Biology 172 Exam 2
Endowment and system
Movement of things in cell-
Uv rays cause
Thymine-thymine dimers
Autotroph
carbon from CO2
When protein molecules are used
what are produced as waste?,Amino Acids.
In photosynthesis
what does 6CO2 reduce to?,C6H12O6.
Cellular Respiration occurs in three metabolic stages:
1. glycolysis. 2. Krebs cycle (aka Citric Acid Cycle). 3. Electron transport chain
How is glucose used?
1/2 of Glucose is used for cellular respiration to produce ATP. Glucose is used to make other compounds such as Amino acids for proteins, stored as fats, etc. Excess Glucose is stored as starch and sucrose. Glucose is used to make cell walls.
How many ATP are made in a working muscle cell per second?
10 million
Scanning Electron Microscopy Range
100 µm-1nm Cell-Small Molecules
Transmission Electron Microscopy Range
100 µm-1nm Cell-Small Molecules
Human eye visibility range
10m-1mm
Light Microscopy
1mm-1µm Frog eggs-mitchondria
What is the net amount of ATP generated during glycolysis?
2 ATP, because 2 ATP are used to make 4 ATP
How many ATP are produced by the Krebs Cycle for each molecule of glucose?
2 ATPs
How many ATP molecules are produced in the Krebs cycle?
2 ATPs
What is produced in the Citric Acid Cycle?
2 FADH2, 6NADH, 2 ATP
How many G3P make one glucose?
2 G3P make one glucose.
How many ATP molecules are produced per FADH2 molecule?
2.
1.Krebs cycle
2.Electron Transport Chain and 3.Oxidative Phosphorylation. CARBON PROCESSING conversion of 2 pyruvates 3-carbon molecules each into 3 carbon dioxidos 1-carbon molecules.
What percent of plants use CAM pathways?
3-4%. CAM pathways fix carbon both times in mesophyl cells. They open their stomata at night and stockpile CO2
How many ATP per NADH molecule are produced in the electron transport chain?
3.
How many ATP can one molecule of glucose produce?
32 ATP.
How many molecules of ATP does ATP synthase produce?
34
How many carbons are in glucose?
6 carbons
How many "turns" of the Calvin Cycle are required to produce one molecule of glucose? (assume one CO2 is fixed in each turn of the cycle.)
6.
What is the formula for photosynthesis?
6CO2 +6H20 + light >>> Glucose + 602
What is a reduction reaction?
A reduction reaction is a reaction in which a molecule gains electrons. It requires energy.
Cell Wall
A rigid layer of nonliving material that surrounds the cells of plants and some other organisms.
What is a wavelength?
A wavelength is the distance between two peaks. The shorter the wavelength of light, the greater the energy of its photons.
The portable energy in the cell or "cash in hand" is known as what?
ATP
What is the storage form of energy called?
ATP
After the citric acid cycle, which molecules hold the energy contained in glucose?
ATP and NADH
What is produced by reactions that take place in the thylakoids and consumed by reactions in the stroma?
ATP and NADPH
What two molecules are produced by light reactions and used to power the Calvin Cycle?
ATP and NADPH
Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Both processes include glycolysis. In aerobic respiration oxygen O2 is needed. In anaerobic respiration no oxygen is needed.
cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
How many ATP can be made from NADH once it enters the electron transport chain?
Each NADH can yield 3 ATP once the electrons are delivered to the electron transport chain.
What is the electromagnetic spectrum?
The electromagnetic spectrum is the full range of electromagnetic wavelengths from the very short gama rays to the very long radio waves.
What provides the electrons for reducing carbon in the Calvin cycle?
The electron carrier NADPH.
Where is most of the cell's ATP produced? How many ATP does it produce?
The electron transport chain during oxidative phosphorylation produces about 28 ATP.
FADH2
The reduced from (carries electrons) of FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide). this is the other main electron carrier in cellular respiration (NADH is the most common).
Cytosol
The soluble portion of the cytoplasm, which includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not the organelles covered with membranes.
What cells use Alcohol Fermentation?
Yeast and Bacteria. Yeast is a single-celled fungi that can use aerobic or anaerobic respiration.
In photosynthesis
______ is oxidized and ______ is reduced.,water, carbon dioxide
Duplication
a region of the chromosome is copied and both copies are retained in the chromosome. Duplicated genes can diverge during evolution and have more specialized function (or expressed) at different times like the globin genes.
requires oxygen
aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 or 38 ATP
aerobic respiration (cellular respiration)
Southern blots
allows for the detection of a specific DNA sequence in a specific DNA sample; Procedure: 1) DNA is cleaved into restriction fragments by restriction endonucleases that cut at specific restriction sites, 2) Fragments separated by gel electrophoresis, 3) Detect sequence by washing with radioactively labeled probe
heterotroph
an organism deriving its nutritional requirements from complex organic substances.
