Biology Study Guide

Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

1. Large population size 2. Random mating 3. No mutations 4. No migration 5. No natural selection

pollinators

*B*ees, *b*ats, *b*eetles, *b*utterflies, and humming*b*irds are common ___________.

nodes

*Stems* have _____, while roots do not.

Evidence for Evolution

- Direct Observations - Homology - The Fossil Record - Biogeography

Methyl

-CH3 Non-polar, non-water soluble, affect the expression of genes.

Carbonyl

-CO Polar, water soluble. Ketones and aldehydes such as sugars.

Carboxyl

-COOH Polar, water soluble, acidic.

Amino

-NH2 Slightly polar, water soluble, weak base.

Hydroxyl

-OH Polar, water soluble, alcohols. Such as methanol, ethanol; helps dissolve molecules such as sugars.

Phosphate

-PO4^3- Very polar, very water soluble, acidic, important to energy transfer.

Sulfhydryl

-SH Forms disulfide bridges, stabilizes protein shapes.

Special Properties of Water

1. Cohesion 2. High specific heat (results in relatively stable temperature of earth's oceans) 3. Low density (Insulation of bodies of water by floating ice) 4. Important solvent 5. Very polar

3-Phosphoglycerate

3-C Molecules formed in the calvin cycle from the binding of RuBP to CO2. ATP from the light reactions phosphorylates this molecule, making it into 1,3-Biphosphoglycerate.

Oxaloacetate

4-C molecule found in the citric acid cycle which binds to an acetyl sugar with the help of coenzyme A to form the 6-C Citrate.

a-ketoglutarate

5-C Molecule found in the citric acid cycle. It is produced when isocitrate (an isomer of citrate) is decarboxylated and oxidized (by NAD+). It is then oxidized to form succinate.

Glucose

6 Carbon sugar with the chemical formula C6H12O6, most common carbohydrate in living things.

Progenitor Cell

A biological cell that, like a stem cell, has a tendency to differentiate into a specific type of cell, but is already more specific than a stem cell and is pushed to differentiate into its "target" cell.

Rhodopsin

A biological pigment found in the *rods* of the retina and is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR).

Phenylketonuria

A birth defect that causes an amino acid called phenylalanine to build up in the body. Missing an enzyme needed to breakdown lipids properly in the lysosomes. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE DISORDER.

Ester Linkage

A bond that forms between a hydroxyl group (-OH) and a carboxyl group (-COOH), such as a bond between glycerol and each fatty acid chain in a triglyceride.

Anaerobic Respiration

A catabolic pathway in which some prokaryotes use substances other than oxygen as a reactant in a process that harvests chemical energy without oxygen. Unlike fermentation, contains an electron transport chain but uses a substance other than oxygen as the final electron acceptor.

Fibroblast

A cell in connective tissue that produces collagen and other fibers.

Colloblasts

A cell type found in ctenophores which are used for the capturing of prey. They are long and retractable branched tentacles.

Vessel Elements

A cell type found in the xylem of flowering plants. The building blocks of vessels, which constitute the major part of the water transporting system in those plants in which they occur.

Leprosy (Hansen's Disease)

A chronic, curable infectious disease mainly causing skin lesions and nerve damage that is carried by armadillos.

Isomerase

A class of enzymes which convert a molecule from one isomer to another.

Cisternae

A flattened membrane disk that makes up the Golgi apparatus.

Aggregate Fruit

A fruit that develops from the merger of several ovaries that were separate in a single flower. Includes strawberries, raspberries, etc.

Plasmodium

A genus of parasites, many of which cause malaria in their hosts.

Hydra

A genus of small, freshwater animals of the phylum cnidarian. Have nematocyst cells.

Euglena

A genus of unicellular eukaryote protists that move via flagellum.

Longitude

A geographic coordinate that specifies the east-west position of a point on the Earth's surface. Run north-south as circles perpendicular to the equator.

Algae

A group of predominantly aquatic photosynthetic organisms of the kingdom Protista. Red and green are two examples of this organism.

Phosphofructokinase

A kinase enzyme that helps phosphorylate fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-biphosphate in glycolysis. It is regulated by *feedback inhibition*, when there is enough ATP in the cell, it will deactivate this enzyme so the cell stops producing more.

Gel Electrophoresis

A lab technique that is used to separate macromolecules, primarily DNA and proteins, on the basis of their size and charge with the use of an electrical current. Smaller molecules move more easily than larger fragments.

Hyphae

A long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, they are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium. *Can form + or - mating types.*

Entropy

A measure of disorder, or randomness.

Hypersensitive Response

A mechanism used by plants to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens. Characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection. Serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of the plant.

G Protein-Coupled Receptor

A membrane receptor which works with the help of a G protein. Can only elicit *one reponse*.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A method used to greatly amplify a particular piece of DNA without the use of cells. Amplifies DNA when the source is impure or scanty (such as at crime scenes).

Stomata

A microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant.

ddNTP

A modified nucleoside triphosphate lacking a hydroxyl group on the 3' carbon, making it impossible to add another nucleotide after it. They can be used in DNA sequencing techniques.

Translocation

A mutation caused by rearrangement of parts between *nonhomologous* chromosomes.

Inversion

A mutation in which a section of a chromosome is reversed end to end.

Insertion

A mutation in which one or more nucleotide base pairs are added to a DNA sequence.

Deletion

A mutation in which part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is lost during DNA replication.

Prebiotics

A non digestible food ingredient that promotes the growth of beneficial microorganisms in the intestines. Used to alter the composition of the microbiome in the intestines.

Nucleoid

A non-membrane enclosed region in a prokaryotic cell where its chromosome is located.

Endergonic Reaction

A non-spontaneous chemical reaction, in which free energy is absorbed by the surroundings. Positive Gibbs free energy.

Endoparasite

A parasite that lives *inside* its host. For example, tapeworms.

Phytochrome

A photoreceptor/pigment that plants, and some bacteria and fungi, use to detect light. It is sensitive to light in the red and far-red region of the visible spectrum.

Hemichordata

A phylum of marine deuterostome animals, generally considered the sister group of the echinoderms. They are bilaterally symmetrical, and are coelomates. *Acorn worms.* The first section looks like an acorn.

Perennial

A plant that lives for more than two years. Examples include tomatoes, potatoes, strawberries, onions.

Mitosis

A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Conserves chromosome number by allocating replicated chromosomes equally to each of the daughter nuclei.

Motor Proteins

A protein that interacts with the cytoskeletal elements and other cell components, producing movement of the whole cell or parts of the cell.

Photons

A quantum, or discrete quantity, of light energy that behaves as if it were a particle.

Aster

A radial array of short microtubules extending from each centrosome. Helps the cell with cytokinesis by pulling centrosomes towards the cell membrane.

Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease

A rare, degenerative brain disorder that leads to dementia and death. It is caused by prions.

Hemoglobin

A red protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood of vertebrates. Its molecule comprises four sub units, each containing an iron atom bound to a heme group. Iron binds to oxygen to carry it through the blood; the oxidation of iron is what gives blood its red color.

Operon

A region on the DNA that allows several related genes to be controlled as a unit.

Symbiosis

A relationship between two living things.

Incomplete Dominance

A relationship between two versions of a gene. Results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the phenotypes of both alleles. Example : White flower mated with red flower producing pink flowers.

Electron Transport Chain

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuffle electrons down a series of redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.

Fixed Action Pattern

A sequence of unlearned acts that is largely unchangeable and usually carried to completion once it is initiated. Triggered by sign stimuli.

Sickle-cell Disease

A severe hereditary form of anemia in which a mutated form of hemoglobin distorts the red blood cells into a crescent shape at low oxygen levels. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE.

Plasmids

A small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA. Naturally exist in bacterial cells, and they also occur in some eukaryotes. Often, the genes carried provide bacteria with genetic advantages, such as antibiotic resistance.

Satellites

A subviral agent composed of nucleic acid that depends on the co-infection of a host cell with a helper or master virus for its replication.

Tetrapods

A superclass that encompasses all of the four-limbed vertebrate land animals.

Single Guide RNA (sgRNA)

A synthetic RNA composed of a targeting sequence and scaffold sequence used to target Cas9 to a specific genomic locus in genome engineering experiments.

Operculum

A technical term for a *gill cover*.

Clonal Selection

A term referring to the replication and differentiation of immune cells, such as B-cells into memory B-cells or plasma cells.

Theory

A theory is the result of testing a hypothesis and developing an explanation that is assumed to be true about something. A theory replaces the hypothesis after testing confirms the hypothesis, or the hypothesis is modified and tested again, until predictable results occur.

Elephantiasis

A tropical, parasitic disease that affects the lymph nodes and lymph vessels. Spread by the roundworm wucheria, causes swelling and thickening of skin.

Desmotubules

A tube of flattened endoplasmic reticulum that runs between two adjacent plant cells.

Desmosomes

A type of intercellular junction between animal cells that functions as a rivet, fastening cells together. e.g. muscle cells.

Proteinoplast

A type of leucoplast that contains crystalline bodies of protein and can be the site of enzyme activity.

Nucleosome

A unit of chromatin organization composed of eight histone molecules around which DNA is wrapped.

Lateral Line

A visible line along the side of a fish consisting of a series of sense organs that detect pressure and vibration.

Stabilizing Selection

Acts against both extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants.

In DNA, Thymine pairs with...

Adenine.

Anoplura

All blood-feeding ectoparasites of mammals. The sucking lice.

Corolla

All of the petals of a flower.

Calyx

All of the sepals of a flower.

Formed Elements

All of the substances, particles, and cells that are present in the blood and are separate from the plasma. Includes erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

Rh Factor (Rhesus Factor)

An antigen occurring on the red blood cells of many humans (around 85 percent) and some other primates. It is particularly important as a cause of hemolytic disease of the newborn and of incompatibility in blood transfusions.

Stigma

An area on the carpel of a flower which receives the pollen during fertilization.

Pepsin

An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is produced in the stomach and is one of the main digestive enzymes in the digestive systems of humans and many other animals, where it helps digest the proteins in food.

Amylase

An enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into sugars.

Fibronectin

An extracellular glycoprotein secreted by animal cells that helps them attach to the extracellular matrix.

Algal Blooms

An extreme growth of algae as a result of an influx of the limiting factor to growth. This harms other organisms. Over time, these can eventually turn into land.

Parasitoids

An insect (e.g., the ichneumon wasp) whose larvae live as parasites that eventually kill their hosts (typically other insects). They develop on or within a host, and feed off the host for nutrients. Developed organisms eventually emerge from the host.

Nephridium

An invertebrate organ which occurs in pairs and performs a function similar to the vertebrate kidney. Remove metabolic wastes from an animal's body. They are present in many different invertebrate lines. Metanephridium : Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs. Protonephridia : Platyhelminthes (flame cells), Rotifers.

Monoecious

An organism having both male and female reproductive structures; hermaphrodites.

Diecious

An organism having either male or female reproductive structures.

Niche

Animal's lifestyle which includes where it looks for food, what it eats, where it nests, and what conditions of temperature and moisture it requires.

Diurnal

Animals that are active mainly during the day.

Nocturnal

Animals that are active mainly during the night.

Epitopes

Antigen fragments which are created by antigen-presenting cells when antigens from an engulfed pathogen are digested in lysosomes.

Dicots

Beans are classified as ______.

Frederick Sanger

Biochemist that was able to sequence amino acid chains in polypeptides and proved that each protein has a unique sequence. Won Nobel prize twice.

Osteoclasts

Bone resorbing cells that break down the bone matrix.

The hard outer shells of molluscs is usually made up of ________ ___________.

Calcium Carbonate.

Oncogenes

Cancer-causing genes.

-ose Suffix

Carbohydrates.

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Cells in the blood that protect the body in various ways, including fighting off foreign invaders and preventing infection.

Rods

Cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for black and white vision.

Heterodont

Characteristic that describes animals who have more than one tooth morphology.

G1 Checkpoint

Checkpoint in the cell cycle in which Cyclin-depdent kinase (Cdk) associates with cyclin to form mitosis promoting factor (MPF).

Etioplasts

Chloroplasts that have not been exposed to light. Usually found in flowering plants grown in the dark.

Homologous Chromosomes

Chromosome pairs of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern that possess genes for the same characters at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's father, the other from the mother. Each carries the same genes in the same order, but the alleles for each trait may not be the same.

Agnatha

Class of chordata which include jawless fish. Examples include lampreys and hagfish.

Direct Contact Communication

Communication in which animal cells communicate via contact between cell-surface molecules in cell-cell recognition. Important in embryonic development and immune response.

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

Complex formed when the enzyme and substrate bind together that is generally held together by weak interactions.

Allergy

Condition in which people have an immune response to something that is ordinarily harmless to most people. For example, to drugs, foods, pollen, bees, etc.

Perimysium

Connective tissue surrounding each fascicle of muscle fibers.

Monocot

Corn is classified as a _______.

cortex

Corticoids (mineralo, gluco, etc) are produced in the adrenal ______

Ctenophora

Ctenophora is a phylum of invertebrate animals that live in marine waters worldwide. Their most distinctive feature is the 'combs' - groups of cilia which they use for swimming - they are the largest animals that swim by means of cilia. Examples include tentaculata and nuda.

Saprotrophs

Decomposers that are capable of breaking down dead or dying organisms. Break them down using enzymes outside the organism, then absorb the nutrients.

Peridermis

Dermal tissue in plants that is responsible for forming the protective cover on older stems or roots.

Epidermis

Dermal tissue in plants that is responsible for secretion of cuticle, protection, control of gas exchange and water loss.

Edward Jenner

Developed the first successful vaccine (smallpox).

Taxis

Directional movement of a cell or organism in response to a stimuli. Ex : Placing a piece of fruit in container.

Electromagnetic Waves

Disturbances between electric and magnetic fields.

Fraternal Twins

Dizygotic twins in which two separate sperm fertilize two separate eggs.

Taxonomy

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. Da King Phillip Came Over From Green Spain.

Nuclear Envelope

Double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER. Has ribosomes attached to the cytoplasmic side of the outer-membrane.

Pedipalps

Each of the second pair of appendages attached to the cephalothorax of most arachnids. They are variously specialized as pincers in scorpions, and sensory organs in spiders.

Alpha Cells

Endocrine cells in the pancreas, synthesize the peptide hormone glucagon, which elevates the glucose levels in the blood.

Lysozyme

Enzymes that damage bacterial cell walls. Can be found in the eye to prevent against eye infection.

-ase Suffix

Enzymes.

80S

Eukaryotic ribosomes contain a 40S subunit and a 60S subunit to form a ___ subunit.

Transverse Tubules (T Tubules)

Extensions of the sarcolemma of muscle fibers that action potentials travel along to reach the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Worker Bees

Female bees who gather nectar and pollen.

Amniocentesis

Genetic testing used when the physician utilizes the amniotic fluid to detect genetic disorders or develop a karyotype.

Walter Sutton

Geneticist known for his theory that Mendelian laws of genetics could be applied to chromosomes at the cellular level of living organisms.

Hamstrings

Group of muscles located on the posterior thigh; extends across the hip and knee joints. Prime movers of thigh extension and knee flexion.

In DNA, Cytosine pairs with...

Guanine

proteins

If one of the ________ involved in the electron transport chain is permanently nonfunctional, the person would die.

significant difference

If standard error of the mean bars *overlap*, then there is no ___________ __________.

significant difference

If standard error of the mean bars do *NOT overlap*, then there is a ___________ __________.

Polar Nuclei

In angiosperms, the sperm fertilize one egg and two _____ ______.

Acetyl CoA

In eukaryotes, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion and is oxidized into this molecule, which then enters the Citric Acid Cycle.

Capsule

Jellylike outer coating of many prokaryotes. Protects cell from eukaryotic cells such as macrophages and dessication (drying out), enhances ability of bacteria to cause disease.

Neurotransmitters

Ligands that are released from the axon of one nerve cell to the dendrite of another nerve cell. Examples include serotonin, GABA, dopamine, etc.

Biotic

Living.

Esophagus

Long muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach. Located posterior to the trachea. Helps move food and liquids to the stomach for digestion.

period

Mass extinctions are named based on what ______ they began in.

Carnivore

Meat-eater. Heterotroph.

Tonoplast

Membrane enclosing the central vacuole in plant cells.

Law of Segregation

Mendel's first law, stating that the two alleles in a pair segregate into different gametes during gamete formation.

Mark-Recapture Method

Method of estimating population in which organisms are counted and tagged, then latter recaptured and counted again. Works best for animals. Original count x Later count / Number marked on second capture

Self-incompatability

Method used by plants to *maximize* genetic variation by rejecting its own pollen, thus ensuring cross-pollination.

Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)

Molecule that ATP becomes when it transfers a phosphate group through hydrolysis.

Myocytes

Muscle cells.

Papillary Muscles

Muscles located in the ventricles of the heart. They attach to the cusps of the atrioventricular valves (also known as the mitral and tricuspid valves) via the chordae tendineae.

Silent Mutation

Mutations in which the change does not produce a noticeable difference in the phenotype.

Pyrimidines

Nitrogenous bases including Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil. Composed of only one ring.

Repressible Operons

Operons that are normally active, but can be turned off when a corepressor activates repressor proteins and stops expression of the genes. Usually involved in *anabolic* processes.

Coenzymes

Organic cofactors; examples include vitamins.

Omnivore

Organisms that eat both meat and plants. Heterotroph.

Autotrophs (Producers)

Organisms that make their own food; e.g., plants.

Cilia

Paramecia use _____ to move.

in vivo

Performed or taking place in a living organism.

G1 Phase

Phase of interphase in which the cell makes a variety of proteins which are needed for DNA replication.

algae

Plantlike protists are also called _____.

hypertonic

Plants become flaccid when in a __________ solution. *The contents within the cell will clump together in the middle, away from the cell wall*

hypotonic

Plants become turgid when in a _________ solution.

Transformation

Process by which DNA from the environment is taken up by a bacteria.

Molting

Process by which certain animals, such as ecdysozoa, shed old feathers, hair, or skin, or an old shell, to make way for a new growth.

Acetylation

Process by which the chromatin materal becomes less tightly packed, into euchromatin.

Antibodies

Proteins that are produced by certain white blood cells in response to an antigen. For example : Type B blood cells induce the formation of antibodies that fight off A Antigens.

-in Suffix

Proteins.

Ribozymes

RNA molecules that can function as enzymes, such as the snRNA in spliceosomes that catalyze RNA splicing.

Dehydration Synthesis

Reactions that create polymers from monomers.

RNA

Ribonucleic Acid

Cocci

Round or oval shaped bacteria.

Consanguineous Matings

Same blood matings; incest. Indicated in pedigrees by double lines.

Francis Collins

Scientist noted for discovering numerous disease genes. Leads Human Genome Project.

Carpel

Seed-bearing structure of a flower. Each includes an ovary (where the ovules are produced; ovules are the female reproductive cells, the eggs), a style (a tube on top of the ovary), and a stigma (which receives the pollen during fertilization).

Mesentary

Sheet of connective tissue in moist or fluid-filled body cavities. Helps hold the digestive structure to the abdominal wall and helps hold them together.

Food Chain

Short sequence of organisms through which energy moves in an ecosystem.

X-Inactivation

Since females inherit two X chromosomes, and they do not want twice the genes activated at once, most genes on the X chromosome in females are inactivated during embryonic development.

P Site

Site on the ribosome that holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.

Bud

Structures located on nodes of a plant stem which have the potential to grow into a branch.

Ethology

Study of animal behavior.

Radial Symmetry

Symmetry around a central axis, as in a starfish or a tulip flower.

Sex Chromosome

The X or the Y chromosome. XX --> Female. XY --> Male.

Spleen

The abdominal organ that is responsible for the formation and breakdown of red blood cells, and plays a part in the immune system.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

The additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after the expiration of a normal tidal volume. About 1,200 mL.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

The additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after the inspiration of a normal tidal volume. About 3,100 mL.

Reception

The binding of a signal molecule to a receptor protein, activating the receptor by causing it to change shape.

Lynn Margulis

The biologist who developed the theory of endosymbiosis as the origin of eukaryotes.

MHC

The body rejecting organ transplants is due to differences in the ___ molecules on cell-surfaces.

Neutrophils

The body's bacterial slayers. Chemically attracted to sites of inflammation and are active phagocytes.

Adhesion

The clinging of one substance to another, such as water droplets adhering to a glass windshield.

Sarcoplasm

The cytoplasm of muscle fibers.

Cytokinesis

The cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells.

Stroma

The dense fluid within the chloroplast surrounding the thykaloid membrane and containing ribosomes and DNA; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

Phrenology

The detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities. *No longer used*.

Metastasis

The development of secondary malignant growths at a distance from a primary site of cancer.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Oxidizing Agent

The electron acceptor in a redox reaction. Substance being reduced.

Reducing Agent

The electron donor in a redox reaction. Substance being oxidized.

Kinetic Energy

The energy associated with the relative motion of objects. Moving matter can perform work by imparting motion to other matter. Water can be used to push turbines, your leg muscles can contract to push bicycle pedals.

Genomic Imprinting

The epigenetic phenomenon by which certain genes are expressed in a parent-of-origin-specific manner. For example, if an allele from the father is silenced, and only the allele from the mother is expressed.

Parietal Cells

The epithelial cells that secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl). Located in the gastric glands in the body of the stomach. Uses a proton pump to provide an acidic environment in the stomach in which the enzyme pepsin works optimally.

analogous

The eukaryotic and prokaryotic flagella have both evolved separately from each other, this is an example of _________ structures.

Zygote

The fertilized egg.

Light Reactions

The first of two major stages in the photosynthesis (preceding the Calvin Cycle). These reactions, which occur on the thykaloid membrane of the chloroplast or on membranes of certain prokaryotes, convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, releasing oxygen in the process.

Regulatory Genes

The genes that code for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes.

Enamel

The hardest substance in the human body.

First Filial Generation (F1)

The hybrid offspring of the true breeding parental, P, generation.

Endoderm

The inner embryonic tissue layer. In humans, forms the digestive tract, liver, pancreas, respiratory and excretory tracts, etc.

Cohesion

The linking of like molecules, such as water molecules joined to water molecules by hydrogen bonds.

Loop of Henle

The loop located in a nephron which is composed of a descending and ascending limb that filtrate passes through. Water re-absorption occurs in the descending, while NaCl is given up in the ascending.

cotransport

The major method of active transport into plant roots is ___________.

Pharynx

The membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus. Splits off into the esophagus (digestive) and the trachea (respiratory).

Peripheral Nervous System

The nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.

pH of Blood

The normal pH of human blood is slightly alkaline, usually at between 7.35 and 7.45.

Pistil

The plural term for carpel. More than one carpel.

Free Energy

The portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system.

Fundamental Niche

The potential niche, the niche that would prevail for an organism in the absence of competition and other factors that might restrain its use of resources.

Gene Expression

The process by which DNA directs the synthesis of proteins (and sometimes, just RNA).

Binary Fission

The process by which prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by growing to about double their size and then dividing.

Chemiosmosis

The process in which ATP synthesis is powered by the flow of H+ back across the membrane.

Bilateral Symmetry

The property of being divisible into symmetrical halves on either side of a unique plane.

Substrate

The reactant that an enzyme acts upon.

M Line

The region in the *exact* center of a sarcomere, within the H zone.

Thalamus

The relay center of the brain. Stimuli from the sense organs travel here (except for olfaction).

Dominant Species

The species in a community that has the highest biomass, or are the most abundant.

Peduncle

The stalk bearing a flower or fruit, or the main stalk of an inflorescence. The flower stalk.

Petiole

The stalk that joins a leaf to a stem; leafstalk.

Taut (T) Hemoglobin

The state of hemoglobin in which it does not have oxygen bound to it, deoxyhemoglobin. This is the favored form of hemoglobin because it has a low affinity for oxygen, and can therefore more easily load oxygen to tissues. *As more oxygen is added, its affinity for oxygen increases*.

