BIOL 65 Lecture Exam II - (REVIEW)
Describe the variety of interconnections that exist between two neurons.
(Types): -Axodendritic synapse: -Axon to dendrite -Axomatic synapse: -Axon to neurosoma -Axoaxonic synapse: -Axon to axon
Describe two basic variations (converging and diverging) in the circuitry or "wiring patterns" of the nervous system.
*Diverging circuit: One neuron synapse with a number of postsynaptic cells (muscle fibers) *Converging Circuit: Inputs from many sources are converged into one output, affecting just one neuron or pool (respiratory center of the brain stem).
Define the types of paralysis and explain the basis for their differences.
*Paraplegia: Paralysis of both lower limbs due to lesions from T1 to L1 *Quadriplegia: Paralysis of all four limbs due to lesions above C5 and likely ventilation support *Hemiplegia: Paralysis on one side of body usually due to stroke or brain lesions
Briefly explain how the ear converts vibrations to nerve impulses and discriminates between sounds of different intensity and pitch.
-Air vibrates tympanic membrane -Tympanic membrane vibrates ossicles -Ossicles push against round window vibrating fluid in inner ear -Bending of stereocilia opens ion channels and starts electrical signal -Hair cells near base of cochlea respond to high pitches -Hair cells near tip of cochlea respond to low pitches
Name and locate the muscles on the leg (anterior compartment).
-Anterior compartment muscles dorsiflex the foot and extend the toes (hallux and digits)
Describe two basic modes of muscle-bone attachment. What is aponeurosis?
-Aponeurosis: Broadsheet of the tendon that can also attach to tissues other than bone, such as the dermis of the skin. -Direct (fleshy) attachment: Close association with the bone. There is a connection with the muscle fibers. -Indirect attachment: Common in skeletal muscles, the tendon attaches muscles to the bone and connects to the periosteum and matrix.
Identify the major pathways (tracts) that conduct signals up and down the spinal cord, and identify the types of signals they carry.
-Ascending tracts carry sensory info to the brain -Descending tracts carry motor info from brain. -Many tracts decussate or cross the midline -If decussion occurs, the tract origin is contralateral to its destination. Thus, a right brain stroke impairs left side of body's function. -Some (very few) tracts do not cross the midline. This means that the tract's origin is ipsilateral to its destination
Name and locate the muscles that act on the Forearm
-Brachialis is the prime mover of the flexion of elbow. -Biceps brachii supinates the forearm and flexes both the elbow and shoulder. -Brachioradialis flexes the elbow -Triceps brachii extends the elbow
Discuss the locations and functions of the basal nuclei and limbic systems.
-Deep masses of cerebral gray matter -Consist of caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus -Involved in motor control
Name and locate the muscles that produce facial expressions.
-Frontalis elevates the eyebrows -Orbicularis oculi close the lips -Zygomaticus major and minor raises the corners of the mouth for a smile. -Risorius muscles express horror
Name and locate the muscles that act on the Gluteus Maximus.
-Gluteus maximus extends and abducts the thigh. -Gluteus medius and gluteus minimus abduct and medially rotate the thigh
Name and locate the muscles that act on the Posterior (Flexor) compartment of the thigh.
-Hamstring muscles flex the knee and consists of three muscles in the posterior compartment: Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus
Name and locate the muscles that act on the hip.
-Iliopsoas consists of the iliacus and the psoas major, both of which flexes the thigh -The medial compartment of the thigh contains adductors (ex: Lateral to Medial - Pectineus, Adductor Magnus, Adductor Brevis, Adductor Longus, Gracilis)
Describe the changes that occur in the muscular system in old age.
-Loss of lean body mass (muscle) -Fat and Fibrous tissue accumulation -Fast glycotic fibers show earliest and most severe atrophy -Reduction in muscle cell components -Reduction in motor neuron number, ACh released, and Sympathetic nervous system efficiency.
Describe some variations in neuron structure.
-Multi-polar: Many dendrites, one axon -Bipolar: One dendrite, one axon -Unipolar: No dendrites, one axon
Explain what muscle compartments are and describe how they are separated from each other.
-Muscle compartments are spaces enclosed by a fasciae called the intermuscular septa. Each compartment contains one or more functionally related muscles. It also carries blood vessels and nerves. -Upper limbs: Anterior and posterior compartments. -Lower limbs: Anterior, posterior, lateral, and medial compartments.
