Biological Anthropology Exam 3

Ngandong-

1930s 53k-20k bp Potential for overlap

Mitochondrial Eve Hypothesis

Africans with greatest genetic variation. Maternally inherited Human Origins ca 285-143 ka Key paper published in 1987 Rebecca Cann

The Biological Profile

Age, sex, ancestry, stature

aDNA

Ancient DNA An important component in new studies of ancient human remains Work should complement and raise bar on questions asked of the fossil record (and vice versa)

When Humans Became Human

Archaeolgoists long believed that modern human behavior behavior originated 40,000 years ago in Europe. But new findings are pushing the origins tens of thousands of years earlier, and thousands of miles south. In Africa we see things earlier than anywhere else. Blade Technology, variety in diet- Congo 90ka (harpoons) Artifact Diversity- congo 90ka (beads) Early artistry- S Africa 77ka- a piece of red ocher with a deliberately engraved design the oldest known example of such work. Self identity- turkey 43ka- population pressures led families to live closer together, with more occasions to interact. Body ornaments like these shell beads, may have been for identification and communication. (body adornment) Ornamentation- Kenya 40ka Fragments of jewelry fashioned from ostrich eggs. Scientists believe they were gifts intended to cement social relationships. Early imagery- Europe 30 to 50 ka- a horse in one of many paintings of the Chauvet Cave in France, considered by some to represent the flowering of modern culture. Other emerging practices- as the first tools and artwork appeared, humans also developed structured homes, rituals, simple economic trade, etc.

Bergmann's Rule

Bergmann's Rule -body size increases with decreasing temperature

Possible Factors for Bipedal Locomotion

Carrying -upright posture freed the animal to carry various objects (including offspring)- Darwins favorite Hunting- allowed carrying of weapons, more accurate throiwng of certain weapons, and improved long-distance walking. - Systematic hunting is not thought not to have been practiced until after the origin of bipedal locomotion. Seed and nut gathering- Feeding on seeds and nuts occurred while standing upright- Model initially drawn from anaology with gelada baboons. Feeding from bushes- Upright posture provided access to seeds, berries, etc., in lower branches analogous to adaption seen in some specialized antelope- climbing adaptation already existed as prior ancestral train in earliest hominins (i.e. bush and tree feeding already was established prior to bipedal adaptation) Thermoregulation (cooling)- Vertical posture exposes less of the body to direct sun; increased distance from ground facilities cooling by increased exposure breezes. - Works best for animals active midday on savanna; moreover adaptation to bipedalism may have initially occurred in woodlands, not on savanna. Visual surveillance- standing up provided better view of surrounding countryside (view of potential predators as well as other group members)- Behavior seen occasionally in terrestrial primates (e.g. baboons) probably a contributing factor, but unlikely as "prime mover" Long-distance walking- covering long distances was more efficient for a biped thatn for a quadruped during hunting or foraging); mechanical reconstructions show that bipedal walking is less energetically costly than quadrupedalism (this is not the case for bipedal running)- same difficulties as with hunting explanation; long-distance foraging on ground also appears unlikely adaptation in earliest hominins. Male provisioning- Males carried back resources to dependent females and young. Monogamous bong suggested; however most skeletal data appear to falsify this part of the hypothesis.

Tianyun, China

Cave 'next door' to Zhoukoudian, China Disc 2003 Dates to ca 40ka aDNA suggests Asian and Native American ancestry but not African Skeletal analysis suggests "out o fAFrican' with admixture

European Ancestors

Cave/Rock shelters 45k-35k benchmark sites for human origin interpretations Gran Dolina, Atapuuerca, Spain and Ceparano, italy- Homo Antecessor 780-700ka (primitive Homo heidelbergensis) Mauer, Germany/Steinham, Germany/Swanscombe, England/Petralona, Greece/ Arago, Spain/ Simos de los Huesos, Atepuerca, Spain- Homo Heidelbergensis 400-200ka Numerous Sites: Pestera cy Oase, Romania/ Bacho Kiro, Bulgaria/ Hahnofresang, Germany/ Mladec, Czech Republic/ Cro-Magnon, France- Modern Homo sapiens 40-30ka

