BSC1005 SSC Exam 1 Review

Life cycles of RNA virus

1- endocytosis (entering membrane) 2- fusion/uncoating (attachment) 3- injection of RNA virus genetic material 4- RNA synthesis 5a- RNA polymerase into mRNA 5b- Replication of RNA virus genetic material 6a- Polymerase translate RNA to mRNA 7- Assemble virus genetic material 8- Release

Replication of flu in resp. tract

1- hijacks cellular machinery of host cell 2- produces proteins that interfere with normal functions of epithelial cells causing adverse effects 3- epithelial cells continue to lose function causing them to go into apoptosis

How influenza gets into resp. system

1- human picks up virus on hands 2 puts hands on mouth nose or food 3- flu enters respiratory system through the pharynx then the trachea finally the lungs

How does the coronaviruses replicate

1- translates a couple peptides to form the RNA polymerase 2- assemble in the Golgi apparatus 3- become part of the envelope 4- N spike protein assembles the nucleocapsid

When were coronaviruses first discovered

1950

How many people are infected worldwide with the influenza virus

3 to 5 million people

How many people died of the spanish flu

30 to 50 million

How many cells are in the human body?

30 trillion

Prior to COVID-19, what was the shortest development time for a vaccine given to humans?

4 years

How many people were infected with the spanish flu

500 million

How many deaths are recorded due to the influenza virus

500,000

what percent of the population in the United States may need to be vaccinated in order to achieve herd immunity?

85%

What percentage of a population would need to be immune to prevent the spread of a contagious disease?

95%

Ingredient of Flu Shot Thimersol

A preservative that may be present in some multi-dose vials of the vaccine

Capsid

A protein coat that surrounds the genetic material of host cell. may have proteins attached, tail fibers or spikes, assist in attaching to host

Characteristics of living things present in viruses

Ability to change over time or evolve contain genetic material

Signal of immune response- Interferon

Acts as a signal to nearby cells that a cell has been infected by a virus

Penetration

After attaching, genetic material enters the cell, occurs by injecting genetic material into host cell, or by having the host cell fully engulf the virus called endopoptosis

Which ingredient in the flu vaccine helps the immune system identify the flu virus

Aluminum salts

describes the physical characteristics of the influenza virus?

An RNA virus enclosed in a spherical capsid surrounded by an envelope with spikes

The immune system will target any cell anywhere in the body if it is

An antigen-presenting cell (APC)

A macrophage with an attached pathogen to the surface is called

Antigen-presenting cell (APC)

Antigen

Any substance that prompts an immune system response (viruses or bacteria)

Spikes

Assist a virus in identifying and entering a host cell

Antiviral medications target which aspects of the viral life cycle

Attachment Uncoating Release

Characteristics of living things not present in viruses

Capable of processing energy or materials maintain an internal environment respond to external stimuli contain cell machinery to replicate DNA or RNA

Directional selection

Changes in environment direct natural selection, favors either end of extreme traits (extreme traits on either side) 1 extreme

characteristics that are considered to be evidence of natural selection that Darwin observed aboard the Beagle.

Collecting fossilized remains of extinct animals along the west coast of South America challenged Darwin's idea that the Earth was young. In regard to biogeography, Darwin discovered similar environments and animals with similar appearances in South America and Europe. Darwin noted that unique island finch species are descendants from the mainland species that have developed adaptations to survive on the island's food source.

Homologous structures represent which form of evidence supporting the theory of evolution?

Comparative anatomy Embryonic development

Flow of information except RNA viruses

DNA -> RNA -> Protein

events during inflammatory response

Damaged tissue and nearby immune cells release histamine causing fluid to leak causing more blood flow to wound Macrophages identify and destroy any bacteria or viruses in the wound Neutrophils remove dead cells and any pathogen in the area Clotting factors close the wound

Indirect effects of influenza virus on body systems

Digestive system; loss of appetite muscular system; joint and muscle aches nervous system; headache and fever integumentary system; chills

Thomas Maithus

Economist who stated that populations sometimes increase at rates faster than their food supply can increase, creating competition

E protein

Envelope proteins involved in assembly of virus and the exit of the virus from the host cell

RNA polymerase

Enzyme that flu uses to process genetic material for protein production?

Influenza targets which type of cells?

Epithelial cells

How do emerging viruses arise?

Evolutionary change changes in environment

Natural selection causes mutations.

False

One of the biggest setbacks to influenza research is the lack of ability of viruses to evolve over time.

False

Since viruses never change, an adaptive immune system is not necessary.