Describe the myelin sheath that is formed around certain nerve fibers.
-Myelin is similar to the insulation on a wire which speeds up the signals. -Oligodendrocytes make myelin in the CNS -Schwann Cells make myelin in the PNS Neurolemma - the outermost layer of wrapping around a Schwann cell; contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. Internodal Segment - Fiber segment covered by myelin Myelin Sheath Gaps (nodes of Ranvier) - fiber segment between gaps in the myelin
Define nerve, ganglion, receptor, and effector.
-Nerve: A bundle of fibers that uses electrical and chemical signals to transmit sensory and motor information from one body part to another. -Ganglion: A ganglion is a collection of neuronal bodies found in the somatic and autonomic branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). -Receptor: A receptor is a cell (or a group of cells) present in a sense organ that is sensitive to a particular type of stimuli such as light, sound, smell, taste, heat, and pressure. (Ex: Eyes have light receptors; ears have sound receptors, etc.) -Effector: An effector is a part of the body that can respond to a stimulus according to the instructions sent from the nervous system. (Muscles and glands are examples of effectors.)
Name and locate the muscles that act on the arm.
-Pectoralis major (located in the pectoral region): Flexes, adducts, and medially rotates the humerus. -Deltoid (located on the superior region of brachial plexus): Flexes, medially rotates, abduct (moving outwards), extend, and laterally rotate the arm (depends on which fibers are active) -Teres Major: Extends and medially rotates the humerus -Latissimus dorsi adducts and medially rotates the humerus, extends the shoulder joint.
Name and locate the Deep Muscles of the Leg (Posterior and Lateral Compartments)
-Popliteus, tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum, flexor hallucis longus
Name and locate the Superficial Muscles of the Leg (Posterior Compartment)
-Posterior compartment muscles plantar flex the foot and flex the toes (hallux and digits).
Name and locate the muscles that act on the Anterior Muscles of the Thigh.
-Quadriceps femoris extend the knee and consists of four muscles in the anterior compartment: Rectus Femoris, Vastus Lateralis, Vastus Medialis, Vastus Intermedius
Describe the histological structure of the receptor cells.
-Rods: -Night (scotopic) vision, monochromatic -Rhodopsin - pigment -Cones: -Day (photopic) vision, trichromatic -Photopsins - three different pigments -Red, Blue, Green -Bipolar cells - interneurons: -Receive input from rods and cones -Ganglion cells: -Receive input from bipolar cells -Axons form optic nerve
Know the several Latin words commonly used in the naming of muscles.
-Size: "Brevis" means short -Shape: "Teres" means round -Location: Brachii related to the arm area (attaches to the shoulder and elbow) -# of heads: "Biceps" means there are two heads -Orientation of the fibers: "Rectus" means straight -Action: "Flexor" refers to the flexing of muscle
What are the actions of the rotator muscles on the forearm?
-Supinator and biceps brachii supinate the arm -Pronator teres and pronator quadratus "pronate" the forearm (radius cross ulna) -Anterior compartment muscles flex the wrist (carpus), fingers (digits), and thumb (pollex) -Posterior compartment muscles extend the wrist (carpus), fingers (digits), and thumb (pollex)
Define general senses, list several types, and describe their receptors.
-Tactile corpuscles - oval mass in dermal papillae -Sense light touch, texture perception -End bulbs - similar to tactile corpuscles but located in mucous membranes -Bulbous corpuscles - flat, Sense pressure, skin stretch, and joint movement -Lamellar corpuscles - onion-like, sense deep pressure, stretch, tickle, and vibration -Muscle spindles - fusiform, sense skeletal muscle stretch -Tendon organs - leaflike, sense tendon stretch caused by muscle activity
Name and locate the muscles of respiration.
-The diaphragm is the prime mover of inspiration. -External intercostals are muscles of inpiration (breathing in). -Internal intercostals are muscles of expiration (breathing out).
Contrast the roles of a prime mover, synergist, antagonist, and fixator muscle in producing and controlling movement at a joint.
-The prime mover (P for the protagonist) is responsible for producing the main force of action. -The synergist (S for the sidekick) helps aid the prime mover and stabilizes the joint. -The antagonist opposes the prime mover. It also has the antagonist pair that acts on opposite sides of the joints. -The fixator prevents bone movement.
Name and locate the neck muscles that move the head.