Autotroph
an organism that is able to form nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide.
If oxygen is not present it is known as what type of respiration
anaerobic or fermentation
that is the end product of glycoloysis
and CO2 is also released during The Kreb Cycle
Are plants heterotrophic or autotrophic?
autotrophic
Signal recognition particle
binds to the signal sequence and the ribosomal subunits and transports the complex to the ER
What wavelengths of light are absorbed by chlorophyll?
blue and red
Nucleotide excision repair fixes
bulky side group attached to base & cross linked thymine bases
open their stomata at night and close them during the day. At night they take in CO2 and fix it into organic compounds and during the day it is released. grow fairly slowly
but lose less water -ex. cacti and pineapple,CAM pathways
The reactions of the Calvin Cycle are not directly dependent on light
but they usually do not occur at night. Why?,The Calvin cycle depends on products of the light reactions.
Assist chlorophyll a in capturing light energy
called an accessory igment.,chlorophyll B
isopropene chain
carbon chain on cholestrol
The rate of photosynthesis decreases as the...
carbon dioxide concentration decreases.
incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic compounds
carbon fixation
-incorporating CO2 into organic compounds -3 CO2 molecules enter the Calvin cycle. -occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts
carbon fixation (light dependent)
Yellow and orange plant pigments are known as which of the following?
carotenoids
RecA
does homologous recombination
Homologous recombination fixes
double stranded break in backbone
X-rays cause
double-stranded breaks
Why is it difficult for most plants to carry out photosynthesis in very hot
dry environments such as deserts?,The closing of stomata keeps CO2 from entering and O2 from leaving the plant.
Why does photorespiration occur in hot
dry environments?,Hot, dry environments cause plants to close their stoma to retain water.
the series of molecules down which excited electrons are passed in a thylakoid membrane
electron transport chain
when electrons of chlorophyll molecules are raised to a higher energy level they enter what?
electron transport chain
Base
excision repair- Removes DNA damage or uracil. Uracil should only be in RNA, not DNA. Base excision repair only removes the single damaged base or uracil, no surrounding DNA. The DNA damage can be caused by oxidative or alkylation DNA damage.
base excision repair
for taking uracil out of DNA
Peroxisome
found in eukaryotes; breakdown of fatty acids, detoxification of alcohol
The starting reactant of glycolysis is ____________ and the end product is _____________.
glucose; pyruvate
A molecule of glucose is split forming 2 molecules of pyruvate and some ATP in what process?
glycolysis
What is the main event that occurs in glycolysis?
This process splits or lysis glucose 6 carbons in a half glucose 6 carbons in a half so that yield 3 carbons and 3 carbons igual 6 carbons and produces 2 ATPs for each glucose.
What are thylakoids?
Thylakoids are interconnected membranous sacs. They contain chlorophyll molecules that capture light.
What is the primary function of cellular respiration?
To make ATP to power the cell's activities.
Transmission electron microscopy
microscope where image is derived from electrons that have passed through it. (resolution is 1000X better than optical) used to study the internal structure of thin sections of cells
Base excision repair fixes
missing bases
Cellular respiration takes place in what organelle?
mitochondria
What does Rotenone do?
It binds with an electron carrier molecule in the first protein complex blocking electrons from passing to the next carrier molecules.
Where does the Citric Acid Cycle get its name?
It is called the Citric Acid Cycle because it makes citrate.
What happens to the energy that is given up by electrons as they move through the electron transport chain?
It pumps H+ through a membrane.
2 types of fermentation
Lactic Acid Fermentation and alcoholic fermentation
Denaturation step
Run at 92°
ER Lumen
The area enclosed by the ER membrane.
What fraction of circulating glucose does the brain use?
The brain uses 2/3 of circulating glucose.
mismatch repair
The cellular process that uses specific enzymes to remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides.
What is an advantage to slowly metabolizing glucose in a series of biochemical reactions?
The chemical energy in glucose is harnessed by other molecules.
In what stage of cellular respiration is the breakdown of glucose complete?
The citric acid cycle.
What are producers?
Plants- they produce food supply for heterotrophs.