Ichthyology

The study of fish.

Cloning Vector

The vector that is used in gene cloning that will carry the DNA sequence to be cloned, it is often a bacterial plasmid.

Mycelium

The vegetative part of a fungus or fungus-like bacterial colony, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Often found in and on soil.

Residual Volume (RV)

The volume of air still remaining in the lungs after the expiratory reserve volume is exhaled. About 1,200 mL.

Trachea

The windpipe; a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from the larynx to the bronchial tubes and conveying air to and from the lungs. Located anterior to the esophagus.

Heat

Thermal energy in transfer from one object to another.

Blue Cheese

This type of cheese is made using cultures of the mold pennicilum. Examples include Roquefort cheese and gargonzola.

In DNA, Adenine pairs with...

Thymine.

Atavistic Traits

Traits that were lost through evolution but reappear in an organism because although certain traits are not preserved in the phenotype, they still exist in the genotype but are inactive. Faulty genetic control can lead to the reappearance of certain phenotypes. Examples include teeth in chickens, coccygeal process (tail) in human babies, etc.

In RNA, Adenine pairs with...

Uracil.

fat

Vitamin A is ___ soluble.

water potential

Water moves from a region of high _____ _________ to a region of low _____ _________.

Mechanical Work

Work used for the beating of cilia, the contraction of muscle cells, and the movement of chromosomes during cellular reproduction.

Cardiac Sphincter

a circular muscle located where the lower end of the esophagus joins the stomach. The muscle serves as a valve that contracts to prevent acid reflux and relaxes to allow food to pass.

Hardy-Weinberg

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 and p + q = 1 Where p=dominant and q=recessive.

Granum

Stacks of thylakoids.

Gastrula

As the blastula is "punched in," the embryonic tissue layers will form.

Increases; decreases

As you move towards colder climates, body size _________, while extremity size _________. To conserve more heat. Compare elephant ears to woolly mammoth ears.

Order of Life

Atom, Molecules, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organism.

Long Bones

Bones longer than they are wide, often has a shaft plus two ends which are often expanded. Makes up all limb bones except the patella and the wrist and ankle bones.

Testcross

Breeding of an organism of an unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype. The ratio of the phenotypes in the offspring reveals the unknown genotype.

Ectotherms

Organisms that generative relatively little metabolic heat, gaining most of their heat from external sources. Cold blooded animals such as amphibians and reptiles.

Asexual Reproduction

Occurs when a single parent is the sole parent and passes copies of ALL its genes to its offspring to produce a genetically identical individual (basically clones themselves). No gametes required.

Cytogenetics

The study of chromosomes and their role in inheritance.

Thermodynamics

The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter.

Systematics

The study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time.

Receptacle

The thickened part of a stem from which the flower organs grow.

Organism

1st level of organization. Individual living thing that is made of cells, uses energy, reproduces, responds, grows, and develops.

Community

3rd level of organization. All the populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time; assemblages of different populations that live together in a defined area. Includes all living things.

Population

2nd level of organization. Group of organisms/individuals of all the same species, which interbreed and live in the same place at the same time.

Ribulose Biphosphate (RuBP)

5-C Molecule involved in the calvin cycle which binds to a molecule of CO2 to form a 6-C intermediate which immediately splits into 2 molecules of the 3-C molecule 3-Phosphoglycerate.

Pentose

5-Carbon sugars. (Deoxyribose in DNA, Ribose in RNA).

Mycosis

A disease caused by infection with a fungus, such as ringworm or thrush.

Typhoid Fever

A disease caused is the bacterium Salmonella typhi, growing in the intestines and blood. Spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person.

Karyotype

A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.

Asteroidea

A class of the phylum echinodermata which includes mainly starfish, or sea stars.

Drupe

A fleshy fruit with thin skin and a central stone containing the seed, e.g., a plum, cherry, peach, or olive.

Gastrin

A peptide hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid (HCl) by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility. It is released by G cells.

Local Regulators

A secreted molecule that influences cells near where it is secreted.

Locus (Loci)

A specific place along the length of the chromosome where a given gene is located.

Pellicle

A structure in a Euglena that acts as a cell wall.

hormone

Adrenaline/Epinephrine is a _______.

Polyploidy

An error which results in the "daughter" cells having many sets of a chromosome.

Feedback Inhibition

Allosteric inhibition in which the end product on an enzymatic pathway can switch off its pathway by binding to the allosteric site of an enzyme in the pathway.

Pseudopods

Amoebas use __________ to move.

Three-chambered

Amphibians and reptiles generally have a _____-_________ heart and two circuits of blood flow.

Holoenzyme

An activated enzyme consisting of the apoenzyme, and a bound cofactor.

Humane Genome Project

An international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA. Originally lead by James Watson, and then by Francis Collins. Completed its goal in 2003.

Virions

Another name for a virus. Do *NOT* confuse with viroids.

Tympanic Membrane

Another name for the eardrum. Thin layer of tissue that receives vibrations from sound and transmits them.

Protease

Any enzyme that performs proteolysis, begins protein catabolism by hydrolysis of peptide bonds.

Biofilm

Any group of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other and often these cells adhere to a surface. These adherent cells are frequently embedded within a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). *Bacteria*.

Autosome

Any non sex chromosome. (1-22).

Intertidal Zone

Area between the high tide line and the low tide line. Sometimes dry, sometimes underwater.

Primary Motor Cortex

Area of the frontal lobe that allows conscious control of precise, skilled skeletal muscle movements.

Frontal Eye Field

Area of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary eye movements.

Premotor Cortex

Area of the frontal lobe that helps plan movements and controls repetitious or patterned motor skills.

Memory B-Cells

B-cells that live long to allow the body to quickly mount an immune response next time the pathogen is encountered.

Gram-Negative Bacteria

Bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation. They have cell walls that are structurally more complex, and have less peptidoglycan.

Altruism

Behavior of an animal that benefits another at its own expense.

Atrioventricular Bundle

Bundle of nerves, also called the Bundle of His, that causes signals to divide into the left and right branches. Represented by the Q wave on an ECG.

Dendritic Cells

Cells in the innate immune system that capture pathogens to present them to the immune system for response.

Louis Pasteur

Chemist and microbiologist who discovered the principles of vaccination, pasteurization, microbial fermentation. HELPED DISPROVE SPONTANEOUS GENERATION.

Ribosomes

Complexes that synthesize proteins. In Eukaryotes --> free in cytosol or bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope.

Endomysium

Connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber.

Epimysium

Connective tissue surrounding the entire muscle.

Watson and Crick

Discovered the structure of DNA.

James Watson

Discovered the structure of a DNA molecule with his partner Francis Crick.

Francis Crick

Discovered the structure of a DNA molecule with his partner James Watson.

Chromosomes

Discrete units in which the DNA is organized into within the nucleus. Carry genetic information. Each chromosome contains one long DNA molecule associated with proteins. Each eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes (46 in humans, 23 in each sex cell or gamete).

Huntington's Disease

Disease starting around the 30s or 40s in which the victim's brain cells break down over time. AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT.

Cystic Fibrosis

Disease that causes consistent lung infections and limits the ability to breathe over time. Mucus buildup in the lungs. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE.

Chemical Energy

Energy available in molecules for release in a chemical reaction; a form of potential energy.

Phagocytosis

Engulfing smaller organisms or food particles. Process by which ameobas and other protists eat.

Products

Enzymes convert the substrate molecules it binds to into _________, which are released from the enzyme.

Direct Observations

Evidence for evolution that is seen in directly observing evolutionary change in a species, such as insect populations evolving to become resistant to pesticides.

Turgor

Force exerted by the water entering a plant cell which pushes against the inner cell wall.

Proton-motive Force

Force generated by the electrochemical gradient of H+ ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane which is used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.

Molecule

Forms when two or more atoms form a chemical bond with eachother. Does not matter if the atoms are the same or different.

Chief Cells

Glands located in the stomach which release pepsinogen, a zymogen, which is converted into the active enzyme pepsin (breaks down proteins) when in the acidic environment of the stomach.

Pith

Ground tissue which is composed of soft, spongy parenchyma cells, which store and transport nutrients throughout the plant. Located in the center of monocot roots.

Phaeophyceae

Group of plantlike protists that includes brown algae, such as kelp.

Prolactin

Hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates breastmilk production.

Somatostatin

Hormone secreted by the pancreas which inhibits the secretion of other pancreatic hormones, including glucagon and insulin. Can also inhibit secretion of other hormones such as growth hormone from the anterior pituitary gland.

Lipids

Hydrophobic macromolecules; are NOT polymers because they aren't assembled from a variety of components. Examples include waxes, oils, fats, and steroids. Primary functions are energy storage and protection of vital organs and insulation.

Induced Fit (Hypothesis)

Hypothesis of enzyme-substrate binding which states that the active site of the enzyme changes shape to enfold the substrates that enter it.

Primary Cell Wall

In plants, a relatively thin and flexible layer that surrounds the plasma membrane of a young cell.

Dyspepsia

Indigestion

Directional Selection

Individuals with one extreme of a phenotypic range are favored, shifting the curve toward this extreme.

Spongy Bone

Internal layer of bone; made up of a honeycomb of small needle-like or flat pieces (trabeculae). Found in the epiphysis of long bones.

Food Web

Interrelated food chains; a more realistic look at what an animal eats.

Protists

Kingdom consisting of diverse, mainly unicellular eukaryotic (*can be multicellular*), organisms which do not fall under the categories of animalia, plantae, or fungi. Can be heterotrophic or autotrophic. Examples : Amoeba proteus, Paramecium aurelia, red and green algae, slime mold, diatoms, kelp.

Plantae

Kingdom consisting of multicellular eukaryotes which includes all land plants. Photoautotrophs. Examples : Mosses, Ferns, Conifers, Flowering plants, etc.

Stromatolites

Layered mounds, columns, and sheet-like sedimentary rocks. They were originally formed by the growth of layer upon layer of cyanobacteria.

Thin Filaments

Linear polymers of globular actin (G-actin) subunits and occur as microfilaments in the cytoskeleton, they are involved in muscular contraction, form a complex with troponin and tropomyosin proteins.

Nuclear Lamina

Lines the nuclear side of the envelope; a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope.

Temporal Lobe

Lobe of the cerebral cortex which is involved in hearing.

Quadriceps Femoris

Located on the front side of the thigh. Group of muscles involved with knee extension.

Primary Lysosome

Lysosomes originating from the golgi apparatus.

Secondary Lysosome

Lysosomes that are formed when primary lysosomes combine with endocytotic/phagocytotic vesicles.

Organelles in Animal Cells but not Plant Cells

Lysosomes, centrioles, and flagella.

Polygamous

Mating system in which there is one individual mating with several others. Polygyny : One male with multiple females. Polyandry : One female with multiple males. Polygynandry : Multiple males with multiple females.

Cholesystokinin (CCK)

One of the hormones secreted by the digestive tract that regulates secretion of pancreatic juice, gastric juice, bile, etc. This hormone is also responsible for the sensation of feeling full after eating.

Effector

Neurons that receive a signal from efferent neurons and lead to a response.

Efferent Neuron

Neurons that receive a signal from the interneurons and send a signal to the effectors for a response.

Receptor

Neurons that sense a stimuli, and send the signal along the afferent pathway to the interneurons.

Kinesis

Non-directional movement of a cell or organism in response to a stimuli. Ex : Dark vs Light environments.

Nucleolus

Nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes; proteins from the cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA to synthesize ribosome subunits, which exit the nucleolus and they can be assembled into a ribosome. A nucleus has one or more nucleoli.

Plastids

One of a family of closely related organelles that includes chloroplasts (photosynthesis), chromoplasts (pigment synthesis and storage), amyloplasts (starch polymerization and storage), leucoplasts (starch storage), etc. Plastids are found in the cells of photosynthetic eukaryotes (plants).

Endotherms

Organisms that are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism. Warm blooded animals such as mammals, birds, etc.

Pericardium

Outer covering surrounding the heart, made up of fibrous and serous portions.

Triceps Brachii

Posterior part of arm. Powerful forearm extensor.

equator

Plant and animal life becomes more abundant and diverse as you move towards the _______.

Amyloplasts

Plastids responsible for starch polymerization and storage.

Polysaccharides

Polymers of monosaccharides. Examples : Starch, cellulose, and glycogen.

Mechanical Isolation

Pre-zygotic isolating mechanism in which genital differences prevents copulation between two species.

Gametic Isolation

Pre-zygotic isolating mechanism in which matings fail because eggs and sperm are incompatible.

Ecological Isolation

Pre-zygotic isolating mechanism in which two species inhabit similar regions, but occupy different habitats.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death. The cell systematically dismantles and digests itself. Can occur due to being worn out, having damaged organelles, etc. The mitochondria is very important in this process because it releases cytochrome c.

Cohesin

Protein that initially holds together sister chromatids.

Toll-like Receptors (TLR)

Receptors found on the outer membrane of phagocytic cells such as neutrophils and monocytes, that they use to recognize pathogens.

Multifactorial

Referring to a phenotypic character that is influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors.

Local Signaling

Signaling in which the message only has to travel a short distance. Includes communication between adjacent cells through gap junctions or plasmodesmata, as well as paracrine and synaptic signaling.

Hypotonic Solution

Solution in which a cell will gain water from its surroundings. More solute in the cell than in the water around the cell. Cell will swell and may burst.

Acids

Solutions with an excess of H+ ions and a pH below 7.0

Spicules

Structural elements found in most sponges. They provide structural support and deter predators.

Metabolism

The totality of an organism's chemical reactions. Manages the material and energy resources of the cell.

Torpor

Term which describes decreased metabolism and lowered body temperature in the summer.

Hibernation

Term which describes decreased metabolism and lowered body temperature in the winter.

Dura Mater

The *outermost* tough meninge layer surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Realized Niche

The actual niche an organism occupies as a result of competition for its resources, problems in acquiring those resources. This is always smaller than the fundamental niche!

Primary Succession

The colonization of new sites by communities of organisms. It often occurs after a devastating event has wiped out the organisms that lived in the area. There is no organic material for plants to grow in. For example, plant life reappearing after a volcano eruption.

Replication

The copying of DNA.

Transpeptidase

The enzyme in bacteria that is responsible for catalyzing the formation of the cell's peptidoglycan cell wall by creating cross-linkages.

Collecting Duct

The duct in which filtrate from the nephrons enters, it carries filtrate to the renal pelvis, and the filtrate gets more concentrated with salt.

Adenalyl Cyclase

The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of ATP into cAMP.

RNA Polymerase III

The enzyme that is responsible for transcribing *short* strands of RNA.

Carapace

The hard upper shell of a turtle, crustacean, or arachnid.

Fronds

The leaf or leaflike part of a palm, fern, or similar plant.

Cretaceous Extinction

The mass extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs, allowing for many mammals to thrive and increased the biodiversity of these types of animals.

Benthic Zone

The ocean floor. Located underneath all of the other zones (intertidal, neritic, oceanic).

Somatic Nervous System

The portion of the nervous system which involves voluntary movement.

Gastrovascular Cavity

The simplest type of digestive system, which involves a sac-like gut that functions in both digestion and in gas exchange. It is present in flatworms and cnidarians.

Heredity

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next.

Parental Generation (P)

The true breeding (homozygous) parent individuals from which F1 hybrid offspring are derived.

Pome

They are fruits that have a "core" of several small seeds, surrounded by a tough membrane. The membrane is encased in an edible layer of flesh. Examples include apples and pears.

Tubers

Thick, fleshy storage structures that form on the stolons or rhizomes of some plant species. An example includes potatoes. *Modified stems*.

Deltoid

Thick, multipennate muscle on the shoulder. Prime mover of arm abduction when contracting simultaneously.

O Negative

This blood type can donate blood to ANYONE. Universal donor, but can only receive blood from others with the same type.

Cork

Tissue produced by the cork cambium, it is a densely packed tissue of dead cells. It functions in insulating, protecting, and waterproofing stems and roots.

Connective Tissue

Tissue that connects, supports, binds, or separates other tissues or organs, typically having relatively few cells embedded in an amorphous matrix, often with collagen or other fibers, and including cartilaginous, fatty, and elastic tissues.

Binomial Nomenclature

Two part naming system: genus and species (Carolus Linnaeus).

snRNA

Type of RNA that interacts with proteins to form SNRPs, which then interact with other proteins to form spliceosomes.

Apicomplexans (Sporozoa)

Type of animal-like protists that cannot move on their own. They are parasitic, reproduce using spores, and possess an apical complex. Examples include Plasmodium, which causes Malaria, and Toxoplasma gondii, which causes toxoplasmosis.

Amoeba

Unicellular eukaryotic protists that use pseudopods, fingerlike projections of cytoplasm, to move around.

Exocytosis

Vesicles from the cell's interior fuse with the cell membrane, expelling their contents. This is how membrane proteins are introduced into the cell membrane.

Tay-Sachs Disease

Victims of this disease do not have the lysosomal enzyme that digests lipids. The buildup of fatty substance in the brain destroys nerve cells. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE.

fat

Vitamin D is ___ soluble.

fat

Vitamin E is ___ soluble.

Polyploidy

____ is the most lethal to humans.

Spider Silk

______ ____ is a protein fiber which is spun by spiders and is used to make webs or other structures, which often function for prey capture and immobilization.

Antigens

*Proteins or carbohydrates* on the surface of cells that can cause a response from the immune system; they are recognized as foreign to the body and induces the formation of antibodies. For example : Type A blood cells have Antigen A, which causes the formation of Anti-B antibodies which fight off any Antigens B.

Short Day Plants (Long Night)

A plant that requires a long period of darkness. Form flowers only when day length is *less than* about 12 hours. Examples include chrysanthemums and poinsettias. *Spring and fall plants.*

Missense Mutation

A point mutation in which a single nucleotide change results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.

Nonsense Mutation

A point mutation in which a single nucleotide change results in a stop codon that affects the entire polypeptide.

Peptidoglycan

A polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids which forms the cell wall of most bacteria.

Astrocytes

A star-shaped glial cell in the nervous sytem that have various functions in supporting neurons : anchoring them to supply lines, providing with nutrients.

Autotroph

An organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms. Use energy from the sun or from oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones. Producers.

Western Blotting

Analysis involved in gel electrophoresis that reveals information about *protein* identity, size, and abundance.

Neritic Zone

Area over the continental shelf (before it drops off). Has the most diverse life, and gets lots of light. Coral reefs.

Nucleoid

Area where circular DNA is concentrated in a prokaryotic cell; not bounded by a membrane.

Nodes of Ranvier

Areas on the axon *not* covered by the myelin sheath.

Opposite Arrangement

Arrangement of leaves in which a pair of leaves is attached at each node.

Tropical Seasonal Forest

Biome found throughout Mexico, South America, Africa. Includes Savannas. Giraffes, White Rhino, scorpions, etc.

Bivalvia

Class of mollusks that have a shell that is divided into two parts w/ a hinge; e.g., clams, oysters, mussels, scallops. Bivalvia --> Bi = 2 parts.

Thermocline

A steep temperature gradient in a body of water such as a lake, marked by a layer above and below which the water is at different temperatures. Found in the summer months, water is warmer in the top layers (epipelagic).

Cholesterol

A steroid which is a common component of cell membranes and plays a major role in maintaining the fluidity of the membrane by helping to keep the tails of phospholipids from sticking together.

Basal Body

An organelle that forms the base of a flagellum or cilium. (9+0 Microtubule arrangement).

Gastropoda

Class of mollusks that have a singular, spiral shell and a muscular foot; e.g., snails, slugs.

Homeotherms

An organism that maintains its body temperature at a constant level.

Elastic Cartilage

Contain more elastic fibers than hyaline cartilages, so it is better suited to repeated bending. Found in the external ear and the epiglottis (flap that bends to cover the opening of the larynx each time we swallow).

Beta Cells

Endocrine cells in the pancreas, synthesize the peptide hormone insulin, which decreases the glucose levels in the blood.

Pre-zygotic Isolating Mechanism

Factors that affect the possible formation of viable zygotes between two species. Occurs before the formation of a zygote.

Choanacytes (Collar Cells)

Flagellated cells in sponges that have a collar of cytoplasm around the flagellum; they maintain a flow of water through the body.

Ian Wilmut

First scientist to clone a mammal. Dolly the sheep. His partner was Keith Campbell.

Two-chambered

Fish have a ___-_________ heart and a single circuit of blood flow.

Cerebrum

Main two lobes of the brain, connected by the corpus callosum. Contains the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.

Chemoautotrophs

Organisms that obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their environments. These molecules can be organic or inorganic. The chemotroph designation is in contrast to phototrophs, which utilize solar energy.

Facultative Anaerobes

Organisms which can make ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but can switch to fermentation under anaerobic conditions. Ex : Muscle Cells.

Cold-Blooded

Organisms which can only control their body heat by taking in heat from outside, meaning their body temperature varies with the environmental conditions.

Obligate Anaerobes

Organisms which cannot survive in the presence of oxygen.

Phototrophs

Organisms which use light as their energy source.

Vertebrates

Organisms with a backbone sometime during their lifetime.

Energy Coupling

The use of an exergonic reaction (release of energy) to drive an endergonic one (absorption of energy).

Bile Salts

Substances produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder which are released into the duodenum of the small intestine to emulsify and help break down lipids.

Histamines

Substances released by mast cells and basophils that trigger inflammation when pathogens enter.

Catalysts

Substances that can change the rate of a reaction without being altered in the process.

Germ Theory

Theory of disease states that many diseases are caused by microorganisms. Much of the evidence for this theory was provided by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.

Charles Darwin

Theory of evolution and natural selection. "The Origin of Species."

Slime Mold

Type of funguslike protist that can form a single membrane with thousands of nuclei, or can live as an individual cell. They can grow to be very large, and often have vibrant colors. Examples include the dog vomit mold.

Resource Partitioning

When species divide a niche to avoid competition for resources. For example, one species of animal may use a watering hole in the day, and another species at night.

Functions of Blood

- Delivering oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract to all the body cells. - Transporting waste products to elimination sites. - Transporting hormones from endocrine glands. - Maintaining body temperature. - Maintaining pH. - Maintaining fluid volume. - Preventing blood loss. - Preventing infection.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

3 Na+ ions bind to the protein, an ATP molecule binds a phosphate group to the protein (and becomes ADP), which prompts the protein to change shape and allow the Na+ out against its concentration gradient, from low to high concentration. 2 K+ ions bind to the protein, and the phosphate group disconnects, which prompts the protein to change shape again and release the potassium ions, against their concentration gradient, from low to high concentration.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)

3-C Molecules formed in the calvin cycle when a phosphate group is removed and NADPH from the light reactions reduce 1,3-Biphosphoglycerate into ________________. ATP is then used to transform this molecule back into RuBP while still preserving the correct amount of carbons. 1 out of 6 of these molecules leave the calvin cycle, where they can be used to build glucose, polysaccharides, lipids, amino acids, etc.

1,3-Biphosphoglycerate

3-C Molecules in the calvin cycle formed by the phosphorylation of 3-Phosphoglycerate using ATP from the light reactions.

Pyruvate

3-Carbon sugar that glucose is split into.

Succinate

4-C Molecule found in the citric acid cycle. It is produced when a-ketoglutarate is oxidized by NAD+. This molecule is then oxidized to form oxaloacetate, which restarts the cycle.

Ecosystem

4th level of organization. Populations of plants and animals that interact with each other in a given area with the abiotic components of that area. Includes organisms and their nonliving/physical environment.

Biome

5th level of organization. Group of ecosystems that have the same climate and dominant communities.

Galactose

6 Carbon sugar with the chemical formula C6H12O6, isomer of glucose. Less sweet than glucose.

Fructose

6 Carbon sugar with the chemical formula C6H12O6, isomer of glucose. More sweet than glucose.

Biosphere

6th level of organization. Portion of earth that supports all life and includes land, water, and air, or the atmosphere. It is dynamic and ever-changing. Extends from about 8 kilometers above the earth's surface to as far as 11 kilometers below the surface of the ocean.