-The sternocleidomastoid muscle rotates the head to the side when unilaterally active, it also draws the head forward when bilaterally active. -Links with sternum, clavicle, and mastoid process
Describe the distinctive cell types and histological arrangement of the cerebral cortex.
-The surface of the hemispheres -Accounts for 40% of mass of the brain -Contain pyramidal cells: -Triangle shaped with apex pointing to brain surface -Output neurons of cerebrum
Name and locate the muscles used for chewing and swallowing.
-The temporalis and masseter elevate the mandible and move it sideways. -Masseter located in the ramus of the mandible and temporalis is attached to the temporal bone.
Describe the attachment of a spinal nerve to the spinal cord.
31 pairs total • Cervical - C1-C8 • Thoracic - T1-T12 • Lumbar - L1- L5 • Sacral - S1-S5 • Coccygeal - Co1 Proximal branches (closest to Spinal Cord) • Posterior (Dorsal) root • Posterior (Dorsal) root ganglion • Anterior (Ventral) root Distal Branches (further from Spinal Cord) • Posterior (Dorsal) ramus • Anterior (Ventral) ramus • In thorax, it becomes intercostal nerve • In other regions, it helps make a plexus
Describe the anatomy of nerves and ganglia in general.
A nerve is several axons wrapped by connective tissue • Endoneurium wraps one axon • Perineurium wraps a fascicle of axons. • Epineurium wraps entire nerve. A ganglion is a cluster of cell bodies outside the CNS
Name six types of cells that aid neuron function and state their respective locations and functions.
CNS Glia Cells: -Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate axons to assist with the conduction of impulse. -Ependymal Cells: Secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid -Microglia: Help in the defense and disposal -Astrocytes: Provide support and nourishment PNS Glia Cells: -Schwann Cells: Myelinate axons to assist with the conduction of impulse. -Satellite Cells: Provide support and nourishment
Efferent fibers
Carry motor signals from the CNS to effectors
Describe the major subdivisions and anatomical landmarks of the brain.
Cerebrum: -Two cerebral hemispheres contain: *Gyri-folds *Sulci - grooves *Longitudinal cerebral fissure - big sulcus between hemispheres Cerebellum: -Also has folds Brainstem: -Crucial for survival!
Describe cardiac muscle tissue and compare its structure and physiology to the other types.
Characteristics of cardiac muscle tissues includes: Striated, only found in heart, involuntary (can't control movement), has short/stumpy branched cells, have intercalated discs with gap junctions, and are typically mononucleated (one nucleus).
Describe smooth muscle tissue and compare its structure and physiology to the other types.
Characteristics of smooth muscle tissues include: No striations, small, fusiform, cell with one nucleus, has dense bodies that link with cytoskeleton and membrane, involuntary control. They have two functional categories: multiunit and unitary. Multi-units have independent control of smooth muscle cells. Unitary occurs when several cells are excited at once; widespread in the viscera.
Outline three ways of classifying sensory receptors.
Classes by modality - types of stimuli -Thermoreceptors - temperature -Photoreceptors - light -Chemoreceptors - chemicals -Nociceptors - pain -Mechanoreceptors - pressure or stretch Classes by the distribution of receptors in the body. -General senses are widely distributed body senses -Special senses involve cranial nerves, are complex -Classes by stimulus origin -Exteroceptors - from outside the body -Interoceptors - from organs within the body -Proprioceptors - regarding the position of the body
What are the sciatic nerves?
Common fibular nerve and tibial nerve
Located in the lumbar plexus, the femoral nerve is responsible for?
Controls the muscles that straightens your legs and move your hips.
Explain the relationship of dermatomes to the spinal nerves.
Dermatome - area of skin innervated by a particular spinal nerve Dermatome map: • Diagram of the areas of skin innervated by each spinal nerve Herpes Zoster (Shingles)
Name and describe the connective tissues surrounding each component of a muscle from Deep to Superficial:
Endomysium: Wraps around a single cell (myofiber) Perimysium: Wraps around a group of fascicles (groups of muscle cells) Epimysium: Wraps entire muscle Fascia: Wraps entire muscle group
Explain how the anatomy of the vestibular apparatus relates to our ability to interpret the body's position and movements.
Equilibrium - coordination, balance, orientation -Three semicircular canals detect angular acceleration -Utricle and saccule each have a macula to detect static equilibrium and linear acceleration
Describe the anatomy of the eye and its accessory structures.