Western blots
-gel electrophoresis to separate protein by size
Product of the calvin cycle are
-three-carbon sugars. -used to produce organic compounds -used to regenerate the initial five-carbon compound.
What percent of plants use C4 pathways?
1%.
Why are fats better sources of energy than carbohydrates?
Fats contain sources of high-energy electrons which are good for energy production.
What is the name of the process that takes place when organic compounds are broken down in the absence of oxygen
Fermentation
What cells use Lactic Acid Fermentation?
Muscle cells (during strenuous exercise) and bacterial cells (used to make yogurt and cheese)
What cells can break down food without oxygen?
Muscle cells, bacterial cells, and yeast cells.
Glycolisis always requires
NAD+
What is recycled in fermentation?
NADH is recycled to become NAD+.
What do energized electrons from photosystem I reduce to?
NADP+
What is the final electron acceptor in the light reactions of photosynthesis?
NADP+
carries high-energy electrons to produce organic molecules
NADP+
What transports electrons from the light reactions to the Calvin cycle?
NADPH
What are the products of light reactions?
NADPH, ATP, and O2
What are the products of light reactions?
NADPH, ATP, and O2.
Is there RNA in PCR
No, there are DNA primers
Does a release of oxygen occur in the Calvin cycle?
No.
transports through stomata
O2, water, CO2
What does Oligomycin do?
Oligomycin blocks H+ through the channel of the ATP synthase so that no ATP can be made.
What are strict anaerobes?
Strick anaerobes can only make ATP by fermentation and are poisoned by O2. They are often bacteria found deep in the soil.
What is the stroma?
Stroma is the thick fluid filing the inner membrane of a chloroplast. Sugars are produced in the stroma.
Resolution
dependent on wavelength of light, higher resolution when using electrons
T or F: only animals do cellular repiration.
False
Base excision repair
Replaces Uracil in DNA
the four stages of cellular respiration
glycolysis, a transition reaction, the Krebs Cycle and an electron transport chain.
Most of the energy used by life on Earthh comes from where?
the sun
Northern blots
- isolate RNA from tissue/ cells of choice
What are autotrophs?
"Self-feeders"- make their own food.
ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work
FAD
(flavin adenine dinucleotide)-carries electrons and donates to complex II of the ETC
NADP+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) carries electrons and donates to Calvin cycle to reduce carbon compounds during carbohydrate synthesis.
What is NAD+?
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)-carries electrons and donates to complex I of electron transport chain (ETC) NAD+ is a coenzyme and electron carrier. It stores energy present in sugar and is reduced to NADH.
What is a chloroplast?
A chloroplast is an organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic molecules (sugars) from carbon dioxide and water. Chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
A laboratory technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.
What is a light harvesting complex?
A light harvesting complex captures energy and transfers it to the reaction center. Light harvesting complexes function as a light-gathering antenna and contain pigment molecules bound to proteins. The pigments absorb photons and pass the energy from molecule to molecule until it reaches the reaction center.
Confocal fluorescence image
A lot of images composed into one to provide clarity -form of microscopy that improves micrography (photograph of microscopy) by using a pinhole camera to eliminate out of focus light.
Rough ER
A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.
Agarose
A polysaccharide obtained from seaweed that is used as the supporting medium in gel electrophoresis.
autophagy
A process in which cells recycle their own organic material through the use of hydrolytic enzymes.
How is the small amount of ATP made in glycolysis?
ATP is made in glycolysis by the transfer of a phosphate group from a fragment of glucose to ADP (Substrate-level phosphorylation).
Chemiosis
ATP production using the energy of hydrogen ions (H+) across gradients in membranes to phosphorylate ADP; powers most ATP synthesis.
chemiosis
ATP production using the energy of hydrogen ions (H+) across gradients in membranes to phosphorylate ADP; powers most ATP synthesis.
Calvin cycle uses...
ATP, CO2, NADPH, RUBP
What provides the chemical energy for the Calvin cycle?
ATP.
How does the pyruvate produced by glycolysis enter the mitochondrion?
Active Transport
What type of trasport is used to move the primary product of glycolysis into the mitchondira?
Active Transport
If oxygen is present it is known as what type of respiration
Aerobic Respiration
WHat is the source of oxygen produced during photosynthesis
Alternative pathways in the stomata/ water/splitting
What connects the two photosystems in the light reactions?
An electron transport chain.
NADH
An energy-carrying coenzyme produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. NADH carries energy to the electron transport chain, where it is stored in ATP.
Chemoautotroph
An organism (typically a bacterium or a protozoan) that obtains energy through chemical process, which is by the oxidation of electron donating molecules from the environment, rather than by photosynthesis.