False

The closer the genetic information is between two species, the more distant their evolutionary relationship.

False

The closer two organisms are related, the more time there is for mutations to change their genetic information for a trait.

False

The genetic material is not a history of the organism's evolutionary past.

False

Northern hemisphere decides which strains of flu for vaccine in

February

Tikaalik and Archaeopteryx are associated with which type of evidence of evolution?

Fossil

Organ or Tissue Red bone Marrow

Function- tissue where the lymphocyte cells of the body are produced. Location where B lymphocytes mature

structural components of a virus.

Genetic material Protein capsid

All of the genes in an organism

Genome

Charles Lyell

Geologist who proposed that the Earth's surface is dynamic and constantly undergoing erosion and uplift

Signal of immune response- Interleukin

Glycoprotein that is involved in regulating the general immune response

How many total genetic changes have been documented in the coronavirus B.1.1.7 strain that is now circulating?

Greater than 20 genetic changes

Recombinant Vaccine process

H spike protein is added to a virus that insect cells infected insect cells are cultured to produce large amounts of the H spike protein virus is not used, the H spike protein is used to create vaccine

Influenza A has which spikes

H spikes and N spikes

Influenza in the Resp. tract

H spikes identify host epithelial cells by detecting specific glycoproteins on surface of host cell. N spikes then break down the membrane and enters the host cell Infection occurs at anytime from the nasal cavity to the lungs

RNA viruses

HIV, influenza, SARS-CoV-2

Viruses Name

Host, type of strain, year of isolation

By recognizing the mechanisms through which organisms change over time, or evolve, we gain insight into which of the following?

How to design better medications such as antiviral agents and vaccines Resistance to insecticides and antibiotics How the organization of life on our planet reflects evolutionary history

Physical Barrier for Pathogen- Stomach

Hydrochloric acid destroys bacteria and other pathogens

Symptoms associated with the flu are largely the result of a reaction by which body system

Immune System

characteristics that explain the process of natural selection.

In a population, individuals vary in their heritable traits In a population, individuals struggle to exist In a population, individuals differ in their fitness. Over multiple generations, populations become adapted to their environment.

Natural Selection

Individuals vary in their traits- variations in heritable traits Individuals struggle to exist- competition between population Individuals differ in their fitness- favorable traits for reproduction Populations become adapted to the environment

When does histamine cause capillary beds to be leaky, thus slowing the movement of pathogens into a wound?

Inflammatory response

what is on the surface of every body cell with a nucleus to identify self?

MHC-I

Physical Barrier for Pathogen- Respiratory tract

Mucous trap microbes; they contain chemicals that protect against pathogens(cilia)

Process produces changes in the genetic material

Mutations

Erasmus Darwin

Naturalist and philosopher who proposed that evidence from animal development and animal breeding suggested that species may evolve over time

Jean Baptiste Lamarck

Naturalist who believed that complex life forms are descended from simpler forms

How does the immune system remember past pathogens?

Not all B cells are used in response to a pathogen, the reserves are used when the body is exposed to the same pathogen allowing faster and efficient responses; Memory T cells

Most accurate test to detect covid-19

PCR molecular test

not be a good source to consult for additional information on the new COVID-19 vaccines?

Personal websites and blogs

What produces antibodies?

Plasma cells

B lymphocytes

Produce antibodies to target specific antigens in the fluids of the body (specific)

how an influenza virus identifies and infects its target cell?

Proteins located on the capsid of the virus allow the virus to attach to molecules on the surface of a host cell. The capsid proteins of a virus may attach to protein receptors on the surface of the host cell. Upon identification of a specific protein molecule on the surface of the host cell, the virus can integrate into the host cell.

Which phase of covid-19 produces the symptoms

Pulmonary phase

Influenza evolution is studied by using its ___ to prove mutation records

RNA

Method of producing a vaccine not requiring use of the entire influenza virus

Recombinant method

Which of the following produces immune system cells?

Red Bone Marrow

Tamiflu specifically targets which part of the influenza virus life cycle?

Release phase of life cycle

medications to fight covid-19

Remdesvir, Paxlovid, and Lageviro steroid dexamethasone

Which protein in a coronavirus allows it to identify specific host cells for infection?

S proteins

Southern Hemisphere decides which strains of flu for vaccine in

September

Genes

Sets of DNA

Did antigenic shift or drift cause the most severe flu outbreaks in history

Shift

DNA viruses

Smallpox, chickenpox, herpes

common symptoms associated with the influenza virus?