Fibrous tunic: -Sclera - white -Cornea - transparent, anterior -Vascular tunic (uvea): -Choroid - pigmented layer behind retina -Ciliary body - ring of smooth muscle around lens -Iris - pigmented diaphragm controlling pupil diameter Pupillary constrictor - concentric smooth muscle cells Pupillary dilator - spoke-like myoepithelial cells Inner layer: -Retina - lines posterior two-thirds of eye Accessory Structures of the Orbit: -Eyebrows -Eyelids (palpebrae) -Palpebral fissure -Medial/lateral commissures (canthi) -Tarsal plate -Tarsal gland -Eyelashes -Conjunctiva -Transparent mucous membrane.
Describe how muscles are classified by shape and by the orientation of their fibers.
Fusi-form muscles: Thick in the middle, and thin at ends. (Ex: Biceps brachii) Parallel muscles: Uniformed width, fascicles aligned (Ex: rectus abdominis) Pennate muscles: Feather-shaped (feather-pens or quills) (Ex: palmar interosseous) Circular muscles (sphincters): Form rings around body openings (Ex: Orbicularis Oculi) Triangular (convergent) muscles: Like a funnel - broad at one end, narrow at the other. (Ex: Pectoralis major (muscles in chest))
State the locations of the gray and white matter of the brain.
Gray Matter: -Outer part (cortex) of cerebrum and of cerebellum -Neurosomas, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, and synapses White Matter: -Deep in brain -Contain tracts made up of bundles of myelinated axons
List the 12 cranial nerves by name and number.
I Olfactory, II Optic, III Oculomotor, IV Trochlear, V Trigeminal, VI Abducens, VII Facial, VIII Vestibulocochlear, IX Glossopharyngeal, X Vagus, XI Accessory, XII Hypoglossal Remember: Oh, Once One Takes The Anatomy Final Very Good Vacations Are Happening!
Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy of the inner ear.
Inner Ear: -Bony labyrinth - maze in temporal bone -Membranous labyrinth - tube within maze -Endolymph - fluid in membranous labyrinth Perilymph - fluid between membranous labyrinth and bone -Vestibule -Utricle and saccule -Three semicircular canals -Cochlea - snail-shaped
Located in the cervical plexus, what is the function of the phrenic nerve?
Innervates the diaphragm for breathing
Describe the system of fluid-filled chambers within the brain.
Lateral ventricles: lie within cerebral hemispheres, come in close contact with one another, separated by septum pellucidum Third ventricle: connects to lateral ventricles via interventricular foramen, surrounded by the diencephalon, inferiorly, narrows to form cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle: diamond shaped, bordered anteriorly by pons and posteriorly by cerebellum. Narrows to become central canal of medulla and spinal cord
Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy of the middle ear.
Middle Ear: -Tympanic membrane (eardrum) -Tympanic cavity of temporal bone -Auditory (eustachian) tube -Auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes - Oval window - Muscles: stapedius, tensor tympani
function of trochlear nerve
Motor nerve that aids with downward and inward movement of eye
function of abducens nerve
Motor nerve that aids with eye movement - abducts the eyes
function of oculomotor nerve
Motor nerve that aids with eye movement - raise eyelid, rotate eye, adjust light & adjust focus
function of accessory nerve
Motor: Flexion and rotation of the head, shrugging of the shoulders (accessory like wearing a necklace)
function of hypoglossal nerve
Motor: aids with movement of tongue muscles
function of facial nerve
Motor: facial muscle movement, facial secretions (tears and mucous) Sensory: Taste on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue
function of glossopharyngeal nerve
Motor: pharyngeal movement and swallowing Sensory: taste on the posterior 1/3 of tongue
Define several types of muscle injuries often incurred in sports and recreation.
Muscle injuries are often a result of sudden or intense stress. The risk of injury increases with improper conditioning or inadequate warmup. An example of a muscle injury is a sprained ankle or a pulled hamstring which involves strained posterior thigh muscles or a partial tear in the tendon of muscles.
Describe how a muscle grows and shrinks with use and disuse.
Muscles expand and contract (hypertrophy) when there is tension placed upon the muscle. This could be in the form of exercise such as weightlifting. Muscles start to Shrink when not enough tension is placed upon the muscle (not working out) and in aging years. During old age, the individual begins to lose a lot of lean body mass that could affect fat and tissue accumulation. The fast glycolytic fibers show the earliest and most severe signs of atrophy. There is also a reduction in muscle cell Components, motor neuron number, ACh release, and sympathetic nervous system efficiency.