What is an oxidation reaction?
An oxidation reaction is a reaction in which a molecule looses its electrons. It releases energy.
Ethanol is synthesized under
Anerobic conditions by yeast cells
What is photorespiration?
As O2 builds up in a leaf, rubisco adds O2 to RuBP. This results in a loss of fixed carbon. Photorespiration consumes O2 and releases CO2.
What is Total Energy Conversion at the end of glycolysis.
At the end of glycolysis, all the energy that was originally in glucose is now in three different kinds of molecules: ATP, NADH, and pyruvate. The total energy count at the end of the process is: 2 ATP. 2 NADH. 2 pyruvate.
Collagen
Beta glucose monomers that make the cell wall of plant cells, flexible
Nucleotide excision repair
Binds and removes damaged DNA. UV -irradiation causes Thymine-thymine dimers. These stop DNA replication and transcription. The damage must be removed. The site of DNA damage and surrounding DNA is removed.
Which bond has the least potential energy? C-C C=C C-O C-H
C-O
Explain C3 Pathways
C3 pathways produce 3-PGA. They use the Calvin Cycle to fix Carbon. 95% of plants use this to make sugar. C3 pathways don't work as well in hot, dry environments. All plants use C3 pathways. C4 and CAM plants have extra steps to allow them to not need as much water.
CO2 fixed into four-carabon compounds. Has a stomata partially closed during the hottest part of the day ( corn and sugar cane)
C4 Pathway
have stomata partially closed during the hottest part of the day -ex. corn and sugar cane.
C4 pathway
Explain CAM pathways.
CAM pathways store CO2 as a 4 Carbon molecule that makes sugar during the day due to stockpile of CO2.
Every time a carbon in glucose is oxidized, what molecule is directly produced?
CO2
what enter and then leaves through the stomata in the plant?
CO2 enters, O2 leaves the plants
What are the inputs to the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis?
CO2 from the air, and ATP and NADPH generated by the light reactions.
What processes in your cells produce the CO2 that you exhale
CO2, is released from The Pyruvate
a series of enzyme-assisted chemical reactions that produces a three carbon sugar molecule
Calvin Cycle
Which atoms in glucose are oxidized during glycolysis?
Carbon
What provides the carbon atoms that are incorporated into sugar molecules in the Calvin Cycle?
Carbon Dioxide (combines with RuBP to produce G3P sugar molecules).
ncreased levels will stimulate photosynthesis and then it will level off.
Carbon Dioxide Levels
Heterotroph
Carbon from organic compounds
What is the process of converting glucose into energy called?
Cellular respiration
What does Cellular Respiration do?
Cellular respiration converts O2 to sugar and energy to produce CO2.
What is chemiosmosis?
Chemisosmosis is the energy-coupling mechanism that uses the energy of hydrogen ion (H+) gradients across membranes to drive cellular work, such as the phosphorylation of ADP powers most ATP synthesis in cells.
What light does chlorophyll a absorb and reflect?
Chlorophyll a pigments absorb blue-violet and red and reflect blue-green. Chlorophyll a participates directly in light reactions.
In which organelle does photosynthesis take place?
Chloroplast
Movement through Golgi Apparatus goes from...
Cis to trans
Phase Two of Glycolsis
Cleavage phase: Pyruvates are made by phosophofructokinase
What are the four proteins in the electron transport chain?
Complex 1 2 3 4
Mismatch repair
Corrects single base pairing errors and large insertions/deletions. The bases alone are normal, just paired incorrectly.
Why are there Cristae (folds) in the mitochondrial membrane?
Cristae provide more surface area for more electron transport. This supplies more ATP.
What do Cyanide and Carbon monoxide do?
Cyanide and carbon monoxide bind to an electron carrier in the 4th protein complex. They block the passage of electrons to oxygen and make it so there is no H+ gradient meaning that ATP cannot be produced.
Southern Blot
DNA
Enzyme required for PCR
DNA polymerase
What does DNP do?
DNP is an uncoupler that makes the mitochondrial membrane "leaky" to H+ ions. ATP cannot be made because the leakage destroys the gradient.
Deletions
Deletions can be small (one base-pair) or large several thousand.
FADH
Electron carrier produced during the Krebs cycle.
SHat is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration
Electron transport chain
Water is an end product in what?
Electron transport chain
Energy released as electrons are passed down ______ which pumps protons into the thylakoid compartment.
Electron transport chain.
Describe the process of the electron transport chain.