Sore throat Congestion Body aches Fever

Attachment

Stage 1 of lytic cycle, recognizes and targets host cell for infection due to chape of the protein in the capsid of virus

T lymphocytes

Target cells that have been infected by a specific pathogen (specific)

What are the steps that must take place in a DNA virus to produce proteins?

The DNA is converted to mRNA and then to protein.

What important information about a virus is needed before an mRNA vaccine can be produced?

The genetic sequence of the DNA or RNA

true concerning the flu vaccine.

The influenza vaccine is designed to protect humans against three or four influenza viruses that are most likely to spread and cause a pandemic during the flu season. Flu vaccines take up to six months to prepare and are synthesized based on surveillance information sent to the five influenza centers across the world.

Organ or Tissue Spleeen

The organ where blood is filtered and cleaned by the action of white blood macrophages

genetic mutations have been slow to develop in the coronavirus causing COVID-19. How is this possible?

The virus contains proteins that are able to proofread and fix mutations.

How do the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines mentioned in this article differ from other traditionally produced vaccines?

These vaccines contain mRNA from the coronavirus causing COVID-19.

A comparison of genetic and biochemical similarities can indicate evolutionary relationships.

True

Influenza research involves constructing new vaccines and treatments.

True

Mutations are constantly occurring in the genetic material.

True

Mutations represent the source of genetic variation in a population.

True

Natural selection favors variation, which increases the ability of the individual to reproduce and pass the trait on to the next generation, and acts against detrimental traits.

True

Newer vaccines are being designed to use other proteins within the capsid, called core proteins, as the basis for programming the adaptive responses.

True

Scientists are researching ways to use antiviral agents to combat parts of the viral life cycle and the development of a universal flu vaccine.

True

When comparing species, some traits are more common in closely related species than distantly related ones.

True

how flu vaccines are produced.

Vaccines contain either inactivated or weakened viruses. Vaccines include additives to preserve the vaccine's contents before use. People with egg allergies should pay attention to how the flu vaccine is made, since some flu shots may contain remnants of eggs due to the egg-based technology used to make the flu vaccine.

circumstances are necessary for evolution to occur?

Variation for a particular trait exists within a population. A particular trait must be able to be passed on to the next.

how do viruses reproduce?

Viruses are typically a piece of genetic material encased in a protein capsule. They are only capable of reproducing once inside a living host cell.

Georges Cuvier

Zoologists studying the fossil record and noticed that it showed a succession of different forms of life

pandemic disease

a disease that has spread globally; movement of a disease between geographically distant populations

Zoonotic Viruses

a disease that is transmitted from an animal host to humans; develops new characteristics as it is passed from host to host; antigenic shift

Glycoprotein

a protein with a sugar attached

How does the immune system distinguish self from nonself cells

a series of markers are on the plasma membrane of each cell

Antigenic shift involves

a single host cell being infected by viruses from two different animals formation of new combinations of H and N spikes on the virus slower adaptations by the immune system

Complement Proteins

act as a molecular tag identifying pathogens for destruction for the immune system; creates holes in bacteria's membrane

cytokines

act as an alarm to organ systems, alerts that a pathogen is present

cell-mediated immunity

adaptive immunity

When pathogens are ingested by the macrophages and dendritic cells of the immune system, they are digested and a small portion of the pathogen, __________, is attached to the surface of the macrophage.

an antigen

N spike

an enzyme called neuraminidase, breaks down the mucous material surround host cell, initiate penetration of the virus

Direct effects of influenza virus on body systems

apoptosis of epithelial cells accumulation of fluid in lungs activation of immune system due to inflammation in the lungs

Maturation

assembles the virus

cytotoxic T cells

attach to target cell and release a protein called perforin; then opens a hole in the membrane

Hyperinflammation phase

body develops acute respiratory syndrome requiring additional oxygen and potentially ventilation

amino acids

building blocks of proteins, DNA contains the specific sequence of aa for the protein

What can antibodies do?

can clump together around am antigen effectively inabling it; can bind to the antigen and flag it for destruction from a natural killer cell

Example of Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2

causes covid-19

Example of Coronavirus MERS-CoV

causes middle eastern respiratory syndrome

Example of Coronavirus Sars-CoV

causes sever acute respiratory syndrome

Release

causes the host cell to burst(lysis) or exits through membrane (exocytosis). Viruses with outer envelope leave by exocytosis

Mutation

change in the sequence of nucleotides in the genetic material

Evolution

changes in species or population over time

Disruptive selection

changes in the environment cause the common traits to be detrimental, favors variants at both ends of distribution (2 extremes)