Innate Immunity

A *non-specific* and rapid immune response to a pathogen that includes barrier defenses (skin, saliva, lysozyme, cilia) and cellular defenses (neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, natural killer cells).

Adaptive Immunity

A *specific* immune response that occurs gradually and includes cells, such as T and B lymphocytes, that use receptors to recognize pathogens.

Phosphodiester Linkage

A bond that forms between nucleotides in which a phosphate group bound to a 5' carbon of a pentose sugar is bound at the 3' carbon of another pentose sugar.

Axillary Bud (Lateral Bud)

A bud that grows from the axil of a leaf and may develop into a branch or flower cluster.

Apical Bud (Terminal Bud)

A bud that is the primary growing point located at the top of the plant. It is the main growth area in most plants.

Urea

A byproduct of the metabolism of amino acids that is released in urine.

Microfilaments

A cable composed of actin proteins in the cytoplasm of almost every eukaryotic cell, making up part of the cytoskeleton and acting alone or with the myosin to cause cell contraction; also known as actin filament. The structural role is to bear tension (pulling forces).

Melanomas

A cancer arising from the pigment-producing melanocyte cells. This is the most serious type of skin cancer. Look for *ABCDE*, Asymmetry, border, color, diameter, evolving.

Sarcomas

A cancer arising in the *connective* tissue, such as in bones, muscle, or fat. Includes both soft tissue (fat, muscle, tendons) and bone groups. Examples include osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, etc. *These are the bone cancers, muscle cancers, cartilage cancers.*

Carcinomas

A cancer arising in the *epithelial* tissue of the skin or of the lining of the internal organs and ducts. Examples include basal cell, squamous cell, renal cell, etc. *These are the skin cancers, most breast cancers and kidney cancers.*

Lymphomas

A cancer arising in the cells of the lymphatic system. This includes Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin groups: Hodgkin usually begins in the lymph nodes and contains a special type of cell (Reed-Sternberg), while Non-Hodgkin begins with abnormal T or B cells.

Leukemias

A cancer that arises in the bone marrow and affects the blood, affected cells crowd out the normal cells and suppress development of normal cells in the bone marrow. . Types include lymphoblastic, myeloid, hairy cell, etc.

Nitrogen

A carnivorous plant such as a Venus flytrap is adapted to soils poor in ________.

Aerobic Respiration

A catabolic pathway for organic molecules, using oxygen as the final electron acceptor in an electron transport chain and ultimately producing ATP. This is the most efficient catabolic pathway and is carried out in most eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic organisms.

Tracheids

A cell type found in the xylem of flowering plants. They are much thinner in diameter than vessel elements, and lack perforation plates present in vessel elements.

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules begun in glycolysis by oxidizing Acetyl CoA (derived from pyruvate) to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion in eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes; together with pyruvate oxidation, the second major stage in cellular respiration. OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX.

Pheromones

A chemical substance released by a female gamete cell (egg) to provide a pathway for the male gamete cell (sperm) to travel, increasing the possibility of fertilization.

blueberry

A chemical that shows a strong effect in blocking replication of hepatitis c was discovered in _________ leaves.

Growth Factors

A class of local regulators in animals, which consist of compounds that stimulate nearby target cells to grow and divide.

Turbellaria

A class of the phylum platyhelminthes (flatworms) which includes all subgroups which are NOT parasitic.

Echinoidea

A class within the phlyum Echinodermata which includes sea urchins and sand dollars.

Trematoda

A class within the phylum Platyhelminthes. It includes two groups of parasitic flatworms, known as flukes. They are internal parasites of molluscs and vertebrates.

Hydrozoa

A class within the phylum cnidarian that includes *hydra* and *Portuguese Man-of-war*.

Chelipeds

A claw, nipper, or pincer; a pincer-like organ terminating certain limbs of some arthropods.

Sori

A cluster of sporangia (structures producing and containing spores) in ferns and fungi.

Inflorescence

A cluster of tightly packed flowers is known as an _____________.

Lichen

A complex of sac fungus and cyanobacteria or green algae.

Intermediate Microfilaments

A component of the cytoskeleton that includes filaments intermediate in size between microtubules and microfilaments. Specialized in bearing tension (like microfilaments). More permanent fixtures of cells. Play a role in reinforcing the shape of the cell and fixing the position of certain organelles. Made up of one of several different proteins (such as keratin in the skin, dead keratinocytes in stratum corneum), depending on cell type.

Hydrocarbon

A compound of hydrogen and carbon, make up a large portion of lipids. End carbons bond with three hydrogens, middle carbons bond with two hydrogens, and carbons that form a double bond with other carbons only bond to one hydrogen.

Anemia

A condition in which the blood does not have enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin, leading to reduced oxygen flow to the body's organs.

Fragile X Syndrome

A condition which often leads to intellectual disability, caused by a mutation causing repetition of the nucleotide sequence CGG between 200 and 1000 times.

Dihybrid Cross

A cross between two different lines (varieties, strains) that differ in two observed traits.

Monohybrid Cross

A cross between two individuals with different alleles at one genetic locus of interest.

Proplastids

A cytoplasmic organelle from which a plastid develops. All plastids are derived from this.

Pedigree

A diagram of a family tree with conventional symbols, showing the occurrence of heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations.

Cladograms

A diagram that depicts evolutionary relationships among groups. It is very similar to phylogenetic trees. They analyze derived characters and separate lineages into *outgroups.*

Lactose

A disaccharide which is composed of one glucose and one galactose.

Maltose

A disaccharide which is composed of two glucose molecules.

Genes

A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence of DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease in which the immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves (the myelin sheath deteriorates). Causes vision loss, pain, fatigue, and DECREASED COORDINATION.

Carnivora

A diverse order within the class mammalia which includes canines, felines, bears, etc. They eat meat.

Cell-Mediated Immunity

A division of adaptive immunity that involves the activation and clonal selection of cytotoxic T cells, which destroy infected cells by binding and lysing the cells.

Humoral Immunity

A division of adaptive immunity that involves the activation and clonal selection of effector B cells (plasma cells), which produce antibodies.

Pollen

A fine powder of microscopic particles from the male flower that can fertilize the female flower to produce seed. Produced by anthers.

Thylakoid

A flattened, membranous sac inside a chloroplast. Often exist in stacks called grana that are interconnected; their membranes contain molecular "machinery" used to convert light energy to chemical energy.

Imperfect Flower

A flower that is missing male or female parts (stamens and pistils).

Incomplete Flower

A flower that is missing one or more of these structures : stamens, carpels, sepals, or petals.

Perfect Flower

A flower with both male and female parts (stamens and pistils).

Complete Flower

A flower with stamens, carpels, sepals, and petals.

Biennial

A flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological lifecycle. A common example of these are *carrots*.

Vegetative Propogation

A form of asexual reproduction of a plant. Only one plant is involved and the offspring is the result of one parent. The new plant is genetically identical to the parent. Forms by mitosis.

Beta Glucose

A form of glucose that is the monomer making up cellulose. This type is used in *structural* polysaccharides.

Alpha Glucose

A form of glucose that is the monomer making up starch and glycogen. This type is used in *storage* polysaccharides.

Mullerian Mimicry

A form of mimicry in which two or more noxious animals develop similar appearances as a shared protective device, the theory being that if a predator learns to avoid one of the noxious species, it will avoid the mimic species as well.

Simple Fruit

A fruit that develops from a single ovary in a single flower. Includes berries, drupes, and pomes.

Mycorrhizae

A fungus that grows in association with the roots of a plant in a symbiotic or mildly pathogenic relationship. Act like root hairs.

Turner Syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by a female being born with only one X chromosome rather than the usual XX. XO chromosome configuration.

Klinefelter Syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by a male being born with an extra X chromosome, so that his chromosome configuration is XXY rather than the usual XY for males.

Jacob's Syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by a male being born with an extra Y chromosome, so that his chromosome configuration is XYY rather than the usual XY for males.

Down Syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by trisomy, where a person has 47 chromosomes in each body cell rather than the typical 46 chromosomes.

Tiktaalik

A genus of extinct organism from the Devonian period around 375 million years ago, its fossil helps mark the transition of life from sea to land. Combination of fish-like and tetrapod-like features.

Bulbourethral (Cowper's) Gland

A gland in the male productive system that produces an alkaline pre-ejaculate fluid that flushes out acidity in the urethra.

Seminal Vesicle

A gland in the male reproductive system that secretes an alkaline fluid that helps protect the sperm against acidic environments. This fluid also contains many enzymes, and the sugar fructose, the sperm's main energy source.

Goblet Cells

A glandular, modified simple columnar epithelial cell whose function is to secrete gel-forming mucins, the major components of mucous. In the stomach, these cells secret mucous to coat the epithelial lining and protect the stomach from the acidic environment.

Actin

A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other kinds of cells. G-actin monomers are added to the + end (barbed) and removed from the - end (pointed).

Cortisol

A glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex that is released in response to stress and low blood-glucose concentration. It functions to increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis, to suppress the immune system, and to aid in the metabolism of fat, protein, and carbohydrates.

Erythropoietin

A glycoprotein hormone that controls erythropoiesis, or red blood cell production. In the case of hypoxia (lack of oxygen in a region of the body or the whole body), the kidney will produce and secrete more of this hormone to increase the production of red blood cells.

Collagen

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom.

Chlorophyll

A green pigment located in the membranes within the chloroplasts of plants and algae and in the membranes of certain prokaryotes. Chlorophyll a participates directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy.

Polyphyletic Group

A group in phylogeny in which the common ancestor of all the members is *not* part of the group.

Monophyletic Group

A group in phylogeny that consists of an ancestral species and *all* of its descendants. Also known as a *clade*.

Paraphyletic Group

A group in phylogeny which consists of an ancestral species and some of its descendants, but *not* all of them.

Cohort

A group of individuals of the same age.

Albinism

A group of inherited disorders characterized by little or no melanin production. It increases the chance of skin cancer. Pale skin, eye conditions, sensitive to the sun.

Homeobox Genes

A group of master control genes that are highly conserved throughout all animal species. Control pattern formation.

Apicomplexans

A group of protists consisting of almost entirely parasitic species. Contain an apical complex, and produce using spores. Examples of this include *Plasmodium*; the protist that causes Malaria, *Toxoplasma*, and Babesiosis.

Alveolates

A group of protists that includes ciliates, dinoflagellates, and sporozoans.

Stramenopiles

A group of protists that includes diatoms, water molds, and brown algae.

Root Hairs

A hairlike outgrowth of a plant root that absorbs water and minerals from the soil. They are tubular extensions of the epidermis that greatly increase the surface area of the root.

Gametes

A haploid reproductive cell, such as an egg or sperm. They unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.

Character

A heritable feature that varies among individuals, such as flower color.

Quantitative Character

A heritable feature that varies continuously over a range rather than in an either-or fashion.

Heterochromatin

A highly compacted, less dispersed form of chromatin during interphase that because of its form is not available for transcription.

Leptin

A hormone made by adipose cells that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.

Secretin

A hormone released into the bloodstream by the duodenum (especially in response to acidity) to stimulate secretion by the liver and pancreas.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue. X-LINKED RECESSIVE. It is fatal because it causes the weakening of the diaphragm and cardiac muscles, resulting in respiratory or cardiovascular failure.

Thermocycler

A laboratory apparatus most commonly used to amplify segments of DNA via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Ecdysozoa

A large group in the animal kingdom. The molting animals, they regularly shed their cuticle. Includes the phyla arthropoda and nematoda.

Pericycle

A layer of parenchyma or sclerenchyma ground tissue that lies just *inside* the endodermis.

Euchromatin

A less compacted, more dispersed form of chromatin during interphase that because of its form is available for transcription and gene expression. True-chromatin.

Alternation of Generations

A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte; characteristic of plants and some algae.

Photosystem

A light-capturing unit located in the thykaloid membrane of the chloroplast or in the plasma membrane of some prokaryotes, consisting of a reaction center complex surrounded by numerous light-harvesting complexes. There are two types of photosystems : I and II. They absorb light best at different wavelengths.

Notochord

A long, flexible rod that appears during embryonic development between the digestive tube and the dorsal nerve cord. It is NOT the spinal cord or the vertebral column.

B Cells

A lymphocyte not processed by the thymus gland, and responsible for producing antibodies.

Acetylcholine

A major neurotransmitter that activates muscles, and is involved in many cognitive functions of target areas in the brain (learning & memory). Too much of this neurotransmitter results in *muscle spasms and convulsions*, and too little contributes to *Alzheimer's disease*.

Evapotranspiration

A measure of the amount of water transpired by plants and evaporated from the soil.

Hemophilia

A medical condition in which the ability of the blood to clot is severely reduced, causing the sufferer to bleed severely from even a slight injury. X-LINKED RECESSIVE.

Major Histocompatability Complex (MHC)

A membrane protein found on antigen-presenting cells which holds antigen fragments (epitopes), allowing helper T-cells to bind and carry out a reponse. Type I is found on infected cells (which are destroyed by cytotoxic T-cells), and type II is found on immune system cells, such as dendritic cells.

Endosome

A membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that is responsible for transporting molecules or ligands internalized by the plasma membrane or from the Golgi apparatus. It can transport these substances to the lysosomes for degradation or back to the membrane or Golgi for recycling.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of one's physical environment. Being able to picture your house layout in your head.

Anabolism

A metabolic pathway that consumes energy to synthesize a complex molecule from simpler molecules. AKA Biosynthetic pathways. Makes bonds --> More energy is needed to form the new bonds than was needed to break the previous bonds, so the net energy is absorbed. Ex : Photosynthesis, Dehydration synthesis, protein synthesis.

Catabolism

A metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler molecules. Breaks bonds --> More energy is released when new bonds are formed than energy is used to break bonds, so the net energy is released. Ex : Digestive enzymes in the stomach, cellular respiration, hydrolysis.

Gluconeogenesis

A metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids.

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)

A modified smooth endoplasmic reticulum found in muscle fibers, which, when depolarized by action potentials from the T tubules, release Ca2+ ions from their terminal cisterns.

Rhizome

A modified stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes. Found in ferns. Vegetative propogation.

Meiosis

A modified type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms consisting of two rounds of cell division but only one round of DNA replication. It results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell.

Proteoglycan

A molecule present mainly in connective tissue which is made up of core proteins with carbohydrate "feathers" that jut off of a polysaccharide molecule.

Hybrid Zones

A narrow geographic region where two genetically distinct populations or species are found in close proximity and hybridize to produce offspring of mixed ancestry.

Water Vascular System

A network of water vessels in the body of an echinoderm, the tube feet being operated by hydraulic pressure within the vessels.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that plays a major role in reward-motivated behavior and the pleasure center of the brain. Too much of this leads to *schizophrenia*, whereas too little leads to *Parkinson's disease*.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood balance. It contributes to feelings of happiness. A deficiency in this neurotransmitter can lead to depression. SSRIs can be used to treat depression by increasing the amount of this in the brain.

Jacobs and Monod

A pair of scientists credited for the discovery of operons, groups of genes in prokaryotic organisms that are regulated together.

Ectoparasite

A parasite, such as a flea, that lives on the outside of its host.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A part of the autonomic nervous system whose primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A part of the autonomic nervous system whose primary role is to rest and digest; it conserves energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles in the gastrointestinal tract.

Diapause

A period of suspended development in an insect, other invertebrate, or mammal embryo, especially during unfavorable environmental conditions. A form of this is *estivation*, dormancy in a hot or dry period, AKA torpor.

Euglenophytes

A phylum of plantlike protists (contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis) that live in water, use flagellum to move, contain an eyespot for sensing light conditions, and has a pellicle that acts as a cell wall.

Chytridiomycota

A phylum within the kingdom fungi that produce flagellated spores. They can live as single cells or form hyphae. They live in a variety of habitats, such as waters, soil, guts of mammals, or they can act as parasites.

Endemic

A plant or animal that is native or restricted to a certain country or area. Such as the marine iguana on the Galapagos islands.

Annual

A plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seed, within one year, and then dies. Are *always* herbaceous plants, do not live long enough for a woody stem to develop. Typically showy flowers.

Day Neutral Plants

A plant that flowers regardless of the length of the period of light it is exposed to. Rice, corn, and the cucumber are examples.

Sticky Ends

A possible type of ending of a restriction fragment that is created when a DNA molecule is cut by a restriction enzyme.

Crenation

A process resulting from osmosis in which red blood cells, in a hypertonic solution, undergo shrinkage and acquire a notched or scalloped surface.

Cuticle

A protective and waxy or hard layer covering the epidermis of a plant, invertebrate, or shell. Made of lipids (waxy).

Denatured

A protein can become __________ when it loses its shape and ability to function due to heat, a change in pH, or some other disturbance.

Cyclin Dependent Kinase (Cdk)

A protein complex formed by the association of an inactive catalytic subunit of a protein kinase with a regulatory subunit, cyclin.

Bicoid

A protein found in Drosophila melanogaster that acts as a morphogen and determines which side of the embryo will become the anterior portion.

Dystrophin

A protein that is responsible for connecting the cytoskeleton of muscle fibers to the surrounding extracellular matrix. It is nonfunctional in those with Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, causing muscles to progressively weaken.

Repressor

A protein which is coded for by regulatory genes that binds to the operator region and prevents the binding of RNA Polymerase for transcription.

Codominance

A relationship between two versions of a gene. When both alleles are present, they are both expressed in the phenotype. Example : White flower mated with red flower producing white flowers with red spots

trp Operon

A repressible operon present in bacteria that can be turned off in high levels of tryptophan. Tryptophan acts as a corepressor, activating repressor proteins and turning off the expression of the tryptophan gene.

Root Caps

A section of tissue at the tip of a plant root. Protects the growing tip in plants. It secretes mucilage to ease the movement of the root through soil.

Probe

A sequence of DNA that is complementary to a sequence of interest, and is often made radioactive or fluorescent, making it easy to track. Binds to the DNA complementary to it, allowing researchers to easily find a gene of interest.

Cilia

A short appendage containing microtubules in eukaryotic cells. Motile cilia are specialized for locomotion or moving fluid past the cell. Usually occur in large numbers on the cell surface. (9 + 2 arrangement in motile cilia). Paramecia use these to move.

Action Potential

A short event in which the membrane potential of a cell rapidly rises and falls with the help of important transmembrane ion channels.

Ligand

A signaling molecule that binds specificially to another molecule (receptor), usually a larger one. Shape is complementary to the receptor, fits like a key in a lock.

Rhizoids

A slender rootlike filament (trichome) that grows from an alga, a fungus, or the gametophyte of a moss, liverwort, or fern (prothallus), used for attachment and nourishment.

Trichomes

A small hair or other outgrowth from the epidermis of a plant, typically unicellular and glandular. An example of these are rhizoids in ferns or bryophytes.

Corepressor

A small molecule that works together with a repressor protein to switch off an operon. They bind to an allosteric site on an inactive protein repressor, activating it so it can restrict the binding of RNA Polymerase and regulate the expression of an operon.

miRNA

A small non-coding RNA molecule that is involved in regulating gene expression through post-transcriptional regulation by deactivating mRNA. RNA interference.

Histones

A small protein with a high proportion of negatively charged amino acids that bind to the negatively charged DNA and plays a key role in chromatin structure.

Achene

A small, dry, one-seeded fruit that does not open to release the seed. Examples include sunflower seeds.

Dry Ice

A solid form of carbon dioxide that is mainly used as a cooling agent. When it sublimates it becomes gaseous carbon dioxide.

Taq Polymerase

A special enzyme that is used to extend the primers in PCR in the 5' → 3' direction. Comes from a bacterial cell species that can withstand the high temperatures of hot springs. This prevents the enzyme from denaturation during the thermocycler stage of polymerase chain reaction.

Gizzard

A special portion of the stomach that is often present in animals without teeth that is responsible for grinding up food. These are present in animals such in earthworms and birds.

Sesamoid Bones

A special type of short bone that form in a tendon (e.g. the patella). Vary in size and number in individuals. Some act to alter the direction of pull of a tendon, while the function of others is not known. "Shaped like a sesame seed."

Nematocysts

A specialized cell in the tentacles of a jellyfish or other coelenterate, containing a barbed or venomous coiled thread that can be projected in self-defense or to capture prey.

Flame Cells

A specialized excretory cell found in the simplest freshwater invertebrates, including flatworms and rotifers; these are the simplest animals to have a dedicated excretory system. These cells function like a kidney, removing waste materials.

Allosteric Site

A specific binding site on an enzyme which noncompetitive inhibitors bind to to change the shape of the enzyme.

Exergonic Reaction

A spontaneous chemical reaction, in which there is a net release of free energy. Less energy is used to break bonds than energy is released when forming the new bonds, so there is a net movement of energy released. Negative Gibbs free energy.

Setae

A stiff hair, bristle, or bristlelike process or part on an organism. Spiders use them as sensory organs, while polychaete worms, such as earthworms, use them for locomotion. They allow geckos to adhere to verticles surfaces.

Glycogen

A storage polysaccharide found in animals, vertebrate muscle cells, and liver cells. *MADE OF ALPHA GLUCOSE.*

Complementary DNA (cDNA)

A strand of DNA without any introns. They are synthesized by transcribing mRNA with reverse transcriptase, which yields the genes that were originally transcribed, but none of the introns that were spliced out.

Centrioles

A structure in the centrosome of an animal cell composed of a cylinder of microtubule triplets arranged in a 9 + 0 pattern. A centrosome has a pair of centrioles. Centrioles replicate before cell division. 9 sets of 3 microtubules make up the centrioles. Pairs are oriented perpendicularly.

Eyespot

A structure located within Euglena that allow it to sense light and dark, which is important because in low-light conditions a Euglena can change to a heterotrophic mode of nutrition.

Hirudinea

A subclass of the phylum annelida which includes leeches; parasites that are equipped with suckers.

Compound

A substance consisting of two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs)

A technique that exploits variations between homologous DNA sequences (code for same genes, different alleles). Due to differences in the sequence, restriction enzymes cut them at different places, resulting in different fragments which can be analyzed with gel electrophoresis.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

A technique that exploits variations in homologous DNA sequences. Was an important tool in genome mapping.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence.

Wobble

A term that indicates weaker base pairing rules between RNA molecules in the third nucleotide in a codon. This can result in a different amino acid being added to a polypeptide chain because the wrong anticodon was bound.

Benedict's Test

A test which determines the presence of non-reducing sugars in a test solution. Sugars are classified as reducing or non-reducing based on their ability to act as a reducing agent (Is oxidized, donates electrons). They are placed in a solution with copper cations. The solution turns orange if there is a lot of reducing sugars, which reduces the copper, resulting in an orange solution. *Orange-red* --> Positive *Blue* --> Negative

Protonema

A thread-like chain of cells that forms the earliest stage of a bryophyte life cycle. When a moss first grows from the spore, it grows as this, which develops into a leafy gametophore.

Chromosomes

A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes. In prokaryotes, these are circular; in eukaryotes, these are arranged into strands. They are wrapped around proteins known as histones, and the resulting complex is known as chromatin.

Lyme's Disease

A tick-borne illness caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi. It is carried mainly by ticks, but other animals such as deer and small rodents can get infected.

Tardigrades

A tiny coelomate animal with four pairs of legs; in a dormant state, in can survive extremely adverse conditions. Water bears.

Wood

A tissue formed as a result of the secondary growth of plant stems and roots that is made up of accumulated secondary xylem.

Shared Derived Character

A trait that two lineages have in common that sets members of that lineage apart from others. It can be used to group individuals. For example, class aves have feathers.

Style

A tube on top of the ovary of a flower which connects the ovary to the stigma.

Mycoplasma

A type of bacteria that lack a cell wall around their membrane, which gives them resistance to many common antibiotics.