Modern Human Origins

Complete opposite Two major views: Replacement (out of Africa)- all species migrated out of Africa. Multiregional Evolution (regional continuity)- may have evolved from sub-saharan Africa but as they got out they interbred with other archaics outside of Africa and brachiated into modern races. Extreme hypothesis. Complication: multiple hominin spp present at any one time except for today. Introgression is complicated. Earliest evidence is in Africa

Craniometry + Anthropometry

Craniometry • measuring the bones of the skull. • In the 19th Century, this measurement was believed to be related to IQ Anthropometry • measurement of living human individuals for the purposes of understanding human physical variation.

Jinniushan, China

Discovered in 1984 ca 200ka 1300 cc largest for transitional hominin in E Asia Homo heidelbergensis but others believe it has connections wiht modern humans in Asia Contemporaneous with H. erectus at Zhoukoudian

New World Modern Humans

Evidence for modern humans in NW is not too convincing. 14,300 years bp. Accepted that there is a direct Asian connection during the LGM (last glacial maximum) ca 16,500-13,000 years bp Interior route hypothesis- via ice free corridor Pacific Coastal Route Coastal Route Hypothesis (aka Kelp Highway Hypothesis) Genetics play a role in how we determine human migration.

ust-Ishim, Sibera

Femur from W Sibera 45ka Earliest modern human (to date) Adult male Exceptional preservation- high quality genome sequence recovered suggests genetic admixture with neanderthals 2.3% Slow mutation rate pushes back divergence bw humans and Neanderthals ca 550-770ka Helps channel arguments for early human migration out of Africa and that early waves out of aFrica may have been more culturaly distinct.

Middle East Fossil

First destination outside of Africa 60ka Unclear what route humans took to get out of Africa this time. Factors include: Climate Precise timing of migration Northern Dispersal Route vs Southern Dispersal Route. Skhul, Israel- near mount carmel, Israel (the levant)- associated with nine other individuals. Dated 100-130ka. Modern human features, very significant for "out of Africa' scenario. Potentially co-existed with Neanderthals. Thought to have died off or retreated back into Africa. Qafzeh, Israel- The levant. Large sample of 20 individuals Date to 92-120ka. No ancestor/descendant relationship discernible One highly variable population vs. two distinct, separate taxa. Did they co-exist or was there climactic-driven fluctuation?

Almost AMH (Anatomically Modern Human)

Forisbad, South AFrica 259ka Ngaloba Beds, Tanzania 120ka KNM-ER 3884, Kenya 270ka Omo 2 (Kibish) Ethiopia 195ka Jebel Irhoud, morocco 130ka Fully anatomically modern human- 195ka to present: Klasies River Mouth, South AFrica Border Cave, South AFrica Omo I (Kibish), Ehtiopia Herto, Ethiopia Singa, Sudan.

Ancient Philosophies

Homer (~ 1200 -850 BC) - • Iliadand Odyssey acknowledges human variability throughout travels Herodotus (~484 -425 BC)- Argued in Historiaefor environmental causes of variability between human groups Hippocrates (460 -377 BC)- Noted influence of environment on human variability in his Corpus Hippocraticum(Volume 1) Aristotle (384-322 BC- Claimed environmental causes for human physical variations

Hominid

Hominid has been re-appropriated to refer to all the great apes

Alternative Model

Homo erectus descendants in the Middle East give rise to various hominin groups in Europe and east Asia, as well as to Homo heidelbergensis in Africa. Modern humans (descneded from AFrican H. heidelber. emerged in Africa about 200k years ago and reached ME by 120-80k ya Later waves of modern humans spread through Europe and Asia. Modern humans evolve in Africa from H heid or another hominins derived from the ME and they disperse to Eurasia in multiple waves.

Africa

Homo heidelbergensis ca 400-200ka Generally modern but not fully Homo sapiens (homo helmei) ca 200-60ka Modern homo sapiens 130 50 ka. Middle to late pleistocene record not extensive.