Electrons are passed from one carrier to another, releasing a little energy at each step.
Phase one of Glycolsis
Energy Investment Phase: Two ATP are added and the phosphates destabilize the molecule
Mismatch repair system
Enzymes that scan newly copied DNA and locate, excise and replace mismatched pairs missed by proofreading.
What are facultative anaerobes?
Facultative anaerobes can make ATP from fermentation or Oxidative Phosphorylation. If oxygen is available, they will always use oxidative phosphorylation.
Tor F: THe dark reaction cannot take place during the day.
False
Glycolysis begins with
Glucose enters the cytoplasm of the cell, and glycolysis occurs here. Glycolysis begins with 1 glucose 6-carbon molecule and ends with 2 pyruvates 3-carbon molecules.
Glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvates during the first stage of cellular respiration. This process is called what?
Glycolysis
What stage of cellular respiration doesn't require O2?
Glycolysis
Which of the part of the cellular respiration process takes place in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell?
Glycolysis
Where does Glycolysis occur?
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm outside the organelles.
What materials does Glycolysis start and end up with?
Glycolysis starts with glucose and 2 ATP and ends up with 2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
What is the first step of cellular respiration?
Glycolysis.
What is the only stage of cellular respiration that requires ATP to make ATP?
Glycolysis.
What are grana?
Grana are concentrated stacks of thylakoid membranes.
What provides electrons for the light reactions?
H2O. The electrons are stripped from water in the light reactions of photosynthesis. This is one of the reasons plants need water.
What does photosystem II do?
Photosystem II is a pigment molecule that absorbs a photon of light. Energy passes to other photons and excited P680 to a higher state. It splits H2O to form O2.
Chemotaxis
How bacteria move toward sugar food source
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis' 5 stages
Identification: 1. Macromolecules out- side the cell bind to membrane proteins that act as receptors. Pinching: 2. The plasma membrane folds in and pinches off to form a vesicle called an early endosome. H+ Build up: 3. The early endosome undergoes a series of processing steps includ-ing activation of proton pumps that lower its pH. 4. The early endosome matures into a late endosome that receives digestive enzymes from the Golgi apparatus. Maturation 5. The late endosome eventually matures into a functional lysosome.
Why is breathing important for cellular respiration?
If you don't breathe in oxygen, there is no oxygen for cellular respiration.
How is photosynthesis similar in C4 plants and CAM plants?
In both cases, rubisco is not used to fix carbon initially.
In what organelle would you find Krebs Cycle and the electron transport chain?
In the Mitochondria
Where is energy stored in ATP
In the bonds between the phosphates
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the cytoplasm
Where is the electron transport chain located?
In the inner mitochondrial membrane.
What are the inputs and outputs of the Calvin Cycle?
Inputs: Co2, ATP, NADPH. Outputs: G3P.
How would you describe the electron transport chain?
Is a process that uses energy captured from electrons, flowing to oxygen, to produce most of the ATPs in cellular respiration
What is the Electron Transport Chain
Is a sequence of electron carrier molecules that shuttle electrons, down a series of reactions that release energyused to make ATP.
Anabolism
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.
difference between lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation
Lactic converts the pyruvic acid into lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation converts it into ethyl alcohol
What are some factors that can affect the rate of photosynthesis?
Light intensity, CO2 level, and temperature
Explain light reactions.
Light reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes. They convert light energy to chemical energy and give off O2. In light reactions, water is split, providing a source of electrons and giving off O2 as a biproduct. H+ electrons from water reduce NADP+to NADPH. Light reactions also generate ATP from ADP by adding a phosphate.
What is used in light reactions?
Light, Water, protons and electrons from water NADP+, ADP
used in light reactions
Light, water, protons and electrons from water, NADP+, ADP
Where do light-independent reactions take place and what do they do?
Light-independent reactions take place in the stroma. They include carbon fixation from CO2 into organic compounds. Light-independent reactions use e- from NADPH to reduce CO2. ATP (from light reaction) is used to power the other steps of the Calvin cycle.
What are chloroplasts?
Location of photosynthesis in plants and algae. They contain the pigment chlorphyll.
What metabolic pathway and carbon processing are done in the Mitochondria
METABOLIC PATHWAYS
Induced Mutations
Made deliberately by treatment of cells exogenously
Vesciles
Membrane bound sacks for transport and packaging
Catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.
What is produced in the calvin cycle?
Organix Compounds(amino acids, lipids, and CARBOHYDRATES, NADP+ADP
Is glycolysis exergonic or endergonic?