Companion Cells

A type of cell found within the phloem of flowering plants. Each is usually closely associated with a sieve element. It likely regulates the activity of the adjacent sieve element and takes part in loading and unloading sugar into the sieve element.

Glycosidic Linkage

A type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.

Compound Eye

A type of eye in animals which has many units, each having its own lens. These are seen in insects. It consists of many units called ommatidia.

Epistasis

A type of gene interaction in which the phenotypic expression of one gene alters that of another independently inherited gene.

Tropic Hormones

A type of hormone that affect other endocrine glands. For example, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone.

Tight Junctions

A type of intercellular junction between animal cells that prevents the leakage of material through the space between cells. e.g. between skin cells or bladder epitheilial cells to prevent leakage.

Gap Junctions

A type of intercellular junction in animal cells, consisting of proteins surrounding a pore that allows the passage of materials between cells. e.g. heart muscles and animal embryos.

Elaioplasts

A type of leucoplast that is specialized for the storage of lipids in plants.

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases

A type of membrane protein which form a dimer. Unlike G-protein receptors, *can elicit multiple responses.*

Complete Metamorphosis

A type of metamorphosis in which an insect goes through four stages (*egg, larvae, pupa, adult*). The insect looks different in each stage.

Incomplete Metamorphosis

A type of metamorphosis in which an insect hatches from an egg and then goes through several nymphal stages. Each nymphal stage looks like a small version of the adult but getting slightly bigger with age.

Myosin

A type of motor protein that associates into filaments that interact with actin filaments, causing cell contraction.

Kinesin

A type of motor protein which "walks" along microtubules and uses ATP for energy.

Ganglion Cells

A type of neuron located near the inner surface of the retina of the eye. It receives visual information from photoreceptors via the bipolar cells.

Sexual Reproduction

A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from both parents via the gametes.

Conjugate Vaccines

A vaccine that may be used if a bacterium possesses an outer coating of polysaccharides. These coatings disguise a bacterium's antigens so that the immature immune systems of infants and younger children can't recognize or respond to them. Scientists link antigens or toxoids from a microbe that an infant's immune system can recognize to the polysaccharides. The linkage helps the immature immune system react to polysaccharide coatings and defend against the disease-causing bacterium.

RNA Splicing

After synthesis of a eukaryotic primary RNA transcript, the removal of portions of the transcript (introns) that will not be included in the mRNA and the joining together of the remaining portions (exons).

White Blood Cells

Also called leukocytes; are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders.

Definitive Host

Also known as a primary host; a host in which the sexual reproduction of a parasite takes place, provides sustenance for the organism. Example : Mosquitoes carry Plasmodium, which produces its gametes inside the mosquito, which are then injected into humans. Mosquitoes are the ________ host.

Intermediate Host

Also known as a secondary host; a host that harbors the parasite only for a short transition period, during which (usually) some developmental stage is completed. Example : Mosquitoes injecting sprozoites of Plasmodium into humans to cause malaria. Humans are the ___________ host.

Zymogens

Also known as proenzymes; the inactive precursor to an enzyme. Often have the prefix pro- or the suffix -ogen, such as pepsinogen. Only active when needed; for example, the pancreas secretes various ________ into the duodenum of the small intestine which only become active when food enters the small intestine to be digested. Some advantages include the ability to stockpile enzymes to be activated at once rather than creating them when needed, and preventing enzymes from breaking down substances or catalyzing reactions it should not be.

Sterol

Also known as steroid alcohols. A subgroup of steroids and an important class of organic molecules. They occur naturally in plants, animals, and fungi, with the most familiar type of this in animal cells being cholesterol.

Abyssopelagic Zone

Also known as the *abyssal zone* or simply as the abyss. It extends from 4,000 meters (13,124 feet) to 6,000 meters (19,686 feet). The name comes from a Greek word meaning "no bottom". The water temperature is near freezing, and there is no light at all.

Cyclic Photophosphorylation

Alternative path of electrons in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in which electrons only make use of photosystem I (P700), and produces no NADP+ or O2, *only produces ATP*.

Fucoxanthin

An accessory pigment in the chloroplasts of brown algae and most other heterokonts, such as diatoms, giving them a brown or olive-green color.

Chlorophyll b

An accessory pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a. It contains a atom of *magnesium* in the center of the molecule.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

An adenosine-containing nucleotide triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells. Negative charges of phosphate groups repel eachother, making up for the high energy of ATP, like a spring.

Queen Bee

An adult, mated female that lives in a honey bee colony or hive; she is usually the mother of most, if not all, of the bees in the beehive.

Mutagen

An agent that causes a genetic mutation. For example, ultraviolet or x-ray radiation, cigarette smoke, certain viruses or bacteria, etc.

Dominant Allele

An allele that is fully expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygote.

Recessive Allele

An allele whose phenotypic effect is not observed in a heterozygote.

Latitude

An angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles. Run east-west as circles parallel to the equator.

Imprinting

An animal behavior pattern where a juvenile animal identifies the first moving object larger than itself as 'mother' and follows it.

Ecotone

An area where two communities meet and intergrade.

Arthropoda

An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda, which includes the insects, arachnids, myriapods (centipedes, millipedes, etc.), and crustaceans.

Hypothesis

An attempt to explain phenomena. It is a proposal, a guess used to understand and/or predict something.

Crohn's Disease

An autoimmune disorder in which the affected produces antibodies that target proteins in neutrophil granules, causing problems in the gastrointestinal tract.

Cotyledon

An embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, one or more of which are the first leaves to appear from a germinating seed.

Thrombin

An enzyme involved in blood clotting that converts fibrinogen into the active form, fibrin.

RNA Polymerase II

An enzyme responsible for separating the two DNA strands and connect RNA nucleotides to the DNA template strand during transcription.

Hydrolase

An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a particular substance.

RNA Primase

An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make a primer during DNA replication, using the parental strand as a template.

Reverse Transcriptase

An enzyme that uses RNA as a template to make DNA.

Lipase

An enzyme the body uses to break down fats in food so they can be absorbed in the intestines. Produced in the pancreas, mouth, and stomach.

Catalase

An enzyme with the function of breaking down hydrogen peroxide. It is commonly found in the peroxisome in animal cells. Bombardier Beetles also use this enzyme as a defense mechanism.

Aneuploidy

An error in cell division, such as nondisjunction, that results in the "daughter" cells having the wrong number of chromosomes.

Founder Effect

An example of genetic drift resulting from a few individuals becoming isolated from a larger population and establishing a new population whose gene pool is not reflective of the source population.

Bottleneck Effect

An example of genetic drift resulting from a sudden change in the environment (for example, an earthquake, flood, or fire) that drastically reduces the size of the population. The few survivors that pass through the restrictive bottleneck no longer reflect the original gene pool.

Scyphozoa

An exclusively marine class of the phylum Cnidaria, referred to as the true jellyfish.

Autoradiography

An image on an x-ray film or nuclear emulsion produced by the pattern of decay emissions (e.g., beta particles or gamma rays) from a distribution of a radioactive substance.

Autoimmune Response

An immune response that targets one's own cells. People with these disorders create antibodies targeting healthy cells and tissues. An example of this is Crohn's disease, in which antibodies target proteins in Neutrophils.

Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)

An important buffer in living systems. Moderates pH changes in blood plasma and the ocean.

Apoenzyme

An inactive enzyme that must be activated by the binding of an organic or inorganic cofactor.

Clone

An individual that is genetically identical to another individual.

Carrier

An individual who is heterozygous at a given genetic locus for a recessively inherited disorder. Typically phenotypically normal but can pass on the recessive allele to offspring.

lac Operon

An inducible operon present in bacteria that can be activated in the presence of allolactose (isomer of lactose). Allolactose deactivates repressor proteins, allowing for the transcription of the lactase gene.

Prions

An infectious agent composed entirely of protein material that can fold in multiple, structurally distinct ways, at least one of which is transmissible to other proteins, leading to disease that is similar to viral infection.

Viroids

An infectious sub-viral agent that is made up of a circular RNA and is catalytic. Can self-cleave to replicate.

Goiters

An inflammation of the thyroid gland that results from a deficiency in iodine.

Cetaceans

An infraorder of the class mammalia (and order artiodactyla) which includes aquatic mammals, such as whales, dolphins, and porpoises.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that is involved in the regulation of anxiety. gamma-aminobutyric acid.

Sleeping Sickness

An insect-borne parasitic disease of humans and other animals. It is caused by protozoa of the species Trypanosoma brucei. It is usually transmitted by the bite of an infected tsetse fly and are most common in rural areas.

Swim Bladder

An internal gas-filled organ that contributes to the ability of many bony fish (but NOT cartilaginous fish, like sharks) to control their buoyancy, and thus to stay at their current water depth without having to waste energy in swimming.

Giardiasis

An intestinal infection caused by a giardia parasite. Infection can be caused by drinking contaminated water.

Pore Complex

An intricate protein structure lining each pore on the nuclear envelope and plays an important role in the cell by regulating the entry and exit of proteins and RNAs, as well as large complexes of macromolecules.

Platelets

An irregular, disc-shaped element in the blood that assists in blood clotting. During normal blood clotting, the platelets clump together (aggregate). Repair broken blood vessels through a positive feedback mechanism.

Plasmodesmata

An open channel through the cell wall that connects the cytoplasm of adjacent plant cells, allowing water, small solutes, and some larger molecules to pass between the cells.

Rodentia

An order of the class mammalia consisting of animals such as rats, mice, hamsters, squirrels, chinchillas, etc. that have a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws.

Monotremata

An order of the class mammalia consisting of mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to live young. Includes platypuses and echidnas.

Lagomorpha

An order of the class mammalia consisting of the animals hares, rabbits, and pikas.

Cetacea

An order of the class mammalia consisting of whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Carnivorous and finned.

Proboscidea

An order of the class mammalia consisting only of the living family, the Elephantidae (elephants), and several extinct families. Encompasses the trunked mammals.

Primate

An order of the class mammalia. With the exception of humans, most animals in this class live in tropical or subtropical regions of the Americas, Africa and Asia. Humans fit into this class.

Chiroptera

An order within the class mammalia which includes bats, the only mammals capable of sustained flight.

Artiodactyla

An order within the class mammalia which includes hoofed animals, such as giraffes, camels, elk, etc. Even number of toes.

Perissodactyla

An order within the class mammalia which includes horses, donkeys, zebras, rhinos, etc. Odd number of toes.

Soricomorpha

An order within the class mammalia which includes shrews and moles.

Endostyle

An organ that assists urochordates and cephalochordates in filter-feeding. Contains cilia and secretes mucus to pass food to the digestive tract.

Apicoplast

An organelle found in apicomplexans having *four* membranes due to a double endosymbiosis, and is involved in the synthesis of fatty acids. This organelle also helps penetrate the mammalian epithelium in parasitic apicomplexans.

Poikilotherms

An organism that cannot regulate its body temperature except by behavioral means such as basking or burrowing.

Vector

An organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads infection by conveying pathogens from one host to another. Species of mosquito, for example, serve as vectors for the deadly disease Malaria.

Monohybrid

An organism that is heterozygous with respect to a single gene of interest, for example, the Pp hybrids in the F1 generation of flowers.

Heterotroph

An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them. Consumers. Ex : Eating plants or other animals, or decomposing and feeding on dead organisms or organic litter.

Southern Blotting

Analysis involved in gel electrophoresis that reveals information about *DNA* identity, size, and abundance.

Northern Blotting

Analysis involved in gel electrophoresis that reveals information about *RNA* identity, size, and abundance.

Crepuscular

Animals that are active mainly immediately after dawn or immediately before dusk.

Ribozymes

Another class of catalyst which is made up of RNA.

Transpeptidase

Antibiotics, such as penicillin, work to inhibit bacterial cell growth by deactivating the enzyme _____________, which is responsible for catalyzing the formation of the cell's peptidoglycan cell wall.

Chlorofluorocarbons

Any of a class of compounds of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and fluorine, typically gases used in refrigerants and aerosol propellants. They are harmful to the ozone layer in the earth's atmosphere owing to the release of chlorine atoms upon exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

Cytokines

Any of a number of substances, such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors, that are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells.

Alleles

Any of the alternative versions of a gene which may produce distinguishable phenotypic effects.

Dicot

Any of various flowering plants that are not monocotyledons, having two cotyledons in the seed and usually flower parts in multiples of four or five. Examples include magnolias, roses, germaniums.

Antigens

Any substance that elicits a response from T or B cells in the immune system, which have receptors for these substances.

Broca's Area

Area of the frontal lobe that is active in planning speech and directing muscles of speech production.

Visual Association Area

Area of the occipital lobe that interprets visual stimuli.

Primary Visual Cortex

Area of the occipital lobe that receives visual information from the retinas.

Somatosensory Association Area

Area of the parietal lobe that integrates sensory input to understand an object.

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Area of the parietal lobe that receives general sensory information from skin and other receptors.

Primary Auditory Cortex

Area of the temporal lobe that receives information from inner ear such as loudness, pitch, and location.

Auditory Association Area

Area of the temporal lobe that stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sound stimulus.

Alternate Arrangement

Arrangement of leaves in which one leaf is attached at each node, and they alternate sides.

Whorled Arrangement

Arrangement of leaves in which the leaves extend from a single point and extend around the stem.

Chelicerates

Arthropods having a body with two regions (head/thorax and abdomen). Includes spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs.

Decreases; increases

As you move towards warmer climates, body size _________, while extremity size _________. In order to release more heat. Compare elephant ears to woolly mammoth ears.

Free Radicals

Atoms or groups of atoms with unpaired electrons that can be formed when oxygen interacts with certain molecules. Once formed these highly reactive atoms can start a chain reaction, like dominoes. Antioxidants can be used to manage these.

Fimbriae

Attachment structures on the surface of some prokaryotes. Used to adhere to other bacteria, animal cells, or inanimate objects.

Plasma Cells (Effector B-Cells)

B-cells that produce antibodies specific to a pathogen, which go on to mark the pathogens for destruction or deactivation.

Gram-Positive Bacteria

Bacteria that take up the crystal violet stain used in the test, and then appear to be purple-coloured when seen through a microscope. Have a simpler cell wall with more peptidoglycan.

Stems

Basic structure for growth of a plant that provides support and keeps leaves positioned for photosynthesis. They can grow above *or* below the soil.

Mesopelagic Zone

Below the epipelagic zone, extending from 200 meters (656 feet) to 1,000 meters (3,281 feet). Sometimes referred to as the *twilight zone* or the midwater zone.

Erwin Chargaff

Biochemist who discovered that the base composition varies between species, and that the percentages of adenine are roughly equal to thymine, while the percentages of guanine are roughly equal to cytosine.

Climax Community

Biological community of plants and animals that has reached a steady state after the occurrence of primary succession.

Photoperiodism

Biological response to seasonal changes in the relative lengths of day and night.

Frederick Griffith

Biologist that studied two different strains of pneumonia bacteria using mice. Rough strain (nonvirulant), smooth strain (virulant). Heat-killed smooth strain transformed the rough strain bacteria, making it a pathogen.

Carolus Linnaeus

Biologist who came up with the taxonomic naming system of binomial nomenclature.

Robert Koch

Biologist who used an experiment with mice to determine if a specific microorganism was the cause of a disease.

Rudolf Virchow

Biologist who used the cell theory to explain the effects of diseases in organisms, argued that they arose in individual cells.

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

Biologists who utilized bacteriophages and radioactive isotopes of sulfur (protein) and phosphorus (DNA) to determine whether protein or DNA is the genetic material. The bacteriophages transmitted their DNA to the E. Coli, and they concluded that DNA was the genetic material.

Tropical Rainforest

Biome containing great biodiversity found in South America (Amazon), Africa (Congo), Indonesia, etc. Rain forests belong to the tropical wet climate group. The temperature in a rain forest rarely gets higher than 93 °F (34 °C) or drops below 68 °F (20 °C); average humidity is between 77 and 88%; rainfall is often more than 100 inches a year.

Temperate Evergreen Forest

Biome found around the Northwestern United States (Washington, Oregon) and Northwestern Canada. Also found in Florida, New Zealand, etc. Include pine, cedar, spruce, fir trees.

Temperate Shrubland and Woodland

Biome found in the Western United States, the Middle East, Australia, Asia, etc. Very dry and hot summers, prone to forest fires.

Polar Ice

Biome found in the arctic and antarctic. Coldest biome on the planet. No plants grow here; very cold, no herbivores.

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Biome found throughout the Midwestern United States and Europe. Goes through winter, spring, summer, autumn. Leaves change colors in autumn. Include oak, alder, aspen, birch trees.

Temperate Grassland

Biome found throughout the central plains of United States (Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, etc.) and Eurasia. Grasses are the dominant vegetation. Contain a low diversity of wildlife, but a high abundance. Hot summers and cold winters.

Mountain Zone (Alpine)

Biome found throughout the planet, including the Rocky mountains (U.S.), Alps (Europe; Austria, France, Germany, etc.), Himalayas (Asia; Nepal).

Boreal Forest (Taiga)

Biome mainly found in Russia and most of Canada (also Alaska). Characterized by coniferous forests consisting of pine, spruce, etc. World's largest biome apart from oceans.

Desert

Biome that covers about 20% of the Earth's surface and have very little rainfall. Examples include the Sahara of North Africa, and the deserts of the southwestern United States and Australia. Few large mammals live here because they cannot store enough water and take the heat. Reptiles are the dominant animals.

Tundra

Biome that is noted for its frost-molded landscapes, extremely low temperatures, little precipitation, poor nutrients, and short growing seasons. Dead organic material functions as a nutrient pool. Northern Canada, Russia, and in Alaska.

Ionic Bonds

Bonds in which two atoms attract valence electrons so unequally that the more electronegative atom steals the electron.

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

Bonds that occur when the electrons being shared are shared equally between the two atoms. O=O, H-H.

Covalent Bonds

Bonds that occur when valence electrons are shared by two atoms.

Peptide Bonds

Bonds which link amino acids. Formed by dehydration synthesis between the amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent monomers.

Osteocytes

Bone cells. Form bone cells and become embedded in the matrix.

Osteoblasts

Bone forming cells that secrete the bone matrix.

Short Bones

Bones that are roughly cube shaped, such as bones in the wrists or ankles.

Flat Bones

Bones that are thin, flattened, and usually a bit curved. Examples are the sternum, scapulae, ribs, and most skull bones.

sulfur

Burning of fossil fuels creates nitrogen and ______ oxides, which are damaging to the environment.

Chondrocytes

Cartilage cells. Secrete cartilage and become embedded in the matrix.

Fibrocartilage

Cartilages which are highly compressible and have great tensile strength. Occurs in sites that are subjected to both pressure and stretch, such as the pad-like cartilages of the knee and the discs between vertebrae.

Bundle Sheath

Cell type found in plants that surrounds the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem).

Haploid

Cells containing one copy of genetic material subdivided into chromosomes. For example, Gametes (Sperm and eggs). In humans, the haploid number is 23 chromosomes.

Diploid

Cells containing two copies of genetic material subdivided into chromosomes. For example, Somatic Cells (Body Cells). In humans, the diploid number is 46 chromosomes.

Cones

Cells in the retina of the eye that are responsible for color vision.

Bipolar Cells

Cells in the retina that exist between photoreceptors (rod cells and cone cells) and ganglion cells. They act, directly or indirectly, to transmit signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells.

Why are cells small?

Cells must keep a relatively high ratio of surface area to volume, especially if the cell exchanges a lot of material. Some cells have microvilli to increase surface area without affecting volume.

Natural Killer Cells (NK)

Cells of the innate immune system that recognize and destroy infected. cells.

Oligodendrocytes

Cells responsible for myelination (creation of the myelin sheath which insulates nerve fibers and increase the speed at which signals can be sent) in the Central Nervous System.

Schwann Cells

Cells responsible for myelination (creation of the myelin sheath which insulates nerve fibers and increase the speed at which signals can be sent) in the Peripheral Nervous System.

Eosinophils

Cells that are important in leading the counterattack against parasitic worms, such as flatworms and roundworms that are too large to be phagocytized.

Quiescent

Cells that are in a period of inactivity or dormancy. Remain in the G0 phase of interphase. May re-enter the G1 phase and begin dividing again under specific conditions.

Eukaryotes

Cells that are larger and more complex, contains membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus containing DNA.

Monocytes

Cells that differentiate into highly mobile macrophages, which are actively phagocytic, and are crucial for defense against viruses, certain bacterial parasites, and chronic infections.

Macrophages

Cells that engulf and destroy bacteria and other invaders.

Senescent

Cells that have aged and deteriorated and stop dividing. These cells go into the G0 phase of interphase and, unlike quiescent cells, will NOT re-enter the G1 phase and continue dividing. Cells may trigger senescence to ensure that damaged or defective DNA is not passed down.

Prokaryotes

Cells that lack nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles.

Guard Cells

Cells that surround the stomata and regulate its opening and closing. They differ from the rest of the epidermal tissue of a plant because unlike those tissues, *they contain chloroplasts.*

Antigen-presenting Cells (APC)

Cells which engulf pathogens and take up antigen fragments, to present them on major histocompatability complexes to Helper T-cells.

Ligand-gated Ion Channels

Channels which can be activated by ligands to open or close, regulating the flow of specific ions and can result in a change in cell activity. Examples include neurotransmitters having an inhibitory or excitatory response on neurons.

Homodont

Characteristic that describes animals whose teeth are all of the same type. Includes most vertebrates except mammals.

G2 Checkpoint

Checkpoint in the cell cycle which ensures that all DNA was replicated and is undamaged before progressing to mitosis.

M Checkpoint

Checkpoint in the cell cycle which ensures that all chromosomes are properly attached to the mitotic spindle before progressing to anaphase.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Chemical reactions in which there is a transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another.

Pheromones

Chemical signals that do not require a great deal of energy to produce and most cause a very specific behavior between members of the same species.

Organelles in Plant Cells but not Animal Cells

Chloroplasts, central vacuole and tonoplast, cell wall, and plasmodesmata.

Cilia vs Villi

Cilia are small projections which are used for movement of a cell or materials, such as in the respiratory system to move mucous. Villi are small finger-like projections which are used for increasing the surface area of a surface, such as in the small intestine to absorb more nutrients.

Chondrichthyes

Class of chordata which contains the cartilaginous fishes: they are jawed vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, scales, a heart with its chambers in series, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. Examples include sharks and rays.

Aves

Class of chordata which includes birds. Characteristics include flight and hollow bones.

Mammalia

Class of chordata which includes mammals. Characteristics include at least partially covered by hair, warm-blooded, young nursed from mammary glands.

Reptilia

Class of chordata which includes reptiles. Dry skin w/ epidermal scales; terrestrial (living on land). Examples include snakes, lizards, alligators.

Osteichthyes

Class of chordata; popularly referred to as the bony fish, is a diverse taxonomic group of fish that have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue, as opposed to cartilage. Examples include bass, catfish, etc.

Cephalopoda

Class of mollusks that have a prominent head and a modification of a muscular foot (usually a tentacle); e.g., chambered nautilus, cuttlefish, octopus, squid.

Cnidarian

Cnidaria is a phylum containing over 10,000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic environments: they are predominantly marine species. Their distinguishing feature is cnidocytes (stinging cells), specialized cells that they use mainly for capturing prey. They have a nerve net. Examples include jellyfish, coral, hydra, and sea anemones.

Nitrogen Cycle

Cycle that begins when organisms fixate atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form (such as by bacteria or rhizobia), bacteria in the soil fix the nitrogen into ammonium, then into nitrite, and then into nitrate. Plants are able to take up these substances, and animals can get them from eating plants. When plants and animals die, or from wastes, decomposers can put the nitrogen back into the soil. Other bacteria can denitrify nitrogen products to convert it back into an atmospheric form.

Hydrologic Cycle

Cycle that begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds. Moisture later returns to the surface as precipitation. Once the water reaches the ground, some of the water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or the water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either seeps its way to into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back into the atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of water that remains on the earth's surface is runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers and streams and is carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again.