Early Modern Homo sapiens

Homo neanderthalensis Contemporaneous in Europe, Middle East Homo erectus Contemporaneous in Southeast Asia There is clear temporal overlap between modern humans and Neanderthals in Europe, but Neanderthals likely went extinct by 30 ka.

Human Origins

Human Origins • Origins in Africa (>160,000 years ago) • We evolved in a tropical climate • Ability to withstand cold due to physical and cultural adaptation or acclimatization

Louis Agassiz (1807 -1873)

I experienced pity at the sight of this degraded and degenerate race. -Louis Agassiz • Polygenist and antiDarwinian

African Fossils

Jebel Irhoud, Morocco 130ka Laetoli, Tanzania LH 18 Date: 120ka Disc by Mary Leakey and team Ngoldoba beds, Laetoli. Omo Kibish, Ethiopia Omo Kibish formation Anatomically modern chin is present homo sapiens dated to 195ka probably oldest known to date. herto ethiopia- middle awah region dates to 160-154ka. Fully anatomically modern, close to present-day human variation (cf Australian aborigine) Named homo sapiens idaltu by White et al. 2003 Idaltu means Elder in the Afar language. Achedulean and middle stone age tools Discoverers suggest it evolved anagenetically from homo rhodensiensis Herto man appears coeval with classic neanderthals in Europe (strong fossil data against multiregional evolution. Klasies River Mouth, South Africa- ca 120ka Middle stone age. Border Cave, South Africa- 100ka

Upper Cave Zhoukoudian

Key site at Zhouhoudian is also called Shandingdong cave Material lost in 1941, but casts remain Poor dating but likely between 10-29 ka Interesting interpretations, beginning with Weidenreich in 1939

The first Australians

Lake Mungo 3- material seems to be quite old and yet fully modern in terms of morphology. Kow swamp- 10ka

Glacials+ Interglacials

Late Quaternary sea-level history had a significant impact on human populations past and present. • climatic conditions directly impacted biogeography and habitat of transitional hominins and modern Homo sapiens Major glacial events (n=11+) have even-numbered MIS. • Late Pleistocene glaciations were more intense compared to Early Pleistocene. • The 'Last Glacial Maximum' (ca. 27 - 24 ka) was the most intense glaciation with very low sea levels (ca. 130 m below present).

Hoppius Anthropomorpha

Linnaeus' student Hoppius published this woodcut from various sources.

Stanley M. Garn (1922 -2007)

Michigan Anthropologist • Did not like using physical traits to construct racial groups. • Identified 9 Geographical 'races': A collection of populations, separated from other such collections by major geographical barriers. • African • Amerindian • Asiatic • Australian • European Indian • Melanesian-Papuan • Micronesian • Polynesian

Monogenism

Monogenism • All 'races' descended from a common 'race' -single origin, Adam + Eve • Different 'races' are due to environmentally determined degeneration • At one time was supported with the biblical story of creation • In 1537, for example, Pope Paul III declared Native Americans to be human

Page-Ladson Site, Florida

Page-Ladson site (Sinkhole along the Aucilla River, near Tallhassee, FL) Jessi Halligan (FSU) underwater archaeologist Date: 14,500 years bp- 1500 years earlier than other good dates for the peopling of the Americas Recovered mastadon bones, tusks, dung, and stone knives. Prior to this announcement, people had assumed populations assoc iated with Clovis were first in New World... Same age as Monte Verde in Chile.

Franz Weidenreich 1873-1948

Pioneer of multiregional evolution hypothesis- reject African evidence and propose gene flow as mechanism for pleistocene human evolution.

Human Polymorphic Variants

Polymorphic variants within sampled populations. - darker color = unique to population - lighter color = shared across continental group - Light gray = shared across continental areas - Dark gray = shared across all continents

Cerutti Mastadon Site, So Co

Publ in Nature this year by Holen and Colleagues 130ka -100ka prior to any other evidence in the new world. Broken mastadon bones... Taphonomic and dating concerns, big time. Reminiscent of Calico Hills, in Mojave Desert (where Louis Leakey managed and supervised excavations) Not a legitimate archaeological site.