Overall Exergonic, but phase one is endergonic.
What does Aerobic Respiration use?
Oxygen
What is needed for aerobic respiration?
Oxygen
What is the major atmospheric by-product of photosynthesis
Oxygen
What is the final electron acceptor in cellular respiration?
Oxygen (O2)
What is the role of oxygen in cellular respiration?
Oxygen accepts high-energy electrons after they are stripped from glucose.
WHat substance is produced during photosynthesis that is used for the completion of cellular respiration?
Oxygen and glucose
What is produced in Light reactions
Oxygen, ATP, NADPH
Phase Three Glycolsis
Payoff phase, with production of 4 ATP and 2 NADH
What are Photons?
Photons are units of light in discrete packets of energy.
CO2+ H20 =C6H12O6 +O2 is the equation for what process?
Photosynthesis
How do autotrophs get their energy
Photosynthesis
What provides the energy for life?
Photosynthesis and Respiration.
What does photosystem I do?
Photosystem I produces NADPH. The radioactive chlorophyll a absorbs 700 mn light best.
What are pigments?
Pigments are light absorbing molecules. Different pigments absorb different wavelengths of light.
What are photoautotrophs?
Plants- they convert light energy to chemical energy.
cAMP actiate
Protein Kinase A
SDS page gel
Protein awl
Explain the Kreb Cycle. What happens?
Pyruvate is converted to Carbon Dioxide
Northern Blot
RNA
PFK
Rate limiting enzyme in glycolytic pathway
Homologous recombination
Repairs DNA breaks including double-stranded breaks, meaning both strands of the double helix are broken. The protein RecA is responsible for this process
Spontaneous mutations
Replication errors-reactive oxygen apecies
What is the starting material for the Calvin Cycle in photosynthesis?
Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)
Rubisco
Ribulose carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate).
Scanning electron microscopy
See things smaller than sall cell 100 micrometers-0.1nm -An instrument that bounces electrons off objects to create a three-dimensional image that is more highly magnified than possible through a light microscope. - specimen coated with a thin film usually gold electron beam scans back and forth across the sample. Only allows for surface visualization.
Most common type of mutation
Spontaneous
Calvin Cycle
Stage 2 of PHotosynthesis
Organic compound are formed using carbon dioxide.
Stage 2 of photosynthesis
Smooth ER
Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones-help detoxify drugs and poisons (liver cells).
Explain Light-independent reactions in the Calvin Cycle.
The Calvin cycle takes place in the Stroma. It turns CO2 to glucose and reduces CO2 to C6H12O6. NADPH and ATP from light reactions provide energy for it to happen. Although the Calvin cycle is light-independent, it normally happens during the day because that is when it gets its energy from Light Reactions. Bottom line: Uses NADPH, ATP and Carbon and produces Sugar, ADP and NADP+.
Why does the Citric Acid Cycle complete two full turns?
The Citric Acid Cycle completes two turns because it processes two molecules of acetyl CoA for each initial glucose.
Which portion of cellular respiration produces the most ATP?
The Electron Transport Chain
What do the different electron transport chains in the light reactions do?
The first electron transport chain in the light reactions connects the photosynthesis and the second chain ends in the production of NADPH.
How did photosynthesis change the planet?
The first organisms on the planet were heterotrophs. 3.5 BYA the 1st autotrophs came to earth. CO2 in the atmosphere decreased, global temperature decreased, and % of O2 in the atmosphere rose.
Where does the formation of acetyl-CoA occur?
The formation of acetyl- CoA occurs in the mitochondrion.
Carbon Fixation
The initial incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic prokaryote).
Thymine thymine dimer
The major form of DNA damage due to UV irradiation
What is the main cell responsible for photosynthesis?
The mesophyll cell- they are the green tissue in the interior of the leaf.
Where do oxidation reductions and the citric acid cycle occur?
The mitochondria.
Rubisco
The most abundant protein on earth. Performs Carbon Fixation in the Calvin Cycle.
What stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose?
The pancreas.
Thylakoid Membrane
The photosynthetic membrane within a chloroplast that contains light gathering pigment molecules and electron transport chains.
What is the reaction-center complex?
The reaction-center complex contains the pair of chlorophyll a molecules with a molecule called the primary electron acceptor which is capable of accepting electrons and becoming reduced.
Oxidative phosphorylation could not occur without glycolysis and the citric acid cycle because______.
These two stages supply the electrons needed for the electron transport chain.
What is the fate of the electrons that are stripped from glucose during cellular respiration?