Phosphorus Cycle

Cycle that moves phosphorus through rocks, water, soil and sediments and organisms. Over time, weathering causes rocks to release inorganic phosphate into the soil. Plants take up this phosphate and fix it into an organic form, and animals may eat those plants. When these plants or animals die the phosphate is returned to the soil. Decomposers return it to its inorganic form, where it can be taken up again or can enter waterways and eventually be integrated into sediments. *Does not have an atmospheric component.*

In DNA, Guanine pairs with...

Cytosine.

In RNA, Guanine pairs with...

Cytosine.

Compact Bone

Dense outer layer of every bone that looks smooth and solid to the naked eye. Found in the diaphysis of long bones.

Variation

Differences between members of the same species.

Lysosome

Digestive organelle where macromolecules are hydrolyzed (broken down). Contains degradative enzymes. Only present in animal cells, not plant cells. Enzymes work best in acidic environments, like the lysosome, they are less active in the cytosol (neutral). Shape of lysosomal proteins protect the bonds from enyzmatic attack so inner proteins of a lysosome aren't destroyed.

Thigmotropism

Directional growth in a plant as a response to a touch. Vines display this when their tendrils coil around supports.

Robert Hooke

Discovered the cell; looked at a slice of cork in the microscope.

Eukarya

Domain consisting of organisms that are or are made up of eukaryotic cells. Grouped into 4 kingdoms : protists, plantae, fungi, and animalia. Examples : Bears, Flowers, Mushrooms, Butterflies, etc.

Archaea

Domain consisting of prokaryotic cells that have the ability to withstand extreme temperatures or pH. Small, about the size of bacteria or mitochondria in eukaryotes. *The nonpolar tails of phospholipids in the lipid bilayer form ester linkages with each other.* Examples : Halophiles, thermophiles, etc.

Bacteria

Domain consisting of prokaryotic cells with a phospholipid bilayer plasma membrane. Examples : Cyanobacteria, mycoplasmas, etc.

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

Drugs that act as antidepressants that function to increase the amount of serotonin in the brain. Used to treat depression, anxiety, etc. They block the reuptake of serotonin by the presynaptic neuron.

Antibiotics

Drugs used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections, these drugs kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. They can target the bacterial cell wall by deactivating transpeptidase (the enzyme that catalyzes peptidoglycan cell wall formation), or by interfering with bacterial ribosomes (which differ in structure from eukaryotic ribosomes, 30S & 50S subunits).

Trait

Each variant for a character, such as a red or white flower.

Sieve Tube

Elongated living cells of the phloem, the nuclei of which have fragmented and disappeared and the transverse end walls of which are pierced by sieve-like groups of pores. They are the conduits of food (mostly sugar) transport.

Mesoderm

Embryonic tissue layer that forms into connective tissues, such as blood, bone, and muscle.

Pituitary Gland

Endocrine gland known as the master gland which regulates many functions of the body. For example, the anterior pituitary gland secretes growth hormone; the posterior pituitary gland releases ADH for regulating blood osmolarity levels.

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine gland responsible for regulating metabolism (breakdown of food into energy, catabolism, anabolism). Also produces hormones responsible for regulating blood calcium levels. When blood calcium gets too high, it will release hormones to stimulate osteoblasts (bone matrix forming cells) to form bone, while lowering the levels of blood calcium.

Pineal Gland

Endocrine gland responsible for releasing melatonin, which regulates sleep cycles and wakefulness.

Hemorrhoids

Enlarged or inflamed veins around the rectal area.

Separase

Enzyme functioning in anaphase that breaks the cohesins which hold the sister chromatids together so that they could be moved apart.

Noncompetitive Inhibitors

Enzyme inhibitors which do not directly compete with the substrate molecule; instead, they impede enzyme activity by binding to an allosteric site and changes the shape of the enzyme's active site.

Rubisco

Enzyme involved in the calvin cycle which is responsible for binding RuBP to CO2 to form 2 of the 3-C molecule 3-Phosphoglycerate.

Sucrase

Enzyme responsible for catalyzing the breakdown of sucrose into glucose and fructose.

DNA Polymerase III

Enzyme that adds a DNA nucleotide to the RNA primer's 3' end, and then continues adding complementary DNA nucleotides.

ATP Synthase

Enzyme that creates Adenosine Triphosphate when H+ ions move down their electrochemical gradient, causing the enzyme to rotate and join ADP and Pi into high energy ATP.

Topoisomerase

Enzyme that helps relieve the strain caused by the untwisting of the DNA strand by cutting, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands.

DNA Polymerase I

Enzyme that replaces the RNA primers with DNA nucleotides.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Enzymes have an optimal pH and temperature at which they operate, and changes in these can decrease the effectiveness of an enzyme. Different temperatures can denature the proteins making up an enzyme, and different pH can disrupt the active site of enzymes.

Protein Kinases

Enzymes involved in a phosphorylation cascade; phosphorylate and thereby activate many proteins at the next level in order to enhance the signal and elicit a greater cellular response.

Pancreatic Amylase

Enzymes released by the pancreas into the duodenum of the small intestine which help with the breakdown of sugars into their monosaccharides. Begins as a zymogen.

Salivary Amylase

Enzymes released by the salivary glands in the mouth which help breakdown starch and other sugars into their smaller components. First step in digestion.

Restriction Enzymes

Enzymes that are used to cut strands of DNA at specific locations (known as restriction sites). They are derived from bacteria.

Nuclease

Enzymes that break down nucleic acids into their smaller nucleotide monomers. Example : Secreted by the pancreas into the duodenum of the small intestine to aid in the digestion of nucleic acids. Begins as a zymogen.

Proteases

Enzymes that break down proteins into their smaller amino acid monomers. Example : Secreted by the pancreas as trypsin and chymotrypsin into the duodenum of the small intestine to aid in the digestion of proteins. Begins as a zymogen.

DNA Polymerase

Enzymes that create DNA molecules by assembling nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA. Essential for DNA replication.

Homology

Evidence for evolution involving characteristics in related species that have an underlying similarity even though they have different functions. Seen in homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures between species.

The Fossil Record

Evidence for evolution stemming from evolutionary changes that are seen in fossils. Fossils of transitional species have been found that link ancient species to modern species.

Biogeography

Evidence for evolution stemming from the geographic distribution of species. Species in discrete geographic area tend to be more closely related to each other than to species in distant geographic areas. For example, desert animals in South America are more closely related to local animals in other habitats than they are to the desert animals of Asia. Continental drift can explain the similarity of species on distant continents.

Post-zygotic Isolating Mechanism

Factor affecting the possible formation of viable zygotes between two species that involves preventing hybrids of two species from passing on their genes. Occurs after the formation of a zygote.

Density-Independent Factors

Factors that exert their influences on population size regardless of the population's density, such as weather and climate. Usually includes abiotic factors.

Density-Dependent Factors

Factors whose effects on the size or growth of a population vary with the population's density, such as the availability of food, disease, predation, migration. Usually includes biotic factors.

Chitin

Fibrous substance consisting of polysaccharides that form the major constituent in the exoskeleton of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi. *Made of N-acetylglucosamine.*

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

First biologist to closely observe cells under a microscope. Created the finest microscopes at the time.

Light Microscope (LM)

First microscopes used; visible light is passed through the specimen and then through the glass lenses. Lenses refract the light so that the image is magnified.

Jejunum

First part of the maze-like section of the small intestine. Monomers that were previously broken down are absorbed here and sent to the liver.

Latissimus Dorsi

Flat, triangular muscle of the lower back. Prime mover of arm extension; powerful arm adductor, medially rotates the arm at the shoulder.

Monocot

Flowering plants (angiosperms) whose seeds typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. Examples include rice, wheat, maize, sugar cane, bamboo, bananas, onions, garlic.

Food Vacuoles

Formed by phagocytosis. Fuses with the lysosome, which digests the food.

Isotopes

Forms of an element with differing numbers of neutrons. Carbon-14 and Carbon-12.

Coprolites

Fossilized feces. Can give evidence of an extinct animal's diet.

Gregor Mendel

Founder of modern genetics. Observed pea plants to discover the laws of genetic inheritance.

Okazaki Fragments

Fragmented nucleotide sequences that result because DNA polymerase III cannot connect DNA nucleotides to the 5' end of the RNA primers, so DNA ligase must connect the two after DNA pol I changes the primer to DNA.

Bound vs Free Ribosomes

Free ribosomes usually produce proteins that function within the cytosol, such as enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of sugars. Bound ribosomes usually make proteins destined for insertion into membranes, for packaging within certain organelles (e.g. lysosomes), or for export from the cell (secretion). Cells specialized in protein secretion, such as the pancreas, have a high proportion of bound ribosomes.

Multiple Fruit

Fruiting bodies formed from a cluster of fruiting flowers, an inflorescence. Includes pineapples.

Berries

Fruits that are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet or sour, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present.

Nephron

Functional units of kidneys. Filtrate passes through here before emerging as urine.

Pathogenic Fungi

Fungi that can cause disease in humans and other organisms. Examples may include corn smut, rusts, brown rot of peaches, and powdery mildew.

Vestigial Structures

Genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of their ancestral function in a given species, but have been retained during the process of evolution.

Age-structure Pyramids

Graph that shows the relative number of individuals of each age in a population and can be used to predict and explain many demographic patterns.

Chlorophyceae

Group of plantlike protists that includes green algae, such as spirogyra (water silk).

Rhodophyceae

Group of plantlike protists that includes red algae.

Helper T-cells

HIV infects the ______ _-_____ within the immune system.

High Performance Liquid Chromatography

HPLC stands for. Technique used for separating, identifying, and quantifying all the components of a mixture.

Pili

Hair-like appendages found on the surface of many bacteria that allow them to adhere to the environment or other bacteria and also involved in gene transfer of plasmids between bacteria. Include fimbriae.

Basophils

Holds the the chemical Histamine, which is involved in making the blood vessels dilate (open more). A very similar type of white blood cell to these are *mast cells.*

Blastula

Hollow ball of cells; the inside is called the blastocoel. Second stage of embryonic development.

Progesterone

Hormone produced by the ovaries that is responsible for maintaining body conditions necessary for supporting a fetus.

Norepinephrine

Hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla that is involved in the fight or flight response. Epinephrine is also secreted here. Also known as *noradrenaline*. Can also act as a *neurotransmitter*.

Epinephrine

Hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla that is involved in the fight or flight response. Norepinephrine is also secreted here. Also known as *adrenaline*.

Human Growth Hormone (HGH)

Hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates growth or repair in an organism's cells.

Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the production of gametes.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the production of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen.

Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the thyroid gland.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands when blood calcium is low, it stimulates osteoclasts to break down the bone matrix to increase calcium levels.

Melatonin

Hormone secreted by the pineal gland that regulates the circadian rhythm. It is inhibited by photoreceptors in the retinas, so it is only produced in low light or darkness.

Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)

Hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland that prevents water loss by taking in water from urine to dilute the blood when blood osmolarity is high.

Oxytocin

Hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland that regulates uterine contractions when giving birth and the release of milk from mammary glands.

Calcitonin

Hormone secreted by the thyroid gland when blood calcium is high, it stimulates osteoblasts to build up the bone matrix and therefore decrease calcium levels.

Gonadotropic-releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of Leutinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.

Kisspeptin

Hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of gonadotropic-releasing hormone (GnRH) which in turn signals for the release of Leutinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) in the pituitary gland. It is therefore involved in the onset of puberty.

Thymosins

Hormones produced by the thymus gland during fetal development and childhood that is responsible for helping train and develop T lymphocytes.

T3/T4 Hormones

Hormones produced by the thyroid gland that regulate the rate of metabolism. A higher amount of these hormones results in a higher metabolic rate.

Androgens

Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex in low levels. They are male sex hormones, such as testosterone. Responsible for eventual male-pattern baldness in individuals with that gene.

Glucocorticoids

Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex that have many diverse functions, including the breakdown of proteins and lipids to produce glucose. Also function to reduce inflammation and immune response.

Mineralocorticoids

Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex that regulate the concentration of specific minerals in the body.

Lock and Key (Hypothesis)

Hypothesis of enzyme-substrate binding which states that the active site of the enzyme is perfectly shaped for a specific substrate to enter, like a key into a lock.

reject

If the chi-square value is *greater* than the critical value, you ______________ the null hypothesis.

fail to reject

If the chi-square value is *less than* the critical value, you ______________ the null hypothesis.

Helper T-cells

Immune system cells that bind to MHC proteins on the surface of APCs, and with the help of cytokines, replicates and activates cytotoxic T-cells (can become active or become memory T-cells) and B-cells (become plasma cells *and* memory B-cells).

Integrin

In animal cells, a transmembrane receptor protein with two subunits that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton.

Dyneins

In cilia and flagella, the large motor protein extending from one microtubule doublet to the adjacent doublet. ATP hydrolysis drives change in dynein shape that lead to the bending of cilia and flagella. Typically has two "feet" that walk along the microtubule of the adjacent doublet, using ATP for energy.

Secondary Cell Wall

In plant cells, a strong and durable matrix between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall that is often deposited in several laminated layers around the plasma membrane and that provides protection and support.

Middle Lamellae

In plants, a thin layer of adhesive extracellular material, primarily pectins, found between the primary walls of adjacent young cells.

Cretaceous

In the ____ period, dinosaurs walked the Earth.

two

In the light-dependent reactions, chlorophyll emits ___ electrons when excited by light.

___________ do NOT evolve, ___________ DO evolve.

Individuals; populations.

Photorespiration

Inefficient process that occurs when plants close their stomata to prevent the evaporation and loss of water, which causes a build-up of oxygen and a lack of CO2 in the cell. Oxygen binds to rubisco in place of CO2, and in turn binds to RuBP, forming a 5-C molecule which breaks into a 3-C 3-phosphoglycerate (good) and a 2-C 2-phosphoglycolate (bad), instead of 2 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate. 2-phosphoglycolate is released from the chloroplast, where it eventually releases a CO2 molecule. USES OXYGEN TO PRODUCE A CARBON DIOXIDE (respiration).

Ventricles

Inferior chambers of the heart that send blood away through arteries (pulmonary artery, aorta).

Cofactors

Inorganic or organic helpers which many enzymes require to function properly. Examples include metal ions such as zinc, iron, and copper.

Stereoisomers

Isomers which differ only in the spatial arrangement of their atoms. They have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms.

Constitutional Isomers

Isomers which have the same molecular formula but different connectivity between atoms, the sequence of bonded atoms are different.

Cytosol

Jellylike, semi-fluid substance inside of all cells. Cellular components are suspended in this.

Archaebacteria

Kingdom consisting of archaea.

Eubacteria

Kingdom consisting of bacteria.

Monerans

Kingdom consisting of both bacteria and archaea.

Fungi

Kingdom consisting of eukaryotic organisms which includes unicellular microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as multicellular fungi that produce familiar fruiting forms known as mushrooms. Heterotrophic (do not perform photosynthesis, they secrete enzymes to break down food and they absorb the nutrients). Reproduce using spores. Examples : Yeasts, molds, mushrooms, etc.

Animalia

Kingdom consisting of multicellular eukaryotic organisms. All animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their life. Examples : Insects, Mammals, Amphibians, Reptiles, etc.

Oligotrophic

Lake characterized by a low accumulation of dissolved nutrient salts, supporting but a sparse growth of algae and other organisms, and having a high oxygen content owing to the low organic content.

Eutrophic

Lake or other body of water rich in nutrients and so supporting a dense plant population, the decomposition of which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen.

Mesotrophic

Lakes with an intermediate level of productivity. These lakes are commonly clear water lakes and ponds with beds of submerged aquatic plants and medium levels of nutrients.

Green Algae

Land plants evolved from _____ _____ about 500 million years ago. Advantages included increased sunlight and CO2.

Pectoralis Major

Large, fan-shaped muscle covering the chest. Prime mover of arm flexion, rotates the arm medially, and adducts arm.

Mesophyll

Leaf cells specialized for photosynthesis. In C3 and CAM plants, mesophyll cells are located between the upper and lower epidermis; in C4 plants, they are located between the bundle-sheath cells and the epidermis. Palisade and spongy layers. Contains about 30-40 chloroplasts.

Steroids

Lipids that are made up of four rings that are fused together. There are *three six-sided rings, and one five-sided ring*. Examples include cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone.

Phospholipids

Lipids with a hydrophilic head group (choline, phosphate, glycerol) and two fatty acid tails, which are hydrophobic. Make up cell membranes.

Probiotics

Live microorganisms that are believed to provide health benefits when ingested; for example, certain bacteria may help with the production of vitamins, or reducing lactose intolerance.

Frontal Lobe

Lobe of the cerebral cortex which is involved in movement, reasoning, higher-order thinking skills, personality, and speech.

Parietal Lobe

Lobe of the cerebral cortex which is involved in receiving sensory input from receptors such as in the skin, taste buds, etc.

Occipital Lobe

Lobe of the cerebral cortex which is involved in vision.

Plasma Membrane

Located at the boundary of every cell. Functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of enough oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to service the entire cell.

Biceps Brachii

Located on the upper anterior arm. Flexes the elbow joint and supinates the forearm.

Ovary

Location in the carpel of a flower where the ovules are produced; ovules are the female reproductive cells, the eggs.

Flagella

Locomotion organelles in some bacteria. Made up of microtubules. Enables bacteria to move. Also present in some animal cells, but not plant cells. Arrangement of microtubules is responsible for its movement. Usually just one or a few per cell. (9 + 2 arrangement). Structure differs between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

T Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes that function in the immune response by acting directly against virus-infected cells and tumor cells.

B Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes that give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies that are released into the blood.

Carbohydrates

Macromolecule including both simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose, etc.) and polymers such as starch made from these and other subunits. They ALL exist in a ratio of 1 carbon:2 hydrogen:1 oxygen or CH2O. The two functions are energy storage and structural support. Necessary for cell-to-cell recognition in the plasma membrane.

Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules made up of nucleotide monomers which store, transmit, and help express hereditary information.

Enzymes

Macromolecules that act as biological catalysts.

Triglycerides

Made up of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules (which are made up of hydrocarbon chains). Can be saturated (no double bonds between carbons) and pack solidly at room temperature, or unsaturated (double bonds between some carbons) and tend to be liquid at room temperature.

ear

Malleus, incus, stapes are the bones found in the ___.

Four-chambered

Mammals and birds generally have a ____-_________ heart and two circuits of blood flow.

Placentals

Mammals that bear live young, which are nourished before birth in the mother's uterus through a specialized embryonic organ attached to the uterus wall, the placenta.

Marsupials

Mammals that have pouches and carry their young around in their pouches. For example, the kangaroo.

Monotremes

Mammals that lay eggs rather than giving live birth. For example, the platypus.

Chromatin

Material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible in a dividing cell as individual condensed chromosomes.

Promiscuous

Mating system in which there are no strong pair-bonds. A member of one sex mates with *any* member of the opposite sex.

Monogamous

Mating system in which there is one male and one female that have an exclusive mating relationship.

Gray Matter

Matter in the brain that is less myelinated or demylinated.

Rectus Abdominus

Medial superficial muscle. Flexes and rotates the lumbar region of the vertebral column. 6-pack.

Hydroxyurea

Medication used to help treat sickle-cell anemia by increasing production of hemoglobin to prevent erythrocytes from becoming sickle-shaped.

Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel's second law, stating that each pair of alleles will segregate independently during gamete formation. This occurs during anaphase I of meiosis.

Intercalary Tissue

Meristematic Tissue located *only in monocots* in bases of leaves and at nodes, it enables leaves to grow from their base. For example, grass continues to grow after you mow it.

Lateral Meristematic Tissue

Meristematic tissue located in plants that enable them to grow in thickness.

Apical Meristematic Tissue

Meristematic tissue located in the tips of stems and roots that enable plants to extend in length.

mRNA

Messenger RNA; responsible for transcribing the genetic code from DNA. Produced in the nucleus and sent out through the nuclear pores.

The Chain Termination Sequencing Method (Sanger Method)

Method of DNA sequencing in which the DNA is first denatured with heat, and a primer is added to each template strand. The solution is added into four separate tubes and DNA pol is added, as well as free nucleotides (nucleoside triphosphates) and *one type of each ddNTP is added to each vessel*. DNA pol adds nucleotides until a ddNTP is added, which terminates the sequence. Gel electrophoresis separates the strands based on size, and the results are read *bottom up* to give the complementary sequence of DNA to the template.

Sample Count Method

Method of estimating population in which organisms in a specific area are counted, and then the population density that was counted is multiplied by the total area of the habitat. Works best for plants, bacteria, and non-moving organisms.

DNA Microarray Assays

Method used to determine which genes are being expressed. Researchers isolate small amounts of single stranded DNA (ssDNA). These fragments represent different genes. mRNA molecules from the cells being tested are transcribed back into DNA using reverse transcriptase, and tagged with a fluorescent dye. This cDNA that has been synthesized binds to the ssDNA, which indicates which genes are currently "on" in the cell and producing mRNA.

Methanogens

Microorganisms (archaea) that produce methane as a metabolic byproduct in anoxic conditions. Present in cow rumen, swamps, guts of certain insects, sewage waste, etc. *Present in conditions low in oxygen*

Electron Microscope (EM)

Microscope which focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen or onto its surface. Much more powerful than light microscopes. Electron microscopes kill the cells.

Alveoli

Microscopic chambers at termini of bronchial tree. Walls of simple squamous epithelium overlie basement membrane. Main sites of gas exchange.

Batesian Mimicry

Mimicry in which an edible animal is protected by its resemblance to a noxious one that is avoided by predators.

Sliding Filament Model

Model of muscle contraction in which the length of the sarcomere is reduced because filaments overlap. The A band stays the same length, the I bands shorten, and the H zone within the A band disappears. The Z discs get closer together.

Optimal Foraging Model

Model that proposes that there is a compromise between the benefits of nutrition and the cost of obtaining food. A lion does not feed on ants.

Synthetic Theory of Evolution

Modern day theory of evolution that incorporates both Darwin's theory of evolution and the principles of Mendelian inheritance.

Petal

Modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. Together, all of these in a flower are called a corolla.

Citrate

Molecule found in the citric acid cycle. Coenzyme A from the pyruvate oxidation process of cellular respiration drops off a 2-C Acetyl sugar, which binds to the 4-C oxaloacete to form 6-C ___________.

cAMP (Cyclic AMP)

Molecule often used as a second messenger in cell signaling. It is also used in the lac operon, as levels of this increase when glucose levels are low.

Organic Molecules

Molecules containing carbon and hydrogen.

Isomers

Molecules which have the same chemical formula, but different structures, resulting in vastly different functions.

Nucleotides

Monomer of nucleic acids made up of a phosphate group, pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Aldehyde

Monosaccharides in which the carbonyl group (-CO) is located at the end of a chain.

Ketone

Monosaccharides in which the carbonyl group (-CO) is located internally within a chain.

Identical Twins

Monozygotic twins in which one sperm fertilizes an egg, and the zygote separates into two embryos.

Electrolytes

Most abundant solutes in the blood plasma. Consists of inorganic ions (both cations and anions), such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chloride, phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate. Help to maintain plasma osmotic pressure and blood pH.

Angiosperm (Anthophyta)

Most common plants. Includes leafy trees, grass, flowering plants, etc. Have a fruit surrounding their seed.

Trapezius

Most superficial muscle of anterior thorax. Stabilizes, raises, retracts, and rotates the scapula.

excretory

Nephr- usually indicates the ________ system.

Purkinje Fibers

Nerve fibers that move signals across the heart's ventricles, signaling to the walls of the ventricles to contract. Do not cause the right and left ventricles to contract at the same time, the left ventricle contracts slightly before the right. The left ventricle contraction is the R wave, and the right ventricle contraction is the S wave.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Network of membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes; has rough (ribosome-studded) and smooth regions. Makes up more than 1/2 the membrane in the endomembrane system.