Sociology

Race is used as a means of determining how a person should be related to or treated, either on a personal level or under some aspect of the law. Race is a modern construct; ancient societies did not typically divide people by phenotype, but rather by language, wealth, status, religion, or class. The Fair Employment Practice Committee (FEPC) was created in 1941 in the United States to implement Executive Order 8802 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, "banning discriminatory employment practices by Federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work."

Racial Typologies

Separate and long histories of existence -Pre-evolutionary: established by Divine entity -Evolutionary: Races have long histories of separate evolutionary development. Two ways of looking at human diversity and variation: • AdaptationistApproach -Variation,a result of natural selection • Historical Approach -Variation, a pattern of population history and relationships

The Ancient One

So called Kennewick Man repatriated in Feb 2017 The remains had been curated at Burke Museum, Univ of Washington, sEattle since 1998 but disc. in 1996 Studies by Owsley and colleagues suggest individual was more closely related to Ainu and Polynesians. A molecular study countered the physical anthropology analysis of the remains and suggested he was more closely related to modern Native Americans than to any other living population. Native peoples fought to have him interred.

Francis Galton (1822 -1911

Social Darwinism = Biological Determinism • Sir Francis Galton (Darwin's half-cousin) - suggested that biological inheritance ('hereditarianism') more important than environment in determining an individual's character and intelligence. • Social reformers used Darwinism to advocate for government policies -people need to adapt to changing polcies... 'reform Darwinists' • Most extreme form of this line of thinking was 'eugenics' -a term coined by Galton in 1883, from the Greek eügenáv, meaning well-born. • Nazi eugenics, etc • Advocated 'selection' of genetic traits in humans through controlled sexual reproduction • 'desired traits' - positive eugenics • 'undesired traits' - negative eugenics (sterilization campaigns

Out of Africa

Start: Africa Middle east: 90,000 BP Europe: 40,000 BP Australia 40,000 BP Americas after 15,000 BP Earliest migrations 120k to 80k ya later migrations 60k to 40k No regional continuity of anatomy replacement migration events H. sapiens from Africa Complete Displacement Chris Stringer Homo heidelbergensis or other transitional forms evolved into Neanderthals and Denisovans. Hominins in China with mixtures or archaic and modern features may have derived from H heidelbergenesis.

Austalasian Evidence

Sunda and Sabul Sundaland- Major subcontinent of mainland SE Asia BIG islands of Borneo, Sumatra, and Java were connected to mainland SE Asia during periods of low sea level. Huge implications for biogeography Major water barrier to Sahul 'down under' Sahul- Australia and New Guinea landmass. Homo erectus 1.8 MA, Java to Ngadong (pithecanthropus) 27-53 ka, Java to modern Homo sapiens ca 60 ka 2 populations? 30-10 ka evolutionary history of the region complex Questions of gene flow, population migration, and continuity. Ngangong- 100-50 ka Homo erectus (has been redated- perhaps 27ka) Wajak- 10ka, Homo sapiens. Perhaps island hopping- rafts. Must have used boat or watercraft. Must have required language and cooperation.

CHORAPITHECUS abyssinicus

Suwaet al., 2007 • Site: Ethiopia, Afar [S. margin of Afar Date: 10 -11 Ma • New species of African Ape Teeth: gorillasized molars with derived shearing crests, and thick enamel. Basal member of the gorilla clade. 'Relatively flat cuspal enamel-dentine junction and thick enamel' suggests adaptation to hard and/or abrasive foods Re. Enamel thickness, Choropithecus molars are intermediate between apes + Australopithecus2

The Moken 'Sea Gypsies'

The Moken 'Sea Gypsies' • Adaptation or Acclimatization? • Normal vision on land, but 2X as clear underwater. • Other children can be trained to constrict their pupils, but it is unclear whether or not the Moken have a genetic adaptation

Monte Verde, Chili

Tom Dillehay (Vanderbilt Univ) and colleagues 14,500 years bp New dates recently reported at 18,500 years bp no human remains.