Discuss diseases: muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis.
Muscular dystrophy occurs when the muscles become weakened due to age which could cause immobility. It is hereditary (linked with genetics) that is from a defective gene called dystrophin. Overall, the skeletal muscles degenerate. Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease that is characterized by the destruction of ACh receptors. It often leads to weakness of skeletal muscles such as drooping eyelids and slurred speech.
Explain what accounts for the striations of skeletal muscle.
Myofibrils play a fundamental role in muscle contraction. They contain two kinds of protein filaments—thick ones composed of the protein myosin and thin ones mainly composed of the protein actin. The organization of these filaments produces the characteristic alternating light and dark striations, or bands, of a skeletal muscle fiber.
Describe the pathways taken by auditory and vestibular signals to the brain.
Nerve: -Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII) -Cochlear part (hearing) -Vestibular part (balance/equilibrium)
Describe the properties that neurons must have to carry out their function.
Neurons, also known as nerve cells, have three main fundamental properties. The first property is excitability (irritability) which means that the neurons can respond to stimuli. The second characteristic of neurons is that they are conductive - they can send signals to distant locations quickly. They are also responsible for secretion which is when they release chemical messengers (neurotransmitters).
Describe the gross and microscopic anatomy of the outer ear.
Outer ear: -Auricle (pinna) -Auditory canal with guard hairs, cerumen
Name the three major components of the diencephalon and describe their locations and functions.
Part of the forebrain. Three divisions that surround the third ventricle: • Thalamus: Large ovoid mass that makes up four-fifths of diencephalon. Interthalamic adhesion (intermediate mass) connects left and right thalami. "Sensory gateway to the cerebral cortex." Involved in sensation, memory, and emotion (plus some movement) • Hypothalamus: Extends from optic chiasm to mammillary bodies. Major control center of the autonomic nervous system and endocrine system. • Epithalamus: Pineal gland - an endocrine gland. Habenula - relay from limbic system to midbrain. Forms the thin roof over the third ventricle
Name the five plexuses of spinal nerves and describe their general anatomy.
Plexuses receive fibers from anterior rami and give rise to peripheral nerves • Cervical plexus - in neck • Brachial plexus - in shoulder • Lumbar plexus - in lower back • Sacral plexus - below lumbar • Coccygeal plexus - lower sacrum and coccyx
Discuss the production, circulation, and function of the cerebrospinal fluid that fills these chambers
Production: cerebrospinal fluid produced as fluid seeps from choroid plexus found in walls of ventricles Circulation: ventricles circulate CSF to bathe the brain. Circulates from ventricles to subarachnoid space through aperatures near pons or through brain tissues to subarachnoid space. Function: cushion the brain, serve as shock absorber within CNS, circulates nutrients and chemicals from blood, removes waste from brain.
Describe the three types of tracts in the cerebral white matter.
Projection tracts • Travel vertically to carry information between cerebrum and rest of body Commissural tracts • Commissures cross between two hemispheres. • Corpus callosum is largest Association tracts • Connect regions within same hemisphere
Explain how to reduce the risk of muscle injuries.
RICE: Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation Getting enough rest, conditioning/warming up properly
Define receptor and sense organ.
Receptors are structures that "detect "stimuli. While sense organs are organs that "receive" stimuli (eyes, ears, nose, mouth, skin)
Describe the histological structure of the retina.
Retina: -Ora serrata - anterior margin -Optic nerve exits at the optic disc -Disc is a blind spot without receptors -Macula lutea: -Central patch for detailed vision -Fovea centralis - pit within macula
Explain the functional differences between these anatomical subdivisions.
Sensation: Sensation refers to receiving information about the environment, either what is happening outside (ie: heat from the sun) or inside the body (ie: heat from muscle activity). These sensations are known as stimuli (singular = stimulus) and different sensory receptors are responsible for detecting different stimuli. Sensory information travels towards the CNS through the PNS nerves in the specific division known as the afferent (sensory) branch of the PNS. Response: The nervous system produces a response in effector organs (such as muscles or glands) due to the sensory stimuli. The motor (efferent) branch of the PNS carries signals away from the CNS to the effector organs. When the effector organ is a skeletal muscle, the information is called somatic motor; when the effector organ is cardiac or smooth muscle or glandular tissue, the information is called visceral (autonomic) motor. Integration: Stimuli that are received by sensory structures are communicated to the nervous system where that information is processed. This is called integration (see Figure 12.1.2 below). In the CNS, stimuli are compared with, or integrated with, other stimuli, memories of previous stimuli, or the state of a person at a particular time. This leads to the specific response that will be generated.