Afferent Neuron

Neurons which carry a signal from receptors to the interneurons.

Interneuron

Neurons which receive the signal from afferent neurons, decide how to respond to the signal, and sends a signal along the efferent pathway.

Endorphins

Neurotransmiters released in the brain. They are peptides that activate the body's opiate receptors, causing a painkilling effect. Responsbile for a runners high. The body's natural opiates.

NAD+

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, a coenzyme that cycles easily between oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) states, thus acting as an electron carrier. When being reduced, takes in 2 electrons, then a hydrogen cation to stabilize it.

Purines

Nitrogenous bases including Adenine and Guanine. Composed of two fused rings.

Atrioventricular Node

Node located between the right atrium and ventricle that allows the heart's left and right ventricles to fill with blood. Represented by the area between P and Q waves on the ECG.

Sinoatrial Node

Node located on the right atrium that signals for the atria to contract and pump blood into the ventricles. Located on the P wave on an ECG.

Abiotic

Non-Living.

neurotransmitter

Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline is a ________________.

Nucleotide Excision Repair

Nuclease enzymes that remove incorrect nucleotides and allow other enzymes to fix it using the correct strand as a template.

Gene Flow

Occurs when a population gains or loses alleles by genetic additions to and/or subtractions from the population. Tends to reduce the genetic differences between populations, making populations more similar.

Disruptive Selection

Occurs when conditions favor individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range rather than individuals with intermediate phenotypes.

Thick Filaments

One of the contractile microfilaments in a myofibril, made up of myosin proteins.

Protostome

One of the major groups in the animal king that consists of : *Arthropods, Molluscs, Annelids, and Insects.* The name means "mouth first" because that is how the embryo develops.

Deuterostome

One of the major groups in the animal kingdom that consists of : *Vertebrata, Cephalochordata, Urochordata, Hemichordata, and Echinodermata.* The name means "mouth second" because that is how the embryo develops.

Hormones

One of the many types of secreted chemicals that are formed in specialized cells. Travel in body fluids and act on specific target cells in other parts of the body, changing the target cell's function. Important in long-distance signaling.

Chromatids

One of the strands of replicated DNA, which is connected to the other at a centromere. The two connected identical strands are referred to as a sister chromatid pair.

Autosomal Dominant Trait

One of the ways a trait, disorder, or disease can be passed down through a family. If you inherit the abnormal gene from only one parent, you can get the disease. Often, one of the parents may also have the disease. Examples include Huntington disease, Marfan syndrome, etc.

Sex-Linked Trait

One of the ways a trait, disorder, or disease can be passed down through a family. It affects males and females differently. A set of diseases related to gene mutations on the X or Y chromosomes. Some common examples include hemophilia and color-blindness.

Autosomal Recessive Trait

One of the ways a trait, disorder, or disease can be passed down through a family. Two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop. Examples include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, etc.

Inducible Operons

Operons that are normally inactive, but can be turned on when a inducer deactivates repressor proteins and turns on expression of the genes. Usually involved in *catabolic* processes.

Lepidoptera

Order of insects with four large wings, covered by scales, they can fly. Includes butterflies and moths.

Orthoptera

Order of insects with four wings, front ones somewhat thickened. Jumping hind legs. Hind wings, when open, spread like fans. Includes grasshoppers and crickets.

Coleoptera

Order of insects with four wings; the first pair thickened or hardened. Includes beetles.

Hymenoptera

Order of insects with hind wings smaller than front wings with few cross veins. Mouth parts not piercing; head joined loosely to thorax. Includes bees, ants, wasps.

Diptera

Order of insects with only one pair of wings; membranous, with conspicuous veins. No abdominal filaments. Includes flies.

Golgi Apparatus

Organelle active in synthesis, modification, sorting, and secretion of cell products such as proteins or lipids. Shipping, receiving, and storing. Many transport vesicles travel from the rough ER to the golgi, modified (e.g. glycoproteins, phospholipids) and stored and sent to other destinations. Golgi apparatus is extensive in cells specialized for secretion (function follows structure).

Mitochondrion

Organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated. Uses oxygen and nutrients to make energy. Surrounded by two membranes (both made up of a phospholipid bilayer), with unique embedded proteins. The outer membrane is smooth, inner membrane has many infoldings called cristae. The number of mitochondria depends on the cell's metabolic activity (more in muscle cells, etc).

Peroxisome

Organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product, then converts it to water. Main function is breaking down long chains of fatty acids. Removes Hydrogen from certain molecules and adds them to O2 to create H202. Contains compartments to keep toxic hydrogen peroxide apart from other substances. CONTAINS CATALASE.

Carotenoids

Organic pigments found in the chloroplasts and chromoplasts of some photosynthetic organisms. Responsible for the bright red, yellow, and orange hues in many fruits and vegetables.

Lignin

Organic polymer that forms important structural materials in the support tissues of vascular plants and some algae. Are particularly important in the formation of cell walls, especially in wood and bark, because they lend rigidity and do not rot easily.

Semelparous

Organisms that are characterized by being able to have a single reproductive episode before death. Big bang reproduction

Iteroparous

Organisms that are characterized by being able to have multiple reproductive episodes before death. *Iterations - repetition*.

Photoautotrophs

Organisms that carry out photosynthesis. Using energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are converted into organic materials to be used in cellular functions such as biosynthesis and respiration. Plants, multicellular alga, unicellular eukaryotes, cyanobacteria, purple sulfur bacteria.

Viviparous

Organisms that give live birth. Ex : Mammals.

Oviparous

Organisms that lay eggs. Examples : Frogs, chickens, penguins, ducks, etc.

K Selection

Organisms that live in a fairly stable environment, are large, have long lifespans, and produce few offspring (most of which survive). *They give much parental care.* Examples include elephants. Uppercase K=large animals.

r Selection

Organisms that live in a fairly unstable environment, are small, and produce many offspring (most of which do *not* survive). *They give little to no parental care.* Examples include sea turtles. Lowercase r=small animals.

Ovoviviparous

Organisms that produce eggs which hatch within their body. Ex : Sharks, snakes.

True Breeding

Organisms that produce offspring of the same variety over many generations of self-pollination. Ex : Self-pollinated purple plants all give rise to plants with purple flowers.

Asymmetry

Organisms which are NOT symmetry on any axis are referred to as showing _________. Examples include sponges and other organisms in the phylum porifera.

Heterotrophs (Consumers)

Organisms which are unable to produce organic substances from inorganic ones. They must rely on an organic source of carbon that has originated as part of another living organism.

Warm-Blooded

Organisms which can maintain a constant body temperature regardless of outside temperature.

Detritivores (Decomposers)

Organisms which consume dead or decaying material. Examples include mushrooms, earthworms, etc.

Autotrophs

Organisms which use CO2 from the atmosphere as their only or primary source of carbon.

Heterotrophs

Organisms which use carbon from organic molecules as their primary source of carbon.

Lithotrophs

Organisms which use inorganic compounds (usually minerals) as an electron donor. For example, plants use water as an electron donor in photosynthesis.

Organotrophs

Organisms which use organic compounds as an electron donor. For example, in aerobic cellular respiration, the electrons from organic fuels are transported by NADH to the electron transport chain.

Chemotrophs

Organisms which use organic molecules as their energy source.

Invertebrates

Organisms without a backbone.

Green Glands (Antennal Glands)

Organs that help carry out excretory functions in crustaceans. These act much like kidneys in humans and help crayfish remain healthy by eliminating toxic substances and waste products in their urinary and circulatory systems.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Outer surface lacks ribosomes. Functions in diverse metabolic processes depending on the cell type. Enzymes are used in lipid synthesis (oils, phospholipids, steroids), enzymes are used to detoxify poisons (especially in the liver), stores calcium ions which can be used in muscle contraction in muscle cells, etc.

Reduction

Oxidation states decrease in number, more negative, gain electrons, gains hydrogens.

Oxidation

Oxidation states increase in number, less negative, loses electrons, loses hydrogens.

Schleiden and Schwann

Pair of scientists that proposed that all plant AND animal life are composed of cells.

Amygdala

Part of the brain that is responsible for the experiencing of emotions, such as anger and fear.

Hippocampus

Part of the brain that is responsible for the storage of long-term memories, part of the limbic system and is involved in emotion.

Hypothalamus

Part of the brain which is involved with many of the survival related behaviors, such as hunger, thirst, sleep. Connects the nervous system to the endocrine system (pituitary gland).

Cerebellum

Part of the brain which is responsible for coordination.

Medulla

Part of the brain which is responsible for regulating involuntary (autonomic) functions, such as breathing, heartbeat, swallowing, sneezing, vomiting, coughing.

Lens

Part of the eye that focuses light rays.

Cornea

Part of the eye that functions as the outermost lens controlling the amount of light coming into the eye.

Iris

Part of the eye that regulates light entrance.

Rosalind Franklin

Partner to Maurice Wilkins, aided Francis and Crick in discovering the structure of DNA using X-ray crystallography. Took the famous photo 51.

Insulin

Peptide hormone which is released by the pancreas when blood sugar gets too high. It tells the body to absorb more sugar from the blood to lower blood sugar. Negative feedback mechanism.

Glucagon

Peptide hormone which is released by the pancreas when blood sugar gets too low. It tells the body to absorb less sugar from the blood to raise blood sugar. Negative feedback mechanism.

in vitro

Performed or taking place in a test tube, culture dish, or elsewhere outside a living organism.

in situ

Performed or taking place in its original position.

20

Pharmaceutical patents last for __ years.

G2 Phase

Phase of interphase following the S phase in which the cell synthesizes a variety of proteins. Most microtubules, proteins that are required for mitosis, are produced during this phase.

S Phase

Phase of interphase in which all of the cell's chromosomes are replicated. Following replication, each chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids

G0 Phase

Phase of interphase in which cells that are not continually replaced remain dormant or deteriorating for an indeterminate period of time. They can re-enter the G1 phase and begin dividing again under specific conditions.

Systole

Phase of the heartbeat where muscles contract and pump blood.

Diastole

Phase of the heartbeat where muscles relax and allow the chambers to fill.

Cyanobacteria

Photoautotrophic bacteria which produce the majority of oxygen in the atmosphere. Marine habitats.

Chloroplasts

Photosynthetic organelle; converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules. Absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water. Divided into three compartments; intermembrane space, thykaloid space, and the stroma.

Diatoms

Photosynthetic plantlike protists that secrete a silicon cell wall, or frustule. They are found in almost every aquatic environment and may be single celled or form colonies.

Chordata

Phylum of organisms that have a notochord, pharyngeal slits, dorsal nerve cord, post anal tail. Examples include amphibians, reptiles, fish, birds, mammals.

Chrysophyceae

Phylum of plantlike protists that includes golden/golden-brown algae. They often live in aquatic environments and move with flagella.

Basidiomycota

Phylum within the kingdom fungi that form spores in club-shaped cells. Usually reproduce sexually. Are important decomposers. Mainly multicellular, they include *all* commercially grown mushrooms. Examples include chanterelle, death-caps, puffball mushrooms, etc.

Glomeromycota

Phylum within the kingdom fungi that take part in a plantroot-fungus partnership called *mycorrhizae.* Its hypha grows into a root and branches into the root cell walls.

Microsporidia

Phylum within the kingdom fungi which are intracellular parasites that infect animals using a coiled polar tube to inject their nucleus and cytoplasm.

Zygomycota

Phylum within the kingdom fungi, many of which are molds that grow over or through organisms as a mass of asexually reproducing hyphae. Examples include hat throwers and Rhizopus.

Accessory Pigments

Pigments responsible for broadening the spectrum of light which can be absorbed, transferring energy to chlorophyll a, and protecting against damage from high light energy. Examples include chlorophyll b and beta carotene.

Eutherians

Placental mammals. One of two mammalian clades with extant members that diverged in the Early Cretaceous or perhaps the Late Jurassic period.

Cork Cells

Plant cells that form the protective water-resistant tissue in the outer covering of stems or trunks. Do not divide, and are considered dead cells (similar to the keratinocytes in the epidermis of humans).

Tropism

Plant growth response from hormones that results in the plant growing either towards (positive) or away (negative) from a stimulus.

Abscisic Acid

Plant growth substance that generally slows growth, often acting antagonistically to other hormones. Promotes seed dormancy, and is involved in closing stomata.

Cytokinin

Plant growth substance that promotes cell division, or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots. Opposed to apical bud development, favors development of lateral bud.

Auxin

Plant growth substance that promotes cell elongation. Opposed to lateral bud development, favors development of apical buds. Also involved in *phototropism*. *A*uxin = *A*pical

Gibberelins

Plant growth substance that stimulates shoot elongation, seed *g*ermination, and fruit and flower maturation.

Herbivore

Plant-eater. Heterotroph.

Bryophytes (Bryophyta)

Plants that contain no xylem or phloem, and are seedless. When the spore from a moss germinates is it known as a protonema. Examples include mosses, liverworts.

Seedless Vascular Plants (Pterophyta)

Plants that contain vascular tissue, but are seedless. Examples include ferns.

C4 Plants

Plants that fix carbon TWICE using PEP Carboxylase in TWO cells. Mesophyll and bundle sheath.

CAM Plants

Plants that fix carbon TWICE using the SAME cell. Opens stomata at night.

Long Day Plants (Short Night)

Plants that require only a short night to flower. Form flowers only when day length is *greater than* about 12 hours. Examples include asters, coneflowers, California poppies, lettuce, spinach and potatoes. *Summer plants.*

C4 Plants

Plants which have adapted to combat photorespiration by fixing carbon dioxide into a 4 carbon organic acid (malate) using PEP carboxylase in the mesophyll cells, and then releasing 3-C pyruvate (which continues the cycle) and CO2. The CO2 is released into the bundle sheath cells, where they can go through the calvin cycle to produce sugars. Examples include corn, sugarcane, etc.

CAM Plants

Plants which have adapted to combat photorespiration by opening their stomata during the nighttime (when it is cool and water will not evaporate) and taking in CO2. They then fix the CO2 into an organic acid (temporarily), which is stored and can be used during the day to go through the calvin cycle. Examples include *cacti, pineapples, aloe vera, orchids*, etc.

C3 Plants

Plants which have no adaptations to combat photorespiration. They thrive in cool, wet, temperate climates. Examples include wheat, rice, etc.

Chromoplasts

Plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and storage.

Leucoplasts

Plastids responsible for starch or oil storage. Includes amyloplasts, elaioplasts, proteinoplasts.

Starch

Polysaccharide consisting of a large number of glucose molecules joined together. Main storage unit in plants, for example, potatoes. *MADE OF ALPHA GLUCOSE.*

Cellulose

Polysaccharide which forms the structural component of plant cell walls. *MADE OF ALPHA AND BETA GLUCOSE.*

Hybrid Inviability

Post-zygotic isolating mechanism in which hybrids are produced between two species but fail to develop to reproductive maturity.

Hybrid Infertility

Post-zygotic isolating mechanism in which hybrids fail to produce functional gametes.

Hybrid Breakdown

Post-zygotic isolating mechanism in which the F1 hybrids are fertile but the F2 generation fail to develop or are infertile.

Temporal Isolation

Pre-zygotic isolating mechanism in which two species mate or flower at different times of the year.

Behavioral Isolation

Pre-zygotic isolating mechanism in which two species respond to different specific courtship patterns.

Allo-

Prefix meaning "other," or "different." For example, allosteric site (other than active site), or allopatric speciation (geographic separation).

Strepto-

Prefix that indicates a chain of bacteria.

Staphylo-

Prefix that indicates a non-symmetrical arrangement of bacteria, like a cluster of grapes.

Diplo-

Prefix that indicates two bacteria.

Gene Cloning

Process by which scientists can produce multiple segments of DNA. Insert a foreign DNA fragment into a plasmid using restriction enzymes and DNA ligase, then insert the plasmid into the bacteria and allow the bacteria to reproduce to copy the DNA.

Cooperativity

Process by which the binding of the first substrate molecule affects the binding of subsequent substrate molecules. Can be positive or negative.

Methylation

Process by which the chromatin materal becomes more tightly packed, into heterochromatin.

Scarification

Process designed to make the seed coat of plants more permeable to water and gases.

Transduction

Process in which a bacterial phage transports DNA from another bacterium.

Decarboxylation

Process in which a carboxyl (COOH-) functional group is removed and CO2 is released.

Primary Growth

Process in which a plant grows lengthwise from the roots and shoots. Occurs in the apical meristematic tissue in the terminal bud. Undifferentiated cells in the terminal bud/root tip divide and eventually begin to differentiate to give rise to mature tissue.

Conjugation

Process in which a sex pilus forms between bacteria and a plasmid is transported. F+ cell, referred to as the male, contains the specific plasmid. It transports the plasmid to the F- cell, the "female," converting it to an F+ cell.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Process in which species are in apparent stasis puncuated by sudden change observed in the fossil record.

Gradualism

Process in which species descended from a common ancestor and gradually diverge more and more in morphology as they acquire unique adaptations.

Cloning

Process in which the nucleus of an egg is removed and replaced with he diploid nucleus of a body cell, which simulates the fertilization of an egg by a sperm. The result is an undifferentiated cell with a complete set of DNA, it can develop into an organism.

Countercurrent Exchange

Process of gas exchange in which blood flows in an opposite direction to oxygen in order to maximize the absorption of oxygen.

Repolarization

Process that occurs after depolarization once the membrane potential reaches +30 mV, and voltage-gated Na+ channels close, voltage-gated K+ channels open and a large amount of K+ leaves the cell, bringing the membrane potential back down to a negative value, with the inside of the cell being more negatively charged. Becomes too negative with the K+ channels, so Na+ and K+ leak channels let in more ions to reestablish the membrane potential to -70 mV (resting potential).

Glycolysis

Process that occurs in the cytosol which breaks glucose (6-Carbon) down into two molecules of pyruvate. OCCURS IN THE CYTOSOL.

Depolarization

Process that occurs when the membrane potential reaches the threshold of -55 mV and voltage-gated Na+ channels are opened to allow a large influx of Na+ into the cell, thus moving the membrane potential towards and above zero, until reaching a membrane potential of +30 mV.

Quorum Sensing

Process used by bacteria to determine the population density of their species in a local area. Each bacterium produces a ligand. Once the concentration of that ligand reaches a critical concentration, all bacteria will respond simultaneously.

Mismatch Repair

Process where specific enzymes remove and replace incorrectly placed enzymes.

Microvilli

Projections that increase a cell's surface area.

Central Vacuole

Prominent organelle in older plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of waste products, hydrolysis of macromolecules; enlargement of vacuole is a major mechanism of plant growth. Stores water, amino acids, toxins, wastes, etc.

Depth of Focus

Property that is measured as the distance from the nearest object plane in focus to the farthest object plane that is simultaneously in focus. Declines as magnification increases.

Fibrin

Proteins found in the blood plasma that are vital to forming blood clots and stopping bleeding. Forms a protein mesh across the ruptured blood vessel.

Single-Stranded Binding Proteins

Proteins that bind to the newly separated strands of DNA, and keeps them from forming new hydrogen bonds and rejoining.

Heat-Shock Proteins

Proteins that function as molecular chaperones which facilitate the synthesis and folding of proteins that would normally be denatured in extreme heat.

Interferons

Proteins that prevent viral replication, they *interfere* with the replication of viruses. Type of cytokine.

Contractile Vacuoles

Pumps excess water out of the cell to maintain a suitable concentration of ions and molecules.

piRNA

RNA that is responsible for reestablishing methylation patterns in the DNA during gamete formation.

Hydrologic

Rain, transpiration, evaporation, and condensation are parts of the ____ cycle.

Parapatric Speciation

Rare form of speciation which occurs when populations are separated not by a geographical barrier, such as a body of water, but by an extreme change in habitat.

Galactosemia

Rare metabolic disorder that affects a person's ability to metabolize galactose properly.

Hydrolysis

Reactions that use water to split large molecules.

Catobolite Activator Protein (CAP)

Receptor protein that is activated by cAMP, which is high in concentration when glucose levels are low. This complex promotes the transcription of the lactose operon when low in glucose.

Bacilli

Rectangular or rod-shaped bacteria.

Erythrocytes

Red cells in the blood that contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen, makes up 45% of the blood. Has a biconcave disc shape, making it ideal for gas exchange. Removes its nucleus and organelles to make more room for hemoglobin.

Hybridization

Refers to the mating, or crossing, of two true-breeding varieties. For example : Crossing true breeding white flowers with true breeding purple flowers.

Fovea

Region in the retina where cones are most concentrated.

Glomerolus

Region of capillaries in a nephron that is enclosed by Bowman's Capsule.

Wernicke's Area

Region of the brain that is involved in the understanding of written and spoken language.

Centrosome

Region where the cell's microtubules are produced & initiated; contains a pair of centrioles. Regulates and controls the cell division cycle. Only present in animal cells, not plant cells.

Cytoskeleton

Reinforces cell's shape; functions in cell movement; components are made of protein. Includes : Microfilaments, Intermediate microfilaments, and microtubules.

Hydrogen Bonds

Relatively weak bonds that form between the partial positively charged hydrogen atom of one molecule and the strongly electronegative oxygen or nitrogen of another molecule. Intermolecular bond.

Dikaryotic

Reproductive phase in many fungi in which there are two genetically distinct nuclei within the same cell. *2 nuclei.*

Competitive Inhibitors

Reversible inhibitors to an enzyme that compete with the substrate for the active site on the enzyme. Often chemically very similar to the normal substrate molecule and reduce the efficiency of the enzyme.

rRNA

Ribosomal RNA; RNA that makes up the two subunits of ribosomes. Produced in the nucleolus inside the nucleus.

Cell Wall

Rigid structure outside the plasma membrane. Gives the cell shape. Made of cellulose in plant cells and peptidoglycan in bacteria.

Casparian Strips

Ring-like, hydrophobic cell wall impregnations. These impregnations occur in the endodermis, an inner cell layer that surrounds the central vascular strand of roots.

Trabeculae Carnae

Rounded or irregular muscular columns which project from the inner surface of the right and left ventricles of the heart.

Hamilton's Rule

Rule in which kin selection causes genes to increase in frequency when the genetic relatedness of a recipient to an actor multiplied by the benefit to the recipient is greater than the reproductive cost to the actor. *Relatedness x Benefit > Cost*

David Ho

Scientist responsible for the creation of the AIDS cocktail.

Barbara McClintock

Scientists credited with the discovery of transposable elements in the genome. Studied Indian corn.

Ileum

Second part of the maze-like section of the small intestine. Monomers that were previously broken down are absorbed here and sent to the liver.

Intermediate Species

Second stage in ecological succession in which a greater variety and number of organisms move into a habitat due to changes, such as more fertile soil or less extreme temperatures.

cDNA

Segments of DNA without introns.

Bulbs

Short sections of underground stems that are encased by overlapping layers of thick, modified leaves. Used for storage and protection.

Juxtacrine Signaling

Signaling in which a cell has the signaling molecule on its surface and the target cell is affected by direct contact with it.

Autocrine Signaling

Signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger that binds to receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell.

Synaptic Signaling

Signaling in which an electrical signal moving along a nerve cell triggers the secretion of neurotransmitter molecules carrying a chemical signal. Molecules diffuse across the synapse and trigger a response in the target cell.

Paracrine Signaling

Signaling in which cells release signals that affect nearby target cells.

Endocrine Signaling

Signaling in which signaling hormones are sent through the bloodstream to act upon distant target cells in the body.

DNA Ligase

Since DNA polymerase cannot connect a nucleotide to the RNA primer when it reaches the next one, it forms fragments known as Okazaki fragments, which this enzyme connects together.

A Site

Site on the ribosome which holds the tRNA that carries the amino acid that will be added to the chain next.

E Site

Site on the ribosome which is the exit site for each tRNA.

Hyaline Cartilage

Skeletal cartilage that provides support with flexibility and resistance. Most abundant skeletal cartilages. Includes : Articular cartilages, costal cartilages, respiratory cartilages, and nasal cartilages.