Hominoid Taxonomy

Traditional (grade-based) - Hominid = bipedal ancestors to humans Hominoid = apes Modern (clade-based) - Hominin = bipedal ancestors to humans - Hominid = Humans, bipeds + African apes - Hominoid = all apes

Forensic Identification

Trauma analysis 3 major ancestry groups Africa Europe Asia • Requires normative data for the population • Can include both metric ('continuous') and non-metric ('discontinuous') data Populations may have identifiable markers, however, • Human variation is more complex than 'race' • 'Racial' traits are not confined to any group • Underlying genetics assumed ... but not proven • Can have an effect on biological function (health) 'Race' is used (medicolegally) as a surrogate for ethnicity Nuchal Crest Mastoid Process Supra-Orbital Margin Supra-Orbital Ridge/Glabella Mental Eminence

Dolni Vestonici, Czech Republic

Upper Paleolithic Site ca 30-25ka Structures, activity areas, burials, grave goods, ritual symbolic behavior.

Modern human cranio facial anatomy

Vertical forehead, reduced brow, canine fossa, small anterior teeth, definite chin. Homo neaderthalensis: low forehead and long low cranium strong browridge occiputal bun projecting midface (prognathic) chin absent Homo sapiens: high forehead and rounded cranium flatter midface (less prognathism chin present.

East Asian

Zhouhoudian (Main Cave) 500-230ka Homo Erectus Zhoukoudian (Upper Cave) 20-10 ka Homo sapiens. a continuous sequence of fossils from 1 MA to present depicting a smooth transition into the living peoples of East Asia (Wolpof) -Smaller face and teeth -flatter cheeks -rounder foreheads -less prominent noses -shovel-shaped incisors. Lantian, NE china ca 1MA_- Homo Erectus Yunxian0 E Central China 350 ka- transitional (h. heidelbergensis?) Zoukoudian+Hexian, China 500-200ka- classic Homo erectus Jinniushan + Dali ca 200ka- transitional Zouhoudian (upper cave) china 20 ka modern homo sapiens lack of regional diversity within fossils in asia and between fossils from outside of asia.

Pestera cu Oase, Romania

aDNA conducted on 37-42 ka modern human. Study by Fe et al (2015) found 6-9% DNA derived from Neanderthals. Suggest individual had Neanderthal ancestor 4-6 generations back. Also suggest that Oase individual is not related to later European populations.

Niah Cave, Malaysia (Borneo)

ca 37 ka Young adult female, good context Tom and Barbara Harrison Major site in island SE Asia at one time, earliest modern human outside of Africa No collagen preserved at this point in time Morphologically most similar to Australian-type populations

Floresiensis

different cranial feature than other early homo species (branch before erectus) A STEM homo group of sorts. ancestral to all homo species.

Regional Continuity

highlight regional differences in old world and that modern humans evolved in parallel. Perhaps an out of Africa event but maybe not. African Hybridization and Replacement model Regional continuity of anatomy no replacment no migration events H. erectus to transitional forms to H. sapiens. Milford Wolpoff

Upper Paleolithic Toolkit

hyper efficient at tool use more resourceful at making a number of tools from a single stone. Upper paleolithic toolkit has more tools in than any other toolkit associated with any other human. Development of adl adl and cave art. Also, mobile art (small venus figurines)

Cro-Magnon I

les Eyzies, France 32 ka "sudden" appearance corresponds to neanderthal demise. appearance symbolizes neanderthal demise./

Human diaspora

multiple migrations out of Africa

NAKALIPITHECUS

nakayamaiKunimatsuet al., 2007 • Site: Kenya [Nakali] • Date: 10 Ma [9.9 -9.8 Ma] • Body Size: large (~ female gorilla) • Teeth/Jaws: large size but gracile mandibular body; thinner enamel than Ouranopithecus; hard-object diet (terrestrial?) • Closely related to European Ouranopithecusmacedoniensis African origin of lineage (because earlier and more primitive than Ouranopithecus Primate Fauna

Morphological

pertaining to the form and structure of an organism

Wajak, Java, Indonesia

problematic skull in island SE Asia. Difficult to date Radiocarbon dates: 10ka U-series dates 37.4-24. 5 ka. Was hidden away as not to change his story.