They are used to form water.
When is oxygen released?
Water is spilt and oxygen is released as the by product of photosynthesis.
Substrate-level Phosphorylation
When an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule.
How do pigments absorb light?
When a pigment molecule absorbs a photon of light, one of the pigment's electrons jumps to an energy level farther from the nucleus. The electrons become unstable in their excited state and drop back down to the ground state releasing excess energy as heat. This can cause flourescence or a photosynthesis.
When fermentation occurs....?
When oxygen is not present
Huntington's disease
caused by replication errors resulting in repeat expansion of (CAG)n. Causes many glutamines in the protein resulting in protein unfolding and neurological disease.
Replication Slippage
causes insertions and deletions
Tight junctions enforce
cell membrane polarities
microtubule
cell motility,
In the absence of oxygen
cells need a way to regenerate which compound?,NAD+ needs to be regenerated, which is why ethanol or lactic acid is formed.
Cytolplasm
cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
CHemical energy stored in food molecules is released through what process?
cellular respiration
Point mutations
change a single base-pair
Silent mutations (synonymous)
change in DNA that does not change the amino acid sequence.
Nonsense
change in the DNA that generates a stop codon.
Missense mutation (nonsynonymous)
change in the DNA that results in an amino acid change.
the process that relies on a concentration gradient of protons
chemiosmosis
-synthesis of ATP -movement of protons into the stroma of the chloroplast -from high concentration to low concentration
chemiosmosis/ making ATP
what is the major light-absorbing pigment in photosynthesis?
chlorophyl A and B
the primary pigment involved in photosynthesis
chlorophyll
-directly involved in light reactions of photosynthesis. -absorbs less blue light but more red light
chlorophyll a
Accessory Pigments
chlorophyll b (absorbs blue and orange light and reflects yellow/ green light) and cartenoids ( reflect red, yellow, and orange and act as photoprotectors to absorb dangerous light and function like sunscreen)
In rosebushes
chlorophyll is responsible for the process of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is located in____.,Thylakoids, which are in chloroplasts in the mesophyll cells of a leaf.
Uncouplers
compounds that prevent ATP synthesis without effecting ETC. This causes increased O2 because ADP builds up, causing increased NADH to ETC. This energy is dissipated as heat and causes fevers.
-chloroplast will capture the light and it must be converted into chemical energy. -oxygen is given off during this reaction
converting light energy to chemical energy
Cholesterol and membrane fluidity relationship
decreases fluidity at normal to high temps and increases fluidity at low temps.
Rotenone is a poison that blocks the electron transport chain. When it does so
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle eventually halt as well. Why is this?,They run out of NAD+ and FAD. Unless the electron transport molecules can recycle back to their oxidized states (NAD+ and FAD_, they will be unable to receive electrons.
Name one of the parts of cellular respiration
glycolysis, krebs cycle, electron transport chain
stack of thylakoids
granum
Glucose is central to metabolism for...
heterotrophs
Organisms that obtain chemical energy from other organisms are called what?
heterotrophs
In the first stage of photosynthesis
hydrogen ions are pumped...,into the thylakoids
Rate of photosynthesis
increase as light intensity increases while exciting electrons. When all the electrons have been excised, the rate stays level.,light intensity
Insertion
insert of one or more nucleotides
Frameshift
insertions or deletion of base pairs which alter the translation reading frame.
Fibronectin
is a glycoprotein dimer that binds integrins and collagen. - Important for cell adhesion and wound healing.
Why is ATP known as the "cash in hand"?
its bonds are easily broen
If muscles are exercised without sufficient oxygen what is produced?
lactic acid fermentaiton
a series of reactions that involve pigments
light reactions
intermediate filaments
made of keratin, provides structural support.
microtubules
made of tubulin - involved in chromosome distribution, cell motility (cilia)
Actin fillament
make of cytoskeleton
cytoplasmic streaming
movement of organells in cells
Dicyclohexlylcarbodiimide (DCCD) is a chemical that prevents the flow of protons through ATP synthase. An animal cell treated with DCCD will die because
no ATP will be made by oxidative phosphorylation
What is used in calvin cycle?
oATP, CO2, NADPH, RUBP
calvin cycle produces...
organic compounds, amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates, NADP +ADP, carbohydrates.
Autoheterotroph
organism that cannot capture energy and synthesize organic molecules
Photoautotroph
organism that uses energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbon compounds
Where do heterotrophs get their energy?
other autotrophs and cellular respiration
Conventional fluorescence image
out of focus
What is the Final acceptor of electrons in electron transport chain?
oxygen
produced from light reactions
oxygen, ATP, NADP ll
What is the chemiosmotic production of ATP in photosynthesis called?
photophosphorylation.
