyletic group, though considered to be in the "plant" kingdom Viridiplantae - two main groups: charophytes (most closely related to land plants) and chlorophytes

green algae

Fungal cells are normally ___________, except when transient diploid stages form during the sexual life cycle. Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of hyphae from different mating types, which are detected by the release of signaling molecules called ____________.

haploid pheromones

Some fungi are carnivorous (ie, feed on living animals). Some unique fungi have specialized hyphae called ____________ that allow them to penetrate the tissues of their plant host.

haustoria

Fungi are _________ and absorb nutrients from outside of their bodies. Fungi use ________ to break down a large variety of complex molecules into smaller organic compounds.

heterotrophs exoenzymes

Most animals, and only animals, have ___________________ that regulate the development of body form

homeobox (Hox) genes

Parabasalid characteristics: - reduced mitochondria (______________) that generate some energy anaerobically and release H2 - the parasite Trichomonas vaginalis causes the STD trichominasis in women

hydrogenosomes

The ecological communities of ______________ depend on chemoautotrophic bacteria for energy. Ex: Giant tubeworms lack a digestive tract, but obtain nutrients from bacteria.

hydrothermal vents

The most common body structures are multicellular filaments (__________) and single cells (_________). Some species grow as either filaments or yeasts; others grow as both. The __________ of multicellular fungi enhances their ability to absorb nutrients.

hyphae yeasts morphology

In ________________, the young, called ___________, resemble adults but are smaller and go through a series of molts until they reach full size (eg, grasshopper). There is no pupal stage.

incomplete metamorphosis nymphs

Most fungi have hyphae divided into cells by _________ (___________), with pores allowing cell-to-cell movement of organelles.

septa septate hyphae

Examples of beneficial prokaryotes a) ____________________________ b) ___________ - prevent harmful fungi from growing there c) source of some antibiotics d) _____________ - return nutrients back to environment e) some also live in symbiotic relationships with other prokaryotes and eukaryotes (eg, _____________________ evolved from prokaryotes)

intestine - provide important vitamins mouth decomposers mitochondria and chloroplasts

Animals differ on how they digest food. - sponges: - cnidarians, flatworms: _________________ (digestion, gas exchange) - all other bilaterals: ______________ (mouth and anus)

intracellular digestion gastrovascular cavity complete digestive tract

Hours, days, or even centuries may pass before _______________ (nuclear fusion) occurs, resulting in a diploid cell. However, the diploid phase is short-lived and the cell undergoes meiosis to produce haploid spores. Both karyogamy and meiosis produce _____________.

karyogamy genetic variation

The human and chimpanzee genomes are 99% identical, indicating that changes in regulatory genes can have _____ effects.

large

Most species of_______ live in fresh water; some are marine or terrestrial. Leeches are parasites that suck blood and secrete a chemical called__________ to prevent blood from coagulating.

leeches hirudin

Snakes and lizards are also __________.

lepidosaurs

Type of Reptile Tuataras are lizard-like reptiles in one of two surviving lineages of ___________. Living tuataras are restricted to small islands off the coast of New Zealand, but are threatened by introduced rats, which consume their eggs.

lepidosaurs

Most prokaryotic genomes consist of a circular chromosome with_______ DNA (vs. eukaryotes: multiples, linear, more DNA). ***The chromosome is located in the _______________. Some species also have one or more plasmids.

less nucleoid region

is a mutualistic association between a photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus (usually an ascomycete

lichen

In the paleozoic era, extinict, soft-bodied, worm-like, legged animals

lobopodians

Lophophorans possess ____________, a crown of ciliated tentacles that function in feeding. _______________ have (or had) a trochophore stage of development. A trochophore is a free-swimming, marine larva with bands of cilia.

lophophores Trochozoans

____________ have the widest range of animal body forms

lophotrochozoans

The apicomplexan Plasmodium is the parasite that causes ____________. Plasmodium requires both mosquitoes (eg, Anopheles) and humans to complete its life cycle. Plasmodium has the ability to manipulate its mosquito and human hosts to favor its spread: - infected mosquitos feed more (vs. uninfected) - infected humans produce an odor that attracts mosquitos Approximately 300 million people are affected, and about 730,000 people die each year from malaria.

malaria

- embryo develops within a placenta in the mother's uterus - embryo completes embryonic development in a maternal pouch (marsupium) - kangaroos, koalas, opossum - native to Australia and Americas

marsupials (type of mammals)

A coelom is a body cavity completely lined with __________.

mesoderm

_________ between prokaryotes allows them to use environmental resources they could not use as individual cells

metabolic cooperation

Tadpoles are herbivores that lack legs, but legs, lungs, external eardrums, and adaptations for carnivory may all arise during _____________.

metamorphosis

2 types of Mryiapods (kind of arthropod)

millipedes centipedes

- two pairs of legs per segment - slower-moving; eat decaying matter; hardened cuticle

millipedes (type of arthropod)

Key characterisitcs of the Excavata group

modified mitochondria -spiral or crystalline rod inside flagella

Fungal cells can be __________ (one nucleus), ___________ (two independent nuclei), or ___________ (if cell division does not follow mitosis).

monokaryotic dikaryotic multinucleate

A taxon is equivalent to a clade only if it is ___________ (ie, consisting of an ancestral species and all its descendants).

monophyletic

- egg-layers - milk from mother's skin - echidnas (spiny anteaters), platypus - native to Australia/New Guinea

monotremes (type of mammals)

Bacterial flagella are composed of a ________, ________, and _________

motor hook filament

The origin of ____________ requires the evolution of new ways for cells to adhere (attach) and signal (communicate) to each other. Molecular analysis has revealed similarities between genes coding for proteins called __________ involved in adherence and attachment in ______________ and animals.