Function of olfactory nerve
Sensory nerve that aids with sense of smell
function of optic nerve
Sensory nerve that aids with sense of vision
function of vestibulocochlear nerve
Sensory: hearing and equilibrium
Name and locate the muscles that act on the shoulder.
Shoulder: -Muscles that Aids w/ Lateral Rotation of Shoulder: Trapezius (superior part), Serratus Anterior -Muscles helping with Medial Rotation of Shoulder: Levater Scapulae, Rhomboid major, rhomboid minor -Muscles that helps with elevation of shoulder: Levater scapulae, trapezius (superior part), rhomboid major, rhomboid minor -Muscles that aids w/ Depression of shoulder: Trapezius (inferior part), serratus anterior -Muscles that help with retraction: Rhomboid major, rhomboid minor, trapezius -Muscles that help with protraction: Pectoralis minor, serratus anterior
Describe the ultrastructure of muscle fiber and its myofilaments.
Similar to the plasma membrane, the sarcolemma is responsible for wrapping around the muscle fiber. The sarcolemma comprises and touches the Transverse (T)-tubules. The sarcoplasm, like the cytoplasm, is the area inside of the fiber. The sarcoplasm is comprised of the stack of fibers known as "myofibrils." Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the body. It also contains the protein found in muscle cells which is myoglobin. And similar to the endoplasmic reticulum, the Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a critical storage site for calcium ions, that take up the ions from the cytoplasm. Terminal cisterns are the enlarged areas of the sarcoplasmic reticulum that surrounds the transverse tubules.
Describe the two main types of muscle fibers and their respective advantages and disadvantages.
Slow Oxidative (SO): Slow-twitch, red, type I fibers. They have a small diameter, aerobic ATP production, they are abundant in mitochondria, myoglobin, and capillaries. There are low levels of glycogen, it is resistant to fatigue, and it predominates in postural muscles, such as the soleus. Fast Glycolytic (FG): They are fast-twitch, white, and Type II fibers. They have a marge diameter, anaerobic ATP production, they have modest quantities of mitochondria, myoglobin, and capillaries. There are abundant levels of glycogen, is fatigued easily, and it predominates in "quick response" muscles such as gastrocnemius.
Describe the synaptic junctions between one neuron and another.
Synapses are the meeting points of the neurons or with other cell types that can range from presynaptic neuron to post synaptic neuron.
Describe the anatomy of taste receptors
Taste buds contain taste cells: -Banana-shaped -Taste hairs -Receptor for taste modulate -Synapse with sensory nerve Taste pore: -Hole on epithelial surface of tongue
Describe the anatomy of gustation
Taste buds: -Tongue has the most -Some in soft palate, pharynx, epiglottis, cheeks and testes? Lingual papillae: -Surface projections on tongue -Types: -Filiform - numerous, tiny spikes, no buds. -Folate - ridges on tongue sides, buds in children. -Fungiform - mushroom shaped bumps, have buds. -Vallate - large bumps in a row at the back of the tongue, have buds.
Name and locate the muscles of the abdominal wall and back.
The anterolateral wall of the abdomen contains sheets of muscles that hold the organs in place. Together, these muscles flex and stabilize the vertebral column. The unilateral contraction laterally flexes the vertebral column. -Four pairs of abdominal muscles: 1.) External Oblique: Superficial, lateral muscle; fibers are directed inferomedial, aponeurosis forms inguinal ligament. 2.) Internal Oblique: Deep to external oblique; fibers directed supero-medially 3.) Transverse Abdominis: Deepest to lateral muscles; fibers directed horizontally 4.Rectus abdominis: Long, anterior muscles connecting the sternum to the pubic bone; divided into 4 muscle segments. -Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall: 1.) Rectus abdominis flexes waist. 2.) Transverse abdominal compresses abdominal contents. -Muscles Acting on the Vertebral Column -Erector spinae straighten the spine -Multifidus stabilizes adjacent vertebrae. -Quadratus lumborum aids respiration by stabilizing the diaphragm and rib 12.