Light energy is converted into chemical energy through what process?
photosynthesis
the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy
photosynthesis
cluster of chlorophyll and other pigment molecules that harvest light energy.
photosystem
a substance that absorbs light
pigment
compounds that absorb light.
pigments
electrons leave chlorophyll a to travel along electron transport chains
producing NADPH.,step 2 of light reaction
Transition
purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine
Transversions
purine to pyrimidine or pyrimidine to purine
array of colors
ranging from red to violet.,visible spectrum
-pigments in the thylakoid membrane that aid in photosynthesis -absorb blue and green
reflect yellow, orange and red, is why leaves appear orange in color.,carotenoids
What can happen to the light when it strikes an object?
reflect, absorb, transmit
Deletion
removal of one or more nucleotides
What catalyzes the reaction of CO2 and RuBP?
rubisco
Biochemical pathway
series of chemical reactions 1. Light reaction 2. Calvin Cycle
Excited electrons are passed along an electron transport chain.
stage 1 of photosynthesis
Light ENergy is stored as ATP and NADPH.
stage 1 of photosynthesis
pigment molecules absorb energy
stage 1 of photosynthesis
water is split
stage 1 of photosynthesis
begins with absorption of light by chlorophyll a and accessory pigments in the thylakoids
step 1 of light reaciton
water is split and oxygen is released as the by product of photosynthesis
step 3 of light reaction
small pores in leaves
stomata
hypertonic solution
stomata closes
Hypotonic solution
stomata opens
water-conserving process of carbon fixation. Conserving
takes in carbon at night and releases it during the day(cactuses for ex) CAM plants lose less water than C4 and C3 plants),CAM pathway
During anaerobic respiration
the breakdown of 1 molecule of glucose will make how many ATP?,2 ATP molecules
During aerobic respiration
the breakdown of 1 molecule of glucose will make how many ATP?,38 ATP molecules
During respiration in eukaryotic cells
the electron transport chain occurs in the....,Mitochondria
In cellular respiration
the energy released by the electron transport chain is used to create what type of gradient?,A proton gradient.
Mitochondrial Matrix
the matrix contains soluble enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of pyruvate and other small organic molecules. The mitochondrial matrix also contains the mitochondria's DNA and ribosomes. The word "matrix" stems from the fact that this space is viscous, compared to the relatively aqueous cytoplasm.
T or F: As light intensity increases
the rate of photosynthesis will increase indefinitely?,True
During photosynthesis
the series of reactions that create the carbohydrated needed for energy and growth are called what?,calvin cycle
Increasing temperature accelerates the rate of photosynthesis. The rate peaks at the temperate where the enzymes that catalyze reactions become ineffective. The further the temperature increases
the slower photosynthesis will occur.,temperature
Some human cells are restricted to aerobic respiration to recycle NADH and FADH2. If these cells are deprived of oxygen
then _____.,Oxidative phosphorylation would come to a halt because there wouldn't be any oxygen to "pull" the electrons down the transport chain.
photoheterotroph
they are organisms that use light for energy, but cannot use carbon dioxide as their sole carbon source.
Why do plants appear green?
they contain large amounts of chlorophyll, which reflects or transmits most of the green light it intercepts.
When light strikes chlorophyll molecules in the reaction-center complex
they lose electrons, which are ultimately replaced by_____.,Splitting water.
How many carbons make up ONE pyruvic acid?
three
Light reactions take place in the_____ and the Calvin Cycle takes place in the_____.
thylakoids
disk-shaped structure inside chloroplasts
thylakoids
Integrins
transmembrane receptors pass information about ECM
what are microtubules made of
tubulin
How many pyruvates are produced from ONE glucose molecule?
two pyruvates (3+3=6)
Photoheterotroph
use light energry,
Photooautroph
use light energry,
fluorescence microscopy
use specific reagents to label specific sub-cellular components uses fluorescent dye that emits fluorescence when illuminated with UV light
In photosynthesis
what does 6H2O oxidize to?,6 O2
In cellular respiration
what does oxygen become reduced to?,H2O
In preparing pyruvate to enter the citric acid cycle
what occurs?,COenzyme A binds to the two-carbon fragment to form acetyl coenzyme A.
In preparing a pyruvate to enter the citric acid cycle
which of the following steps occurs?,A compound called coenzyme A binds to a two-carbon fragment.