multicellularity cadherins choanoflagellates

examples of Basidiomycetes

mushrooms shelf fungi puffballs stinkhorns

-Reproduction by binary fission results in daughter cells being generally identical with low mutation rates -However, because of rapid reproduction, ________ can accumulate rapidly in a population -their short generation time allows prokaryotes to evolve quickly

mutations

symbiosis that is beneficial to both organisms involved.

mutualism

An interconnected mass of hyphae (____________) are adapted for absorption. A mycelium's structure maximizes its surface-to-volume ratio. Fungal cell walls contain _______.

mycelia chitin

A fungal infection in animals is called __________. In humans, mycoses are responsible for ringworm, athlete's foot, thrush, and vaginal yeast infections (Candida albicans).

mycosis

Bacteria can be used: - to make _____________ - in ______________ (use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment) - to make ________ (eg, ethanol) from agricultural and municipal waste, and corn.

natural plastics bioremediation biofuels

_________ is essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids

nitrogen

In ______, some prokaryotes convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia

nitrogen fixation

________ by bacteria is essential to plants, since plants cannot perform it by themselves

nitrogen fixation

Prokaryotes can sometimes increase the availability of ______________________for plant growth.

nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium

Phylum Porifera - Sponges Characteristics: - aquatic - ____________________ - asymmetrical - _________________________ - __________________ (release sperm but hold on to eggs) - ______________ beat their flagella for movement and intracellular digestion - _____________ (central cavity) - osculum (opening) -______________ (totipotent; digestion and structure; eg, spicules of CaCO3 or silica; spongin)

no tissues or organs sessile suspension feeders hermaphrodites choanocytes spongocoel amoebocytes

DNA evidence suggests that: - Fungi are most closely related to unicellular protists called _____________ (eg, amoeba that feed on algae and bacteria) - Animals are most closely related to unicellular protists called ____________ ****This suggests that multicellularity arose separately in animals and fungi.

nucleariids choanoflagellates

Despite their diversity, fungi share key traits, most importantly the way in which they derive _______.

nutrition

require O2 for cellular respiration

obligate aerobes

are poisoned by O2 and use fermentation or anaerobic respiration examples: Clostridium tetani, C. botullinum, C. perfringens, C. difficile

obligate anaerobes

Pathogenic Bacteria Bacteria cause about half of all human diseases. Some bacterial infections are ________________ (eg, weakened immune system, disruption of normal host flora, etc.).

opportunistic

Evolution of the jaw The jaws evolved from ________ (or ___________) that supported the pharyngeal (gill) slits.

skeletal rods gill arches

Shark eggs are fertilized internally but embryos can develop in different ways: - ___________: eggs hatch outside the mother's body - _________________: embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished by the egg yolk - ______________: embryo develops within the uterus and is nourished through a yolk sac placenta from the mother's blood

oviparous ovoviviparous viviparous

A __________ group consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendants.

paraphyletic

the practice of living as a parasite in or on another organism.

parasitism

Parasites that cause disease are called _________________

pathogens

Energy Source: light carbon source: CO2, HCO3- organisms: cyanobacteria, plants, certain protists

photoautotroph

types of authotrophs

photoautotroph chemoautotroph

types of heterotroph

photoheterotroph chemoheterotroph

Evolutionary relationships are depicted in a branching diagram called a ______________. Each branch point represents the divergence of two evolutionary lineages from a common ancestor.

phylogenetic tree

The symbioses are so complete that lichens are given scientific names. Lichens are one type of _____________, meaning that they are the first to arrive and colonize a new habitat very quickly (eg, cleared area after a volcanic eruption). The _____________________ help build and improve the soil for new species which, unfortunately, usually replace the pioneer species.

pioneer species

form a plasmodium (multinucleate mass) and extend pseudopodia through decomposing material, engulfing food by phagocytosis

plasmodial slime molds

A _____________ group consists of various species that lack a common ancestor.

polyphyletic

Bacteria and archaea are ________, which evolved ~3.5 billion years ago

prokaryotes

Many of the flagella's _______ are modified versions of proteins that perform other tasks in bacteria (eg, secretion).

proteins

Bilateral animals can be either ______________or _______________.

protostomes deuterostomes *know the difference

All mammalian VIT genes are inactivated (____________), except one in the monotremes.

pseudogenes

Animals with _____________ are often __________ (immobile) or ____________ (drifting or weakly swimming).

radial symmetry sessile planktonic

Animals with _____________ symmetry are ___________, whereas those with _____________ symmetry are __________.

radial....diploblastic bilateral....triploblastic

- delicate, symmetrical internal skeletons that are usually made of silica - use their pseudopodia (_________) to engulf microorganisms through ____________ - pseudopodia radiate from the central body

radiolarians -axopodia -phagocytosis

There are some differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in DNA replication, transcription, and translation. The ______________ of prokaryotes are smaller and differ in protein and RNA content. Certain antibiotics, such as _____________________, bind to prokaryotic ribosomes and block protein synthesis, without harming us.

ribosomes erythromycin and tetracycline

Reduction of infections can be attributed to improved __________ and __________ However, emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains is becoming a serious health threat. This is exacerbated due to improper antibiotic use and horizontal gene transfer (eg, ~25% of genes of E. coli strain O157:H7 came from transduction).

sanitation antibiotics

- leeches and earthworms - tend to be less mobile than errantians - some species burrow into the substrate, while others live in protective tubes - tube-dwellers often have elaborate gills or tentacles used for filter feeding

sedentarians (type of annelids)