Appendicular Skeleton

Skeleton consisting of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles (shoulder bones and hip bones) that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. Helps us move from place to place and manipulate our environment.

Axial Skeleton

Skeleton forming the long axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. These bones generally protect, support, or carry other body parts.

Filament

Slender structure underneath the anther which supports the anther.

Parathyroid Gland

Small endocrine glands located within the thyroid gland which are responsible for regulating blood calcium levels. When blood calcium gets too low, it will release hormones to stimulate osteoclasts (bone resorbing cells) to break down bone, while increase the levels of blood calcium.

Which molecules can pass through the lipid bilayer without the use of a transport protein?

Small, non-polar, uncharged molecules can easily pass through the plasma membrane by dissolving in the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. Examples include O2.

Second Messengers

Small, nonprotein water-soluble molecules or ions which, once activated, can initiate a phosphorylation cascade resulting in a cellular response. Examples include Calcium ions (Ca2+) and cyclic AMP (cAMP).

poor

Soil in tropical rainforests is generally nutrient-____.

Antibodies

Soluble forms of antigen receptors which B cells release to help defend against pathogens. Made up of two heavy chains and two light chains, having a constant and a variable portion (specific to the pathogen). Mark pathogens for destruction or deactivation.

Hypertonic Solution

Solution in which a cell will lose water to its surroundings. More solute in the water around the cell. Cell may shrivel and die. In plants, the cell wall does not move, but the contents within the cell do.

Isotonic Solution

Solution in which there will be no net movement of water. Water moves at the same rate in both directions. Equal concentrations.

Bases

Solutions with an excess of OH- ions and a pH above 7.0

Bathypelagic Zone

Sometimes referred to as the *midnight zone* or the dark zone. This zone extends from 1,000 meters (3,281 feet) down to 4,000 meters (13,124 feet). Here the only visible light is that produced by the creatures themselves.

Aquaporins

Special transport proteins which move water through the membrane. Greatly increase rate at which water can cross membranes.

Pioneer Species

Species of organisms that engage in primary succession, first to recolonize a habitat after a disaster. Can usually withstand the harsh environments present after a disaster. For example, lichen growing on rocks after a volcano eruption.

Brassica Oleracea

Species of wild cabbage that was artificially selected for different parts to eventually produce the vegetables : broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, and kale.

Keystone Species

Species that exert control on community structure by their important ecological niche. Without them, everything falls apart.

Myocardium

Spiral bundles of contractile cardiac muscle cells.

Spirilla

Spiral-shaped bacteria.

Porifera

Sponges are animals of the phylum Porifera. They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells. They can produce *gemmules* which are tough-coated clusters of embryonic cells for protection. Pori --> Pores

Dicots

Squash are classified as ______.

Dictyosome

Stacks of flat, membrane-bound cavities that together comprise the Golgi apparatus.

Totipotent

Stem cells are capable of giving rise to any cell type or a complete embryo.

Multipotent

Stem cells that can develop into multiple types of cells, but are limited. Examples of these include adult stem cells, such as those in the bone marrow.

Pluripotent

Stem cells that can give rise to all of the cell types of the body. These include embryonic stem cells.

Stolons

Stems that branch from the main stem and grow horizontally along the surface of the ground. Look like roots, but are not. Present in *strawberry plants*.

Estrogen

Steroid hormone in females which plays a large part in fertility, controlling the menstrual cycle, and puberty. Produced by the ovaries.

Testosterone

Steroid hormone mainly in males which plays a large part in sexual development during puberty and fertility, sperm production, muscle size and strength, etc. Produced by the testes.

Transposons

Stretches of DNA in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes that can move from one location to another in the genome with the aid of a specific enzyme. Depending on where they are moved to, they can influence gene expression. Can interrupt genes if placed in them, or alter it if placed next to a regulatory element.

Sepal

Structure enclosing the petals and which are typically green and leaflike. They enclose the flower in the flower bud.

Nucleus

Structure found in eukaryotic cells containing most of the cell's genetic material (some genes are located in mitochondria and chloroplasts). Command center.

Roots

Structure in plants that grows downwards into the soil and which the main function is to take up water and mineral ions from the soil. Also function in anchoring plants in the soil.

Node

Structure located on the stem of plants, which can hold one or more leaves, as well as buds which can grow into branches.

Secondary Structure of Proteins

Structure of proteins that refers to one of two three-dimensional shapes that are the result of hydrogen bonding between members of the polypeptide backbone (not the amino acid side chains). Includes Alpha helice (coiled shape, like slinky) and Beta pleated sheets (an accordion shape).

Quaternary Structure of Proteins

Structure of proteins that refers to the association of two or more polypeptide chains into one large protein.

Tertiary Structure of Proteins

Structure of proteins that results in a complex globular shape due to interactions between the side chains (R groups), such as hydrophobic interactions, vad der Waals interactions, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.

Replication Fork

Structure present twice at each origin of replication, where the two strands separate, forming a junction.

Homologous Structures

Structures that develop in the same way because they are inherited from a common ancestor.

Analagous Structures

Structures that have the same function but have not derived from a common ancestor and have undergone different paths of development.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Studded with ribosomes, appears rough. Many cell types secrete proteins produced by ribosomes on the rough ER (e.g. pancreatic cells produce insulin). Secretory proteins (such as insulin, collagens, enzymes, and toxins) are released from the ER wrapped in transport vesicles that bud from the transitional ER region. Rough ER is a membrane factory; adds membrane proteins and phospholipids to its own membrane.

Urochordata

Subphylum of chordata including tunicates, sea squirts.

Cephalochordata

Subphylum of chordata. Lancelets (have the notochord, pharyngeal slits, dorsal nerve cord and post anal tail ONLY in the larval stage).

Vertebrata

Subphylum of chordata. Represent the vast majority of the phylum chordata. Notochord, nerve cord, postanal tail, pharyngeal slits present at least in embryonic stages.

Buffers

Substances that minimize changes in pH. Accept H+ from solution when they are in excess and donate H+ when they are depleted.

Atria

Superior chambers of the heart that receive blood from veins and push it into the ventricles.

Echinodermata

Symmetrical; a phylum of marine animals found at any depth; e.g., feather star, sea stars, sea urchin, sand dollar.

Endomembrane System

System made up of the many different membranes of the eukaryotic cell, including: Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, various kinds of vesicles and vacuoles, and the plasma membrane. *Does not include mitochondria*

Gene Therapy

Technique Involving introducing genes into an afflicted individual for treating disorders due to a single defective gene.

Incisors

Teeth which are responsible for biting food.

Molars

Teeth which are responsible for crushing and grinding food.

Canines

Teeth which are responsible for tearing food.

Pseudopods

Temporary cytoplasm filled projections of eukaryotic cell membranes or unicellular protists. Amoeba use this to move.

Mutualism

Term describing a symbiotic situation in which both organisms involved benefit.

Commensalism

Term describing a symbiotic situation in which one organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed.

Parasitism

Term describing a symbiotic situation in which one organism lives on a host, thereby hurting the host.

Coevolution

Term that is used to describe cases where two (or more) species reciprocally affect each other's evolution. So for example, an evolutionary change in the morphology of a plant, might affect the morphology of an herbivore that eats the plant, which in turn might affect the evolution of the plant, which might affect the evolution of the herbivore...and so on.

Arachnoid Mater

The *secondmost* meninge layer surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Pia Mater

The *thirdmost* mininge layer surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Right-Handed Helix

The DNA double helix is a _____-______ _____, meaning the side facing you runs upwards and to the right.

Provirus

The DNA of a retrovirus that the virus uses reverse transcriptase to permanently embed into the host cell's genome.

Promoter

The DNA sequence at which RNA polymerase attaches to; with the help of transcription factors in eukaryotes. TATA Box.

Terminator

The DNA sequence that signals the end of transcription. AAUAAA.

Chromatin

The DNA-protein complex located in the nucleus which forms when DNA is coiled around histone proteins in the nucleus.

Pleiotropy

The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects.

Bioaccumulation

The accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other chemicals in an organism. Occurs when an organism absorbs a possibly toxic substance at a rate faster than the substance is lost.

Tidal Volume (TV)

The amount of air inspired during normal, relaxed breathing. About 500 mL.

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)

The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration (FRC = RV + ERV). About 2,400 mL.

Activation Energy

The amount of energy it takes to start a reaction-the energy needed to break the bonds of the reactant molecules. Lowered by catalysts.

Specific Heat

The amount of heat required to raise or lower the temperature of a substance by 1° C.

Annelida

The annelids, also known as the ringed worms or segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 17,000 extant species including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches.

Home Range

The area where an animal spends its time; it is the region that encompasses all the resources the animal requires to survive and reproduce.

Phytoplankton

The autotrophic components of the plankton community and a key part of oceans, seas and freshwater basin ecosystems. Free floating.

Sarcomere

The basic contractile units of muscle. Run from Z-disc to Z-disc.

Myosin-actin Binding Cycle

The binding cycle that occurs between myosin and actin that results in contraction of sarcomeres. When ATP is bound to myosin heads, it is *not* bound to actin, when ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP, myosin binds to actin and the sarcomere can contract.

First Line of Defense

The body's line of defense consisting of physical and chemical barriers that are always ready to fight off infection. Includes skin, tears, mucus, cilia, stomach acid, lysozymes, flushing of urine, etc.

Second Line of Defense

The body's line of defense consisting of the immune response that fights off pathogenic invasion. Includes white blood cells such as neutrophils, lymphocytes (T and B), monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.

Bowman's Capsule

The capsule that covers the glomerolus in a nephron.

Beta-oxidation

The catabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down. It yields acetyl-CoA which enters the citric acid cycle.

Endocytosis

The cell forms new vesicles from the plasma membrane; allows the cell to take in macromolecules. Examples include the engulfing of foreign particles by white blood cells.

Sarcolemma

The cell membrane of muscle fibers.

Stele

The central part of the root or stem containing the tissues derived from the procambium. These include vascular tissue, in some cases ground tissue (pith) and a pericycle.

Response

The change in a specific cellular activity brought about by a transduced signal from outside the cell. Examples of responses include gene regulation, protein synthesis, cell division or apoptosis, etc.

Carbon Cycle

The circulation and transformation of carbon back and forth between living things and the environment. Plants take CO2 out of the atmosphere and release oxygen. The carbon dioxide is converted into carbon compounds that make up the plant. Animals eat the plants, breath in the oxygen, and exhale carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide created by animals is then available for plants to use in photosynthesis. Carbon stored in plants that are not eaten by animals eventually decomposes after the plants die, and is either released into the atmosphere or stored in the soil.Large quantities of carbon can be released to the atmosphere through geologic processes like volcanic eruptions and other natural changes that destabilize carbon sinks.

Plasma

The clear, yellow-ish colored liquid portion of the blood that remains after red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other cellular components are removed.

Central Nervous System

The complex of nerve tissues that controls the activities of the body. In vertebrates it comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Telomere

The compound structure located at the end of a chromosome. May possibly be the reason for aging; when they shorten enough, cell division stops. Help prevent genes at the end of the chromosome from being lost.

Ectopic Pregnancy

The condition in which a fertilized egg implants in the uterine (Fallopian) tubes rather than the uterus, causing abdominal pain and vaginal bleeding.

Blood

The connective tissue fluid circulating through the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries of the circulatory system that carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body and removes waste materials and carbon dioxide.

Transduction

The conversion of a signal from outside the cell to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response.

Photosynthesis

The conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in sugars or other organic compounds; occurs in plants, algae, and certain prokaryotes.

Vernalization

The cooling of seed during germination in order to accelerate flowering when it is planted.

Epidermis, Cortex, Stele

The correct order of cells in a dicot root moving from the outside to the center is :

Epidermis, Cortex, Endodermis, Pericycle, Pith

The correct order of cells in a monocot root moving from the outside to the center is :

Adaptive Radiation

The diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling ecological niches. This would occur after a mass extinction event; animals that survive the extinction fill the spaces left by the extinct animals, and increase in biodiversity.

Cotransport

The energy needed to transport a molecule (such as glucose) against its concentration gradient, from low to high concentration, is provided by an ion moving with its concentration gradient to balance it out.

Potential Energy

The energy that an object possesses as a result of its location or spatial arrangement (structure). Can possess energy due to its height or arrangement of electrons in bonds.

Hyperplasia

The enlargement of an organ or tissue caused by an increase in the reproduction rate of its cells, often as an initial stage in the development of cancer.

Transcription Unit

The entire stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule.

RNA Polymerase II

The enzyme that is responsible for transcribing DNA into long strands of mRNA to leave the nucleus for translation or other functions.

RNA Polymerase I

The enzyme that is responsible for transcribing the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in the nucleolus.

Transposase

The enzyme which facilitates the movement of transposable elements of DNA to different locations in the genome.

Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

The enzyme-catalyzed formation of ATP by direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism. Occurs in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.

Paleozoic

The first major era in the history of life on earth, lasting about 291 million years. (From 542 mya to 251 mya). Consisted of the periods : Edicaran, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian.

Prophase

The first phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears.

Epiglottis

The flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe. Made up of elastic cartilage.

Platyhelminthes

The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes, or platyhelminths are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates. Examples include planaria, tapeworms, flukes.

Transcription

The formation of a messenger RNA molecule that carries genetic code from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of a cell.

Telophase

The fourth (and final) phase of mitosis in which the chromatids move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed (the nuclear envelope reforms).

Truffles

The fruiting body of a subterranean Ascomycete fungus, predominantly one of the many species of the genus Tuber. They are ectomycorrhizal fungi.

Fiddlehead

The furled fronds of a young fern, harvested for use as a vegetable.

Prothallus

The gametophyte of ferns and other primitive plants.

Net Primary Production

The gross primary production minus the energy used by the primary producers for their respiration. *GPP - R*.

Rotator Cuff Muscles

The group of muscles that includes the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis. (*S.I.t.S.*).

Gravitropism

The growth of a plant in response to gravity. If its positive it will grow towards the source of gravity, if its negative it will grow away from gravity.

Phototropism

The growth of a plant shoot in a certain direction in response to light. If it's positive it grows towards light (cells away from light elongate), if it's negative it grows away from light. Auxins active proton pumps, which make the cell wall acidic, weakening it and allowing turgor pressure to expand the cell wall.

Active Immunity

The immunity that results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen. Can be naturally acquired by getting a disease or artificially acquired by vaccination.

Allometric Growth

The increase in size of different organs or parts of an organism at various rates.

Biomagnification

The increasing concentration of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain.

Cristae

The infoldings on the inner membrane of the mitochondria, they give the mitochondrial membrane a higher surface area which increases the productivity of cellular respiration because proteins functioning in respiration are built into the inner membrane.

Pinocytosis

The ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell membrane.

Carbon Fixation

The initial incorporation of CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic prokaryote).

Cytoplasm

The interior of either cell type. Eukaryotic --> Region between the nucleus and plasma membrane. Organelles are suspended in the cytosol here. Prokaryotic --> Everything present inside the cell.

Compartmentalization

The interior of eukaryotic cells are divided by internal membranes to separate the cell into compartments which provide different local environments that facilitate specific metabolic functions, so incompatible functions can go on simultaneously inside the cell.

Saltatory Conduction

The jumping of nerve impulses between nodes of Ranvier to speed up the conduction of the nerve impulse.

Colon

The large intestine; contains an ascending, transverse, and descending region. Absorbs water, vitamins, minerals, etc. from the remaining substance not absorbed in the small intestine. Contains many bacteria which help with this process.

Proteomics

The large-scale study of proteins. Studies the proteome, the entire set of proteins, produced or modified by an organism or system.

Ascomycota

The largest phylum within the kingdom fungi, they range from being microscopic to the size of mushrooms. Their key characteristic is the production of spores in the sac-like asci. *asci*=*asco*mycota. A major example of this is yeasts.

Corona Radiata

The layer of cells surrounding an egg cell, directly adjacent to the zona pellucida. The purpose of these cells is to supply vital proteins to the egg cell.

Leaves

The main organs of photosynthesis in most flowering plant species. Also function in gas exchange. Often attached to a stem with a structure called a petiole.

Nervous Tissue

The main tissue component of the two parts of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity.

Stamen

The male fertilizing organ of a flower, typically consisting of a pollen-containing anther and a filament.

Lenticels

The many raised pores in the stem of a woody plant that allows gas exchange between the atmosphere and the internal tissues.

Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

The maximum amount of air that can be inspired (IC = TV + IRV). About 3,600 mL.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

The maximum amount of air that can fill the lungs (TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV). About 6,000 mL.

Resting Potential

The membrane potential of a cell when it is not firing an action potential, the membrane potential is kept around -70 mV and is sustained with the help of the Na+/K+ pump, as well as sodium and potassium leak channels.

Threshold Potential

The membrane potential which must be reached in order for an action potential to be sent. Must be -55 mV. This occurs when excitatory changes, such as more Na+ ions coming into the cell, cause the membrane potential to decrease back towards zero. When a cell reaches this membrane potential, it will always fire an action potential.

Vitelline Membrane

The membrane surrounding an egg cell, it is located inbetween the zona pellucida and the plasma membrane of the ovum. It forms *directly* after a sperm cell fertilizes the egg.

Extracellular Matrix

The meshwork surrounding animal cells, consisting of glycoproteins, polysaccharides, and proteoglycans synthesized and secreted by the cells.

Transpirational Pull

The method by which water moves up the plant through the xylem. Transpiration in the leaves creates a negative pressure which pulls water up the xylem (depends on cohesion and adhesion).

Translocation

The method of transportation of sugars through the phloem from the leaves. Sugars are removed from source cells into sieve tubes, which increases concentration in the phloem (lowers water potential). Water moves into the phloem to dilute, creating a positive pressure that moves sugars down to sink cells.

Carl Woese

The microbiologist that is known for using rRNA comparisons to divide living organisms into three domains (Bacteria, Archeae, and Eukarya).

Mollusca

The molluscs compose the large phylum of invertebrate animals known as the Mollusca. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized. Molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms. Examples include snails, squids, octopuses.

Amino Acids

The monomer of proteins; contain a central carbon bonded to a carboxyl group at one end, an amino group at the other end, a hydrogen atom, and an R group.

Monosaccharides

The monomers of carbohydrates. Examples : glucose (C6H12O6) and ribose (C5H10O5).

Nitrogen

The most abundant gas in the atmosphere.

Glutamate

The most abundant neurotransmitter in the nervous system. Involved in memory, thought process, movement, etc. It is used by *every excitatory function in the human brain*. Functions in *EVERY* organism with a nervous sytem.

Achondroplasia

The most common type of short-limbed dwarfism. It is passed down as an autosomal *dominant* trait.

Chemotaxis

The movement of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus. Somatic cells, bacteria, and other single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. Cells may move towards sources of food, and away from poisons.

Vertical Gene Transfer

The movement of genetic information between organisms through the transmission of DNA from parent to offspring (progeny).

Horizontal Gene Transfer

The movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than through the transmission of DNA from parent to offspring.

Cytoplasmic Streaming

The movement of the fluid substance (cytoplasm) within a plant or animal cell. The motion transports nutrients, proteins, and organelles within cells. Occurs when organelles move along actin filaments.

Transpiration

The movement of water up the very thin xylem tubes and their evaporation from the stomata in plants. Water molecules cling to eachother by cohesion and to the walls of the xylem tubes by adhesion.

Nematoda

The nematodes or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a very broad range of environments. Examples include hookworms, pinworms, ascaris.

Hypoglossal Nerve

The nerve that innervates the muscles in the tongue and is involved in motor movement.

Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

The normal path of electrons in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Protein Synthesis

The nucleus synthesizes messenger RNA (mRNA) according to instructions given by the DNA. mRNA is transported to the cytoplasm and ribosomes translate the mRNA's genetic message into the primary structure of a specific polypeptide. *Cells high in protein synthesis have a large number of ribosomes and have prominent nucleoli.

Density

The number of individuals per unit area or volume. Population/Area.

Carrying Capacity (K)

The number of people, other living organisms, or crops that a region can support without environmental degradation.

Second Filial Generation (F2)

The offspring that come about from asexual reproduction (self-pollination) or sexual reproduction (cross-pollination with other F1) of the F1 generation.

Oceanic Zone

The open ocean zone, not a very productive ecosystem.

environmental

The opening and closing of stomata is controlled by _____________ factors.

Blastopore

The opening into the gastrula. In protostomes this develops into the mouth, while in deuterostomes it develops into the anus.

Ectoderm

The outer embryonic tissue layer. In humans, forms the skin, nails, teeth, nervous sytem, and sense organs.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of a plant root. Forms the boundary between the plant and the external environment.

Miller and Urey

The pair of scientists from the University of Chicago that provided evidence for the primordial soup theory of life by creating simple amino acid monomers from inorganic substances that would be present in the earth's early atmosphere.

Pericarp

The part of a fruit formed from the wall of the ripened ovary.

Active Site

The part of the enzyme that binds to the substrate.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.

Anther

The part of the stamen in a flower that contains the pollen.

Ethyl Alcohol Fermentation

The partial degradation of sugars that occurs without the use of oxygen which produces ethyl alcohol. Occurs in cells such as yeast.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

The partial degradation of sugars that occurs without the use of oxygen which produces lactic acid. Occurs in animal cells (such as muscle cells) and prokaryotes.

Refractory Period

The period after an action potential is fired in which the membrane must be repolarized and get back to a resting membrane potential of -70 mV before firing again.

Heterozygote Advantage

The phenomenon in which individuals who are heterozygous at a specific locus have an advantage for survival. For example, carriers of the gene for sickle-cell disease do not have sickle-cell anemia, and they also have resistance to malaria.

Wild-Type

The phenotype most commonly observed in natural populations; also refers to the individual with that phenotype.

Chlorophyll a

The pigment that participates directly in the light reactions. It contains a atom of *magnesium* in the center of the molecule.

Chiasma

The point at which homologous chromosomes crossover during Prophase I of meiosis.

Centromere

The point on a chromosome by which it is attached to a spindle fiber during cell division.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The principle of conservation of energy. Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. Ex : Plants convert sunlight energy to chemical energy.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The principle stating that every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. Usable forms of energy are at least partly converted to heat.

Parthenogenesis

The process in which a female produces eggs that develop *without* being fertilized. For example, male bees.

Facilitated Diffusion

The process in which ions and hydrophilic substances diffuse across the cell membrane down their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins (either channel or carrier proteins). Does NOT require ATP.

Photophosphorylation

The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of chemiosmosis, using a proton-motive force generated across the thykaloid membrane of the chloroplast or the membrane of certain prokaryotes during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Autophagy

The process of lysosomes using hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell's own organic material. Damaged organelle or small amount of cytosol is enclosed in a double membrane, the lysosome joins on and an enzyme breaks down the enclosed material and sends it into the cytosol.

Divergent Evolution

The process whereby members of a species become more and more different, eventually resulting in two (or more) new species.

Convergent Evolution

The process whereby organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments.

Parallel Evolution

The process whereby two related species evolve from a common ancestor and develop in similar ways due to similar environmental pressures.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration. Accounts for ~90% of the ATP generated by respiration. OCCURS IN THE INTERMEMBRANE SPACE.

Mitosis Promoting Factor (MPF)

The protein complex that is formed when cyclin proteins associate and activate cyclin-dependent kinases. This activation allows the cell to pass through the G1 checkpoint of mitosis.

Tropomyosin

The protein filament found on thin actin filaments that is moved by troponin after Ca2+ is bound to the troponin. This movement allows myosin heads to attach to G-actin subunits.

Troponin

The protein found on thin actin filaments that Ca2+ binds to in order to move tropomyosin so that myosin heads could attach to subunits on G-actin subunits.

Flagellin

The protein that makes up bacterial flagella, unlike eukaryotic flagella which are made up of tubulin in a 9+2 arrangement.

H Zone

The region in the center of a sarcomere, located within the A band, in which the myosin and actin filaments no longer overlap.