Describe some effects of spinal cord injuries.
The body loses many essential functions if an injury means nerves can't communicate with the brain. A damaged spinal cord can affect: Bladder and bowel (intestinal) function. Breathing. Heart rate. Metabolism, or the body's process of converting food into energy. Muscle movement. Reflexes. Sensations.
Locate the five lobes of the cerebrum and identify their functions.
The five lobes of the cerebrum include the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and insula.
Explain the functions of each hindbrain and midbrain region.
The forebrain is home to sensory processing, endocrine structures, and higher reasoning. The midbrain plays a role in motor movement and audio/visual processing. The hindbrain is involved with autonomic functions such as respiratory rhythms and sleep.
1. List the functions of muscular tissue and the properties it must have to carry out these functions.
The functions of the muscular tissues include initiating movements of the muscles in body parts, body contents, and communication. Muscular tissues also help maintain stability with posture and resistance from the pull of gravity. They also help with heat production and the control of body openings. For properties, muscles can be excitable in nature by reacting to stimuli. They are also responsible for conductivity by spreading electrical impulses through muscle cells. They are also known for their contractility - muscles are shortened when stimulated. Muscles also aid with extensibility by recoiling from the stretch.
Describe the structure of a representative neuron.
The general structure of a neuron includes having a central body or control center known as the "neurosoma." It also has chromatophilic substance or Nissl bodies that compartmentalize rough endoplasmic reticulum. The branches that sticks out of the axon are called "dendrites" which is responsible for receiving signals from the brain. The axons are responsible for sending action potentials (electrochemical impulses). It also has the axon terminal (terminal button) which is the ending of axon branches that communicates with other neurons.
Explain the difference between the gray and white matter of the cord.
The gray matter of the cord (butterfly shape) is composed of very few myelinated axons, always contains two posterior (dorsal) horns and two anterior (ventral) horns. There are two lateral horns within the thoracic region only. While the white matter contains the myelinated axons and three pairs of columns (funiculi) that contains tracts called (fasciculi). It also has posterior (dorsal), anterior (ventral), and lateral columns.
Define "innervation" of a muscle
The innervation describes which nerve stimulates the muscle. For example, the spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord and innervate the muscles below the neck. The cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem and innervate muscles of the head and neck.
Describe the anatomical subdivisions of the nervous system.
The nervous system is divided into two main systems. The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
Explain the significance of the brain barrier system.
The purpose of the blood-brain barrier is to protect against circulating toxins or pathogens that could cause brain infections
Enumerate the functions of the spinal cord.
The spinal cord is a long, tube-like band of tissue. It connects your brain to your lower back. Your spinal cord carries nerve signals from your brain to your body and vice versa. These nerve signals help you feel sensations and move your body. Any damage to your spinal cord can affect your movement or function.
List the components of the hindbrain and midbrain.
The structures in the forebrain include the cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, limbic system, and olfactory bulb. The midbrain consists of various cranial nerve nuclei, tectum, tegmentum, colliculi, and crura cerebi. The hindbrain also referred to as the brainstem, is made of the medulla, pons, cranial nerves, and back part of the brain called the cerebellum.
Describe the surface and cross-sectional anatomy of the cord.
The surface anatomy of the cord is divided into four regions: cervical (8 pairs of nerves), thoracic (12 pairs), lumbar (5 pairs), and sacral region (5 pairs). The enlargements include the cervical and lumbosacral region. It also comprises of the medullary cone, cauda equina (horse's tail), and terminal filum. While the cross-sectional anatomy of the cord is composed of the gray and white matter.
Define three functional classes into which all neurons fall.
The three functional classes in which all neurons fall in are sensory (afferent) neurons, interneurons, and motor (efferent) neurons. Sensory or "afferent neurons" detects the stimuli. Interneurons receive signals from other neurons and make decisions about the response. Motor (efferent) neurons help send signals to muscles to provide a response.
Describe the distinctions between the three types of muscular tissue.
The three types of muscle tissues are cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscles. Skeletal muscles are the specialized tissue that is attached to bones and allows for movement. They are striated and voluntary (can control muscle movement). Cardiac muscles are the type of muscles that binds to the heart, the cardiac muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) are located in the walls of the heart - they appear striated and involuntary. Cardiac muscles also have intercalated discs within the surface of the muscle. Lastly, smooth muscles are non-striated and involuntary (can't control them) - they have a fusiform or spindle-like shape.