Multiregionalism

requires independent speciation events into the same species of modern humans. Almost no gene flow.

Denisovans

some modern humans share 3-6% of DNA with Denisovans. Fossils in Spain show an unexpected kinship with Denisovans found thousands of KM away.

Modern Human Genetic Diversity

• 377 highly variable regions of the human genome studied • 1056 individuals from 52 populations worldwide • Results: -93-95% of variation within groups -3-5% of variation between groups

Human Polymorphisms

• ABO and Other Blood Type Systems • Polymorphic: Two or more distinct phenotypes that exist within a population - Maternal-Fetal Incompatibility - The Human Leukocyte Antigen System

Earnest A. Hooten (1887 -1954)

• American physical anthropologist at Harvard University • Helped develop 'Committee on the Negro' • Interested in criminal 'nature' as measured in skulls. • Non-adaptive traits (minutiae of human variation) to explain 'real' differences between 'races' • Three primary races, 7 composite races, 15 'sub-races' Hooton's Up From The Ape (1935) Frontispiece

Samuel G. Morton (1799 -1851)

• Anatomist + Physician from Philadelphia • 'Father' of Scientific Racism • Human races = species distinctions • Data collected based on cranial capacity (Larger brain > intelligence) Measurements didn't correct for body size • Polygenist, convinced of inferiority of African populations • Measured cranial capacity (volume of braincase) to assess differential worth • Very careful technician, published extensive list of measurements of cranial capacities Morton's Racial Rankings based on estimated brain size

Ancestry vs. Race

• Ancestry -process-based concept that involves an individual's relationship to other individuals in their genealogical history • Race -pattern-based concept that has led scientists and laypersons alike to draw conclusions about hierarchical organization of humans, which connect an individual to a larger preconceived geographically circumscribed or socially constructed group.

Forensic Anthropology

• Application of the principles of biological anthropology to human remains from medicolegal (forensic) context • Identification of the individual • Assist Medical Examiner/Coroner with cause and manner of death • Human Rights and Mass Disaster Assistance

Stereotyping

• Biological Determinism is culturally rampant • Based on premise and false assumption that personality is fixed in the gene pool.

Evidence of Genetic Adaptation - 'positive selection

• ClinalVariations -Skin Color -Hair Texture -Nasal Index • Balanced Polymorphisms: -Allele frequencies higher than would otherwise be expected • Sickle cell/Malaria • G6PD/Malaria • Tay Sachs/TB

Race versus Ethnicity

• Conceptions of ethnicity - temporary + temporal - religious, political and/or other symbols - maintain cultural heritage - not necessarily connected with physical or biological conceptions • Race and Ethnicity - Confusion, mixing, and substitution of terms - Ultimately incongruent

Race: Biology or Culture

• Cultural, but conceptualized biologically. - Blood and race are symbolically intertwined • "Race" constructed from arbitrary physical characteristics - Skin color, hair color, skin, height, etc. - Different classification schemes for different purposes

Leonardo da Vinci (1452 -1519)

• Da Vinci questioned the environmental hypothesis in accounting for human variation, suggesting an early hereditarian argument based on the power of the mother's seed.