Acrosome

The region in the head of the sperm that contains digestive enzymes, which are released when the sperm penetrates the egg. These enzymes are used to break down the zona pellucida surrounding the ovum.

Operator

The region of DNA which is the switch for the genes of the operon. Located within the promoter region or between the promoter and the genes. Controls the access of RNA Polymerase II to all the genes.

A band

The region of a sarcomere (located in the center region), that appears darker because it contains myosin *and* actin filaments.

I Band

The region of a sarcomere (located on either end), that appears lighter because it contains only actin filaments.

Deamination

The removal of an amino group from an amino acid or other compound.

Hemostasis

The repair of ruptured blood vessels. 1. Broken blood vessel constricts. 2. Platelets gather at site by adhering to exposed collagen. Release platelet factors to attract more platelets. 3. Fibrin threads form a "mesh" to trap platelets, erythrocytes, and leukocytes and form clot. 4. Fibrin threads pull opposite sides of wound together. 5. Blood vessel heals and clot dissolves.

Interphase

The resting phase between successive mitotic divisions of a cell; separated into G1, S, and G2 phases. Biochemical processes take place which prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.

Hemolysis

The rupture or destruction of red blood cells.

Mesozoic

The second major era in the history of life on earth, lasting about 185.5 million years (From 251 to 65.5 mya). Consisted of the periods : Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. This was the era in which dinosaurs thrived (mainly Cretaceous).

Calvin Cycle

The second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions), involving fixation of atmospheric CO2 and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate. Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.

Metaphase

The second phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes (now in chromatid pairs) move to the center of the cell and attach to spindle fibers.

Guttation

The secretion of droplets of water from the pores of plants.

Codon

The sequence of three nucleotides on a molecule of mRNA which usually correspond to a single amino acid.

Anticodon

The sequence of three nucleotides on a molecule of tRNA which attach to codons on mRNA strands to synthesize proteins.

Secondary Succession

The series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat. Unlike primary succession, there is still organic material for which plants can grow on.

Theca

The sheath that surrounds and covers a dinoflagellate.

Frustule

The silicon cell wall that is protects diatoms.

Complete Dominance

The situation in which the phenotypes of the heterozygote and the dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.

Relaxed (R) Hemoglobin

The state of hemoglobin in which it is completely oxygenated, oxyhemoglobin. This form is not favored because it has a high affinity for oxygen, thus making it harder to load oxygen to tissues. *As more oxygen is added, its affinity for oxygen increases*.

Cholesterol

The sterol molecule that plays a large part in regulating the fluidity of the plasma membrane, prevents it from becoming too compact (saturated fatty acid tails) or too fluid (unsaturated fatty acid tails).

Sign Stimulus

The stimulus that initiates a fixed action pattern in an organism.

Z Disc

The structure formed between adjacent sarcomeres.

Teuthology

The study of cephalopods.

Bioenergetics

The study of how energy flows through organisms.

Entomology

The study of insects.

Mammalogy

The study of mammals.

Protozoology

The study of protists.

Histology

The study of tissues.

Epipelagic Zone

The surface layer of the ocean, extends from the surface to 200 meters (656 feet). It is also known as the *sunlight zone or photic zone* because this is where most of the visible light exists.

Nectar

The sweet fluid produced by flowers which female worker bees collect for food. While collecting the nectar, pollinators accidentally transfer pollen from male flowers to female flowers.

Endodermis

The third layer of a plant root, deep to the cortex. Is responsible for regulating what substances get into the plant.

Cenozoic

The third major era in the history of life on earth, lasting about 65.5 million years (From 65.5 mya to now). Consisted of the periods : Paleogene and Neogene. In this era mammals began to thrive after the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Anaphase

The third phase of mitosis in which the sister chromatids are separated and pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell by spindle fibers.

Placoid Scales

The tiny tough scales that cover the skin of sharks and rays. They are modified teeth and are covered with a hard enamel.

Bark

The tissue formed as a result of the secondary growth of plant stems and roots that includes *everything outside the vascular cambium.*

Meristem

The tissue in most plants containing undifferentiated cells, found in zones of the plant where growth can take place.

Vital Capacity (VC)

The total amount of air that can be expired after fully inhaling (VC = TV + IRV + ERV). The value varies according to age and body size. About 4,800 mL.

Gross Primary Production

The total amount of light converted to chemical energy by autotrophs in an ecosystem.

Passive Immunity

The transfer of immunity in the form of ready-made antibodies. Can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and it can also be induced artificially, when high levels of antibodies specific to a pathogen or toxin are transferred to non-immune persons through blood products that contain antibodies, such as in immunoglobulin therapy.

Antiparallel

The two strands in a double helix run ____________ to each other.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

The type of epithelial tissue which makes up the epidermis of the skin in humans.

Primary Structure of Proteins

The unique sequence in which amino acids are joined.

Genetic Drift

The unpredictable fluctuation in allelic frequencies from one generation to the next. Smaller the population, more likely. RANDOM changes in allelic frequencies.

Imbibition

The uptake of water by substances that do not dissolve in water, so that the process results in swelling of the substance.

Bioinformatics

The use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate the incredible volume of data from sequencing projects such as the Human Genome Project.

Phloem

The vascular tissue in plants that conducts sugars and other metabolic products (foods) downward from the leaves and upward towards the leaves. LIVING CELLS.

Xylem

The vascular tissue in plants that conducts water and dissolved nutrients upward from the root and also helps to form the woody element in the stem. NONLIVING MATERIAL.

Larynx

The voice box; the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals.

Microtubules

Thickest fibers of the cytoskeleton; A hollowed rod of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella. Shape and support the cell, and serve as tracks along which organelles equipped with motor proteins can move. Involved in separation of chromosomes during cell division.

AB Positive

This blood type can receive blood from ANYONE, but can only donate to others with the same type.

Albumin

This protein makes up the majority of the proteins of the blood plasma. It carries certain molecules throughout the blood, is an important blood buffer, and contributes to osmotic pressure.

Rotifers

Tiny bilateral, pseudocoelomate animals with a ciliated head. They live in fresh water, and are less than one millimeter long. Cilia on head direct food into mouth.

Periderm

Tissue produced as a result of secondary growth of plant stems and roots, or as a response to damage. It includes the *cork cambium, cork, and everything inbetween*.

Epithelial Tissue

Tissue that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity. Lines open cavities of the digestive and respiratory systems; covers the walls of organs of the closed ventral body cavity.

Cork Cambium

Tissue that produces cork, a densely packed tissue of dead cells, in stems and roots. Forms *outside* of the vascular cambium.

Vascular Cambium

Tissue that produces secondary vascular tissue in stems and roots. Secondary xylem develops from the inner surface, while secondary phloem develops from the outer surface.

Passive Diffusion

Transport in which a substance travels down its concentration gradient. Requires no work to be done.

Active Transport

Transport of substances using proteins that require an ATP Input, moving substances AGAINST their concentration gradient, from low to high concentrations.

Gymnosperm (Coniferophyta)

Trees which have leaves adapted to drier or colder climates (needle trees). Redwoods, conifers, ginkgoes, etc. Naked seeds (pine cones), there is not fruit surrounding the seeds.

Ozone

Trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula O3 and is present in low concentrations in the earth's atmosphere.

Proximal Tubule

Tubule in a nephron extending from the Bowman's capsule in which secretion and re-absorption of H2O, NaCl, ions, etc. change the volume, pH, and composition of the filtrate.

Amoeboids (Sarcodina)

Type of animal-like protists that move using extensions of the cytoplasm known as pseudopodia. They possess food and contractile vacuoles. An example of this is the amoeba.

Ciliates (Ciliophora)

Type of animal-like protists that move using hairlike appendages known as cilia. They possess and macro and micronucleus, vacuoles, and an oral groove. An example is the paramecium.

Zooflagellates (Zoomastigina)

Type of animal-like protists that move using one or two flagella, which rotate around like a propeller to move the protist. An example of this includes Trypanosoma, which causes african sleeping sickness.

Blood Type A

Type of blood carrying A Antigens on the cell surface and producing Anti-B Antibodies. A carbohydrates on surface.

Blood Type B

Type of blood carrying B Antigens on the cell surface and producing Anti-A Antibodies. B carbohydrates on surface.

Blood Type AB

Type of blood carrying BOTH A Antigens and B Antigens on the cell surface and producing no Antibodies. Both A and B carbohydrates on surface.

Blood Type O

Type of blood carrying NO Antigens on the cell surface and producing both Anti-A and Anti-B Antibodies. No surface carbohydrates.

Muscular Tissue

Type of body tissue which is divided into three categories: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Is involved in the movement of the body, movement of fluids and substances through the body, etc.

Red Bone Marrow

Type of bone marrow where erythrocytes, platelets and most white blood cells arise from. Found in both *the epiphysis and the diaphysis.*

Yellow Bone Marrow

Type of bone marrow where white blood cells and fat cells arise from. Found in the *diaphysis.*

Open Circulatory System

Type of circulation found in invertebrates like prawn, insects, and molluscs in which internal organs are bathed by blood and exchange of materials takes place between blood and sinuses.

Closed Circulatory System

Type of circulation found in vertebrates in which the heart and blood vessels form a closed system. Internal organs are not in direct contact with blood.

Operant Conditioning

Type of conditioning started by B.F. Skinner with his skinner box and rats. Organisms learn behavior through the use of rewards and punishments.

Classical Conditioning

Type of conditioning started by Ivan Pavlov with his dog experiments. Organisms learn to connect two stimuli, so that both stimuli eventually elicit the same response.

Negative Cooperativity

Type of cooperativity in which the binding of the first substrate molecule impedes the binding of subsequent substrates.

Type 2 Diabetes

Type of diabetes in which the body still produces insulin, but the cells are unresponsive to it.

Type 1 Diabetes

Type of diabetes in which the body stops producing insulin, but the cells are still responsive to it.

Clumped Dispersion

Type of dispersion found in nature in which the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized. This type of distribution is found in environments that are characterized by patchy resources. Animals need certain resources to survive, and when these resources become rare during certain parts of the year animals tend to "clump" together around these crucial resources.

Uniform Dispersion

Type of distribution in which the organisms are evenly spaced, the distance between neighboring organisms is maximized.

Random Dispersion

Type of distribution in which the position of organisms is independent of the other individuals.

Water Mold

Type of funguslike protist that live as parasites or live on decaying matter. They usually are found in water or moist soil. Can infect plants, for example, they caused the Irish potato famine.

Indeterminate Growth

Type of growth displayed in plants in which it grows continually throughout its entire life.

Myriapods

Type of land-dwelling arthropods that have two antennae and an abundance of body segments. Examples include centipedes and millipedes.

Crustaceans

Type of most marine arthropods that have two pairs of antennae and an exoskeleton that includes calcium and chitin. Includes lobsters and crabs.

Social Parasitism

Type of parasitism in which an organism takes advantage of the interactions between other organisms. One organism will benefit while the other will be harmed. Examples include birds laying their eggs in another species' nest, or a species of butterfly larvae mimicking ants to parasitize them.

Secondary Growth

Type of plant growth typically seen in perennials in which shoots and roots become thicker and woody. Originates at lateral meristems.

Vascular Tissue

Type of plant tissue consisting of the xylem and phloem which is responsible for transporting materials.

Ground Tissue

Type of plant tissue that makes up the bulk of the tissue, responsible for storage, photosynthesis, etc. Everything that is not dermal or vascular tissue.

Dermal Tissue

Type of plant tissue which consists of the skin, or the outer covering, of the plant. Controls interactions with the plant's surroundings.

Autopolyploidy

Type of ploidy in which an individual (usually plants) has more than two sets of chromosomes (4n), all *derived from an original species* (2n). Caused by a failure in meiosis causes the chromosomes to fail to separate, resulting in gametes with twice as many chromosomes as normal (2n). If this organism fertilizes itself then it offspring will be tetraploid (4n). Type of *sympatric speciation*.

Allopolyploidy

Type of ploidy in which organisms may contain two or more sets of chromosomes that are from a different species. Occurs often in plants, and can lead to new species. This is a type of *sympatric speciation*.

Sclereids

Type of sclerenchyma ground tissue in plants. Primarily function in providing mechanical support and protection. Strengthen seed coats.

Sclerenchyma

Type of simple plant tissue that is responsible for lending sturdiness to plant parts to help them resist stretching and compression.

Parenchyma

Type of simple plant tissue that is responsible for photosynthesis, storage, secretion, and tissue repair. Makes up the bulk of the ground tissue.

Collenchyma

Type of simple plant tissue that is responsible for supporting rapidly growing plant parts such as young stems and leaf stalks.

Allopatric Speciation

Type of speciation in which a population forms a new species because it is geographically isolated from the parent population.

Sympatric Speciation

Type of speciation in which a small part of a population becomes a new population without being geographically separated from the parent population.

Type III Curve

Type of survivorship curve in which there is a low survival probability early in life but relatively low rates of death for those surviving this bottleneck. Typical of r-selective species, such as sea turtles.

Type II Curve

Type of survivorship curve in which there is a relatively constant mortality/survival probability regardless of age. This is typical of some birds and lizards.

Type I Curve

Type of survivorship curve in which there is high survival probability early in life but it rapidly declines later in life. Typical of K-selective species, such as humans and elephants.

Radial Symmetry

Type of symmetry in which the organism can be divided around its longitudinal axis into symmetrical portions. Examples include squids, coral, jellyfish, sea anemones, etc.

Bilateral Symmetry

Type of symmetry in which the organism can be divided down a sagittal plane into left and right portions. Examples include humans, dogs, lobsters, etc.

Coelomate

Types of organisms that have a fluid-filled body cavity called the coelom with complete lining. Examples include snails, clams, octopuses, annelids.

Acoelomate

Types of organisms that lack a fluid-filled body cavity called the coelom. Examples include flukes, tapeworms, and other flatworms.

Pseudocoelomate

Types of organisms whose body cavity is a pseudocoel, a cavity between the gut and the outer body wall derived from a persistent blastocoel, rather than a true coelom. Examples include nematodes and roundworms.

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells that can reproduce itself indefinitely and, under the proper conditions, produce other specialized cells.

Protoderm

Undifferentiated precursor cells involved in the primary growth of roots. These cells will eventually give rise to mature dermal tissue.

Ground Meristem

Undifferentiated precursor cells involved in the primary growth of roots. These cells will eventually give rise to mature ground tissue.

Procambium

Undifferentiated precursor cells involved in the primary growth of roots. These cells will eventually give rise to mature vascular tissue.

Paramecium

Unicellular eukaryotic organism which moves using cilia, and contains these other parts : micronucleus, macronucleus, oral groove, contractile vacuole.

Dinoflagellates

Unicellular plantlike protists that usually possess one or two flagella, and are covered by a sheath called a theca. They are involved in red tides, which are algal blooms toxic to fish and shellfish.

Necrosis

Unprogrammed cell death. May be caused by injury, infection, cancer, toxins, and inflammation. Cells die and release their intracellular material, which may include toxins and enzymes that can harm other cells. Takes longer for phagocytes to clean up the debris than it does in apoptosis.

Helicase

Untwist the double helix and break the hydrogen bonds holding together the two strands.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Used for detailed study of the *topography* of a specimen. Electron beam scans the surface of a specimen which is covered in a thin sheet of gold. Result appears 3-Dimensional.

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

Used to study the *internal* structures of cells. Aims an electron beam through a very thin specimen, which is stained with heavy metals.

Inactivated Vaccines

Vaccines produced by killing the disease-causing microbe with chemicals, heat, or radiation. Such vaccines are more stable and safer than live vaccines.

Toxoid Vaccines

Vaccines that are used when a bacterial toxin is the main cause of illness. Scientists have found that they can inactivate toxins by treating them with a solution of formaldehyde and sterilized water.

Live, Attenuated Vaccines

Vaccines that contain a version of the living microbe that has been weakened in the lab so it can't cause disease. It is the closest thing to a natural infection, these vaccines are good "teachers" of the immune system: They elicit strong cellular and antibody responses and often confer lifelong immunity with only one or two doses.

Subunit Vaccines

Vaccines that include only the antigens that best stimulate the immune system. In some cases, these vaccines use the very specific parts of the antigen that antibodies or T cells recognize and bind to.

Recombinant Vector Vaccines

Vaccines that use a nonvirulent virus or bacterium to introduce microbial DNA to cells of the body. They can insert portions of other microbial DNA into the weakened virus or bacteria, which can then insert that DNA into the cells which can now produce antigens for the immune response to react to.

DNA Vaccines

Vaccines that use the genes that code for antigens. Researchers have found that when the genes for a microbe's antigens are introduced into the body, some cells will take up that DNA. The DNA then instructs those cells to make the antigen molecules. The cells secrete the antigens and display them on their surfaces. In other words, *the body's own cells become vaccine-making factories, creating the antigens necessary to stimulate the immune system*.

Prophage

Viral DNA that is incorporated into a bacterial chromosome. The genetic material of a bacteriophage, is able to produce phages if activated.

Temperate Viruses

Viruses that can reproduce using both the lytic and lysogenic cycles.

Virulent Viruses

Viruses that reproduce using the lytic cycle.

water

Vitamin B is _____ soluble.

water

Vitamin C is _____ soluble.

fat

Vitamin K is ___ soluble.

four

Water can form hydrogen bonds with up to ____ other water molecules.

Spirogyra

Water silk; a filamentous green algae that can often form flimsy green aggregates in freshwater ponds.

Hydrophobic

Water-fearing. Non-polar molecules such as hydrocarbons.

Hydrophilic

Water-loving. Polar molecules.

Interstitial Fluid

Watery internal fluid that bathes the organs of vertebrates. Main component of the extracellular fluid.

Henrietta Lacks

Woman who was the unwitting donor of cells from her cancerous tumor which were used to create the first human immortal cell line (population of cells which undergo division indefinitely). HeLa Cells. Helped make many medical developments, like the polio vaccine.

Progeny

Word meaning offspring.

Renal

Word referring to the kidney.

Hepatic

Word referring to the liver.

Transport Work

Work done to pump substances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement (against the electrochemical gradient).

Chemical Work

Work done to push endergonic reactions that would not occur spontaneously, such as the synthesis of polymers from monomers.

fermentation

Yogurts, most cheeses, and soy sauce are are produced by bacteria using ____________.

Cyanide

_______ prevents cells from using oxygen, and therefore inhibits ATP synthesis because no oxygen can act as the terminal electron acceptor.

Mutations

_________ are the only source of *new* genes and *new* alleles.

Nondisjunction

the failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division, usually resulting in an abnormal distribution of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei. Cause for trisomy 21, or down syndrome.

Ethylene

A plant hormone that is used in the ripening of the plant's fruits.

Transformation

A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.

Prostate Gland

A gland in the male reproductive system that secretes fluid that is used to nourish the sperm.

In RNA, Uracil pairs with...

Adenine.

Mad Cow Disease

Also known as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), a disease caused by prions.

Polygenic Inheritance

An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.

Vestibular Cortex

Area of the parietal lobe that controls conscious awareness of balance.

Somatic Cells

Any cell in a multicellular organism except for a sperm or egg or their precursors.

70S

Bacterial ribosomes contain a 30S subunit and a 50S subunit to form a ___ subunit.

Duodenum

Beginning portion of the small intestine coming directly out of the stomach. Bile salts from the gall bladder are released into this area, as well as various zymogens from the pancreas. Macromolecules are broken down into their monomers here.

Polar Covalent Bonds

Bonds that occur when one atom has a greater electronegativity than the other, resulting in an unequal sharing of the electrons. H2O.

Amphibia

Class of chordata which includes amphibians. Cold blooded and exhibit metamorphosis. Examples include frogs, toads, salamanders.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid.

Sucrose

Disaccharide made by the joining of glucose and fructose. Table Sugar.

In RNA, Cytosine pairs with...

Guanine.

Thermal Energy

Kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules.

Drones

Male bees who's primary role is to mate with a fertile queen.

White Matter

Matter in the brain that is myelinated to a great extent.

Xanthophyceae

Phylum of plantlike protists that includes yellow-green algae.

Proteins

Polymers made up of amino acid monomers. Has many functions including: transport, storage, enzymes, hormones, structure, antibodies, receptors, and movement.

Rhizobia

Soil bacteria that fix nitrogen after becoming established inside root nodules of legumes.

Cnidocytes

Stinging cells.

Energy

The capacity to cause change, especially to do work (to move matter against an opposing force, such as gravity or friction).

Distal Tubule

The tubule in a nephron in which K+, NaCl, and pH levels in the filtrate are regulated.

Ovule

The female reproductive structure that develops into a seed in a seed-bearing plant.

Translation

The production of a protein based on the code in messenger RNA.

Origin of Replication

The replication of DNA begins at special sites known as "origins of replication," in prokaryotes with circular DNA, such as E. Coli, there is only one, whereas in eukaryotes there are multiple.

Genetics

The scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation.

Konrad Lorenz

The scientist that demonstrated the phenomenon of imprinting in greylag geese. Hatchlings, after spending their first few hours with him, followed them as if he were their mother.

Kary Mullis

The scientist that developed the method of amplifying DNA known as Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Controversial because it is believed he was on LSD when discovering this.

Alexander Fleming

The scientist who discovered penicillin using a mold experiment.

Linus Pauling

The scientist who discovered the spiral structure of proteins.

Mitochondrial Matrix

The second compartment on the inside of the inner membrane. Contains many different enzymes as well as the mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes. The enzymes catalyze some steps of cellular respiration.

Cortex

The second layer of a plant root, immediately deep to the epidermis. Separates the epidermis from the endodermis.

Kinetochore

The structure of proteins attached to the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.

Herpetology

The study of amphibians and reptiles.

Ornithology

The study of birds.

Cytology

The study of cells.

Mycology

The study of fungi.

Infolding Theory

The theory regarding how the endomembrane system came to develop in eukaryotic cells, states that the plasma membrane of the cell pinched in.

Zona Pellucida

The thick glycoprotein layer surrounding mammalian egg cells that helps protect the egg and helps it communicate with other cells. It is broken down by enzymes in the acrosome of sperm cells.

Receptacle

The thickened part of a stem from which the flower organs grow. Where the flora parts are attached.

Blade

The thin, flat part of a plant leaf, attached to a stem.

Endosymbiont Theory

Theory stating that an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. Eventually, the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the eukaryotic cell. Over the course of evolution, the host cell and its endosymbiont (mitochondrion and chloroplast) merged into a single organism. Evidence is that mitochondrion and chloroplasts have a double membrane, move and divide separately from the cell, and have their own genetic material.

Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

Theory stating that genes are located at specific positions (loci) on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns.

RNA World Hypothesis

Theory that states RNA was likely the first genetic material. Due largely in part to its ability to catalyze reactions, allowing it to potentially catalyze its own replication.

25,000

There are approximately _____ genes in humans, but around 100,000 polypeptides.

Theories of Aging

There are multiple theories as to what causes the effects of aging in humans, and it could likely be the combination of several of these. Simple wear and tear over time, the accumulation of mutations in the DNA, telomere shortening and gene loss, and the release of free radicals.

Hadalpelagic Zone

This layer extends from 6,000 meters (19,686 feet) to the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean. These areas are mostly found in deep water trenches and canyons.

Positive Cooperativity

Type of cooperativity in which the binding of the first substrate molecule facilitates the binding of subsequent substrates. Example includes the binding of subsequent oxygen atoms in hemoglobin after the first binds.

tRNA

Transfer RNA; responsible for bringing amino acids (protein subunits) to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

Carrier Proteins

Transmembrane transport proteins which mainly help small polar molecules pass across the cell membrane.

Channel Proteins

Transmembrane transport proteins which mainly help water and inorganic ions to pass across the cell membrane.

Hemizygous

When only one copy of a chromosome in a diploid organism is present, OR if one copy of a gene is deleted on one homologous chromosome. For example, males have only one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.

Estruary

Where the river meets the sea. Where freshwater and saltwater mix.