Explain why different types of receptor cells and neural circuits are required for day and night vision.
The two different receptor cells allow for day and night vision. Rods are tuned to have higher sensitivity to allow for night vision, multiple rods will converge to one nerve, therefore little light on each rod accumulates to fire a signal. Cones have one nerve each and so it must have enough light to fire its nerve.
Describe the blood supply to a skeletal muscle.
When we are at rest, the muscles receive 1/4th of the heart's output. But during heavy exercise, the muscular system receives more than 3/4th of the heart's output. The muscle is well vascularized (filled with blood).
Describe the neuromuscular junction where nerve fiber meets a muscle fiber.
Where the nerve fibers meet with the muscle fiber is the neuromuscular junction. It is connected to the motor neuron's synaptic knob that contains vesicles with acetylcholine (ACh). The synaptic cleft is the space between neurons at a nerve synapse across which a nerve impulse is transmitted by a neurotransmitter. The postsynaptic folds of the muscle cell's membrane contain ACh receptors. ACh receptors are a type of membrane protein that responds to the binding of acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter).
Alzheimer disease (AD)
brain disorder marked by gradual and progressive mental deterioration (dementia), personality changes, and impairment of daily functioning -Recent event memory loss -Reduced attention span, disorientation -Atrophy of gyri of cerebral cortex and hippocampus -Neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques
Afferent fibers
carry sensory signals from receptors to the CNS
Describe the function of the nervous system.
controls and coordinates functions throughout the body and responds to internal and external stimuli
function of temporal lobe
hearing, smell, learning, memory
function of frontal lobe
higher-level thought and reasoning, speech production, working memory, paying attention, solving problems, planning.
Visceral fibers
innervate blood vessels, glands, and viscera
Special fibers
innervate more localized organs in the head, including the eyes, ears, olfactory and taste receptors, and muscles of chewing, swallowing, and facial expression
Somatic fibers
innervate skin, skeletal muscles, bones, and joints
General fibers
innervate widespread organs such as muscles, skin, glands, viscera, and blood vessels
function of sciatic nerve
innervation of all muscles below the knee, foot sensory, and lateral leg sensory muscles of posterior thigh (hamstrings) to flex lower leg
function of insula
memory, taste, and integration of the activities of the other cerebral lobes
What are the nerves of the brachial plexus?
musculocutaneous, axillary, radial, median, ulnar (most alcoholics must really urinate)
Parkinson disease (PD)
progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by tremors, fasciculations, slow shuffling gait, hypokinesia, dysphasia -Also known as paralysis agitans -Loss of motor function (tremors, shuffling gait, difficulty with movement sequences) -Degeneration of dopamine-releasing cells from substantia nigra
function of parietal lobe
receives and integrates sensory information, language processing, taste, visual processing
What are the parts of the brachial plexus?
roots, trunks, divisions, cords, branches (Rugby teams drink cold beer).
function of trigeminal nerve
sensory: face, teeth, tongue movement motor: muscles of mastication (chewing)
function of vagus nerve
sensory: taste; sensations of hunger, fullness, and GI discomfort motor: swallowing, speech, deceleration of heart, constriction, GI secretion and motility
What are the rotator cuff muscles? (SITS)
supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis
function of occipital lobe
visual processing and visual awareness
Describe the meninges of the brain
• Cranial dura mater - Has two layers • Outer periosteal—equivalent to periosteum of cranial bones • Inner meningeal—continues into vertebral canal and forms dural sheath around spinal cord • Layers separated by dural sinuses—collect blood circulating through brain - Dura mater is pressed closely against cranial bones • No epidural space • Not directly attached to bone except: around foramen magnum, sella turcica, crista galli, and sutures of the skull - Folds inward to extend between parts of brain • Falx cerebri separates two cerebral hemispheres • Tentorium cerebelli separates cerebrum from cerebellum • Falx cerebelli separates right and left halves of cerebellum • Arachnoid mater and pia mater are similar to those in the spinal cord • Arachnoid mater - Transparent membrane over brain surface - Subarachnoid space separates it from pia mater below - Subdural space separates it from dura mater above in some places • Pia mater - Very thin membrane that follows contours of brain, even dipping into sulci - Not usually visible without a microscope