ClinalEffect + Skin Color

• Darker skin: ↓ vitamin D absorption (prevents hypervitaminosisD, but risk of rickets at high latitudes); ↓ rates of sunburn, skin cancer + folate depletion; ↑ frostbite • Lighter skin: ↑ vitamin D absorption (prevents rickets); ↑ skin cancer rates + folate depletion • Skin Color density of melanin in melanocytes dictates skin color. • ClinalEffect - variation in latitude correlates with darkness of skin. Mismatch? Arctic Peoples = Darker than predicted Reasons? • Recent arrivals (~5ka) • Marine diet high in vitamin D • High reflectance of sunlight • Relaxed genes (reduced f(x) of melanin genes)

Bioarchaeology

• Emphasizes the human biological aspects of the archaeological record. The analysis of human remains in archaeological context. • Key subdiscipline—lots of specialties • Crosses over with paleoanthropology, forensics, biomechanics, paleopathology, bone chemistry, etc. • Study of human skeletal remains in archaeological (cultural) context • Training in both archaeology and biological anthropology strongly encouraged • Activity Patterns • Cultural Modifications • Diet • Migration • Trauma and Warfare • Health - Non-specific - Specific Used to reconstruction the lifestyle of an individual or population

Does phenotype reveal "race"?

• Environmental factors (temperature, altitude, sunlight, etc.) • Socio-cultural factors (e.g., diet & nutrition, health care, access to educational/economic resources, etc.)

Modern Human Diasporas: An Austronesian Example

• Example of one modern human diaspora in prehistory. • The Austronesian Diaspora was massive in terms of its scale. • Although debated, it likely started out of southern China to Taiwan ca. 6-5 ka • Based principally on language groups.

Circumpolar Cold Adaptation

• Genetic - Different levels of vasoconstriction to the extremities protect against frostbite without losing too much heat • Cultural - Cold water fish are high in essential fatty acids (EFAs) which may increase blood pressure in the fingers

Biological 'Race'

• Genetic evidence demonstrates without question that Homo sapiens is objectively not that diverse compared to other extant apes • Most of our diversity is spread globally within all populations • Phenotypic concepts of 'race' are not genetically real

Johann Blumenbach (1752 -1840)

• German Anatomist, 'Father' of Physical Anthropology • On the Natural Varieties of Mankind(1775) • Monogenism(refuted the existence of 'wild men; and 'troglodytes' of earlier classifications • Proposed a system for classifying humans into five different 'races' based on the shape of the skull • Used skull from Caucasus mountains as 'perfect' European form -claimed four other 'races' were 'degenerated' from this group • Caucasoid (Europeans), Mongoloid (Asians), American (Native Americans), Ethiopian (Africans), and Malayan (Southeast Asians)

Franz Boas (1858 -1942)

• German-born 'Father' of American four-field Anthropology • Taught at Columbia University (NYC) • Challenged the prevailing 19thcentury race-based, evolutionary approach to culture. • Argued for racial plasticity based on studies of immigrant populations over time.

Homosapiens of the Holocene

• Holocene epoch is divided into 'chronozones' defined by climatic fluctuations. • We are now in the 'Anthropocene' - argued to be the new epoch beginning ~ AD 1950. • Modern humans remarkably resilient with respect to biocultural adaptations to climate change. Epoch

Von Linee

• Homo sapiens europaeus • H. sapiens afer ' • H. sapiens asiaticus • H. sapiens americanus

Carleton S. Coon (1904 -1981)

• Identified 5 'races' • Threshold of Homo sapiens crossed multiple times • Some 'evolved' before others • UPenn Prof.

St. Augustine (AD 354 -430)

• In De CivitateDei Contra Paganoshe wrote that all men born everywhere, no matter how strange they appear to us, are descended from Adam, i.e., are descended from a single ancestral stock

Lactose Intolerance

• Lactose - Carbohydrate in mammal milk • Lactase enzyme allows us to digest • Adult Intolerance - Diarrhea, Cramps, Flatulence • Lactase Persistent Allele (autosomal dominant) • Bacteria!!! Make them do the work

Genetic Diversity of Chimps + Humans

• Lengths of the branches indicate 'genetic distance' • Humans as compared to the other great apes occupy very little 'genetic space' • This means that among humans there is very little genetic diversity (compared to our closest extant relatives)

W.E.B. DuBois (1868 -1963)

• Major 'player' in terms of antiracist scholarship and debate. • Social justice advocate • The Souls of Black Folk (1903) • First to disentangle natural science and social science research to conclude that race was not a legitimate scientific category. • Health disparities between blacks + whites due to social, not biological, inequality.

Holocene Temperature Variations

• Modern humans populated all continents (except Antarctica) by the 'terminal' Pleistocene (ca. 12 ka), which ends with a glacial 'bang' the Younger Dryas (12.9-11.7 ka) • Younger Dryasis a recent example of abrupt climate change. Evidence for global-scale shift towards glacial conditions that 'ameliorated' by start of the Holocene

Mis-Notions of Race

• Monogenism • Polygenism • Social Darwinism • Biological Determinism • Eugenics • Xenophobia • 'Scientific' Racism • Races are ranked on various criteria judged to assess intelligence or moral standards • Rankings are used either to bolster the Scala Naturae or proto-evolutionary relationships • Rankings are highly subjective and loaded with potential for ethnocentric abuse, with the highest rank always being reserved for the race of the person doing the ranking. • Bias is everpresentwith respect to race.

Race and Racism

• Most of us can see differences in humans: skin color, eye color, hair are obvious. • We, and most others in the world, tend to use these traits to categorize people. • Morally, must understand the ramifications of our use of these categories and the harm they have brought and can bring. • We need to understand the difference between what is essentially a sociological view of race rather than a biological view of race. • In biology, 'racial groups' are used in comparison with that of other racial groups to investigate how people adapt to environments. An attempt at objective reality

Polygenism

• Multiple creation events result in observed human variation • Different 'races' are descendants of different 'Adams' • Reinforced by young earth creationism • Observed variation could not be explained in a single creation event • Used to justify slavery • Argument ended with On the Origin of Species (1859)

Andreas Vesalius (1514 -1564)

• Noted a relationship between race and the shape of the skull

Order: Primates

• Race is an outdated, gradebased concept that aims to place modern humans into hierarchical organization • Homo sapiensis a polytypic species. • Homo sapiensis genetically homogeneous

Stature

• Selection for small body size when there are limits on availability of food resources.

Levels of Adaptation

• Skin Pigmentation • Body Shape + Body Size • Hair Form + Pigmentation • Skin + Fat • Physiology • Skeletal Variation • Adaptation: • Genetic (evolutionary) change • Time period: generations • Adaptability: • Developmental change • Time: lifetime/childhood • Acclimation (acclimatization): • Plastic physiological change • Time: minutes/hours/weeks • Behavioral/cultural

High Altitude

• Stressors - Hypoxia (reduced available oxygen) - Intense solar radiation - Cold - Low humidity - Wind • Developmental Effects - Slower maturation - Greater lung volume - Relatively large heart

Carolus Linnaeus (1707 -1778)

• SystemaNaturae1st ed. 1735 (before he was 30 years old) • SystemaNaturae10th edition (1758) • Subdivided humans according to Scala Naturae('Great Chain of Being') based on perceived 'culturebound' differences in addition to differences in climatic and social conditions • Typological approach to race identifying "types" or subspecies within Homo sapiens

Sickle Cell Anemia

• This is a disease where the body cannot properly produce Hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying protein in red blood cells • Persons with the disease are homozygous recessive. Their blood does not flow properly, and are unlikely to reach adulthood. • Autosomal Recessive Inheritance • Sickle Cell Anemia is a co-dominant Mendelian trait controlled by a pair of alleles at a single locus. • This means that if two Heterozygous parents have children, 1/4 of their children are likely to die of Sickle Cell Anemia • Carriers -have both alleles in their genotype • Sickle Trait parents effectively trade 1 child for 2. Point mutation

Geography of Race

• historical entities (pre -AD 1500) • Post -AD 1500) • increased - gene flow - 'replacement' - admixture

Pleistocene Hominin Diversity

• hominin species in the Pleistocene • Occur at quite low population densities (Certainly compared to modern humans) • Modern humans remarkably adaptable and resilient to biocultural changes • non-modern hominin species, including some quite recent, also were resilient (e.g. H. neanderthalensis,H. floresiensis, H. naledi) • Our species evolved in Africa 200 ka and continues to this day, the only extant hominin on planet earth