Cytokine restricts blood vessels in the skin to conserve heat

chills, Integumentary system

Capsid Protein

complex shapes allowing the virus to target specific molecules on the surface of the target cell, the molecules can other proteins, receptors on the surface of cell, and molecules integrated in the membrane

Proteins

complex, 3dimensional shapes

Capsid DNA or RNA

components of a virus

Nucleotides

contains the information for a trait creating building blocks called (GC,AT)

RNA Virus alt

convert RNA to mRNA

What is a Coronavirus

crown like spikes emerging from the surface of the virus; respiratory and intestinal disease

Antigenic

describes organisms that can evade our immunce system defenses

natural killer cells (NK cells)

destroy cells of the body that have been infected by viruses or bacteria (nonspecific)

Macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils

destroy pathogens by phagocytosis (nonspecific)

Antigen covid-19 test

detects for previous exposure to the virus; does not detect current infection of virus

What happens after a B cell is activated

develops into a plasma cell, producing large amounts of antibodies for the specific detected antigen; divides rapidly producing more identical B cells allowing for more antibodies to be created

outbreak

disease spreading beyond original population

Core proteins

don't change at the same rate as H and N spike proteins similar between flu strains

Symptoms of covid-19

dry cough fever chills muscle pain loss of taste or smell

Ingredient of Flu Shot Aluminum salts

enhances the ability of the immune system to detect the virus

Granzymes

enter hole of target cell made by cytotoxic T cells and causes the target cell to undergo apoptosis

epithelium cells

epithelial cells arranged in thin layer of tissue (one cell layer thick)

The primary target of the influenza virus is the

epithelial cells lining the respiratory system.

When do mutations occur

exposure to radiation chemicals mistakes in copying genetic information for next gen cells viruses that undergo endocytosis can cause mutations

Viruses

find a host cell, hijack metabolic machinery of host cell, then makes copies of itself

Protein on a capsid

finds specific type of host cell for virus

nasal swab test

fluids from respiratory tract examined for presence of covid-19

epithelial cells

form boundary between the tissues of our bodies and internal environments

helper T cells

form of T lymphocyte; has the ability to recognize the combined MHCC-II antigen receptor on the macrophage; divides to produce cytokines alerting the antibody-mediated responses

endemic disease

found at normal levels in the population

Organ or Tissue Lymph Nodes

function- tissue where the interstitial fluid is filtered and cleansed by white blood cells called macrophages

Most important piece of evidence for evolution

genetic material

which protein can be found in the plasma membrane

glycoproteins

antigentic shift

greater consequences to humans 2 forms of the same virus infect the same cell most often occurs in pigs and birds host cell may manufacture viral particles from both viruses and then reassemble into a new mutation

Cytokine presence alerts the hypothalamus in the brain to increase body temp

headache, fever Nervous system

H spikes

hemagglutinin, type of glycoprotein that identified the receptors of a host cell

H Spikes main function

identifies a specific molecule on the surface of the cell

What do Macrophage and dendritic cells do

identify pathogens; destroy pathogens by phagocytosis

Cytokine storm caused by covid-19

immune system produces abnormally large number of protein molecules called cytokines

Pulmonary phase

immune system responds to the covid-19 virus in the airways and alveoli of the lungs; produces the symptoms of covid-19

Ingredient of Flu Shot Formaldehyde

inactivates any toxins from the viruses or bacteria that may been present during production

Problems with RNA viruses

increased chance of mistakes/mutations of genetic material due to more steps involved causing more variations leading to new strains of the RNA virus

Signals of immune response- Histamine

increases the permeability of the capillaries and causes fluid to be released into the area of a wound

Fertilized Chicken egg Vaccine process

incubate for a few days viruses replicate during incubation liquid portion of egg is extracted viruses are killed virus particles are isolated, purified finally produce vaccine with virus particles

Herd immunity is considered a reduction in

individuals susceptible to infection.

How does a flu vaccine work?

injects the antigens of a pathogen into the body signaling an immune response; causing memory B and T cells to be produced

Protective proteins

innate defense

Genetic Material of a virus contains-

instructions to manufacture the proteins that compose the capsid surrounding the virus

major histocompatibility complex proteins (MHC)

involved in identifying self cells

Lymphatic system

involved in returning fluids called lymph from the tissues of the body back to the circulatory system

Cytokine breaks down muscle fibers and accumulation of fluid

joint and muscle aches. Muscular syst.

Example of Coronavirus 229E, NL63

known to produce symptoms similar to the common cold

Antibodies

large protein molecule that binds to specific antigens

CRISPR technique

looks for genetic material of the virus

Cytokine reduces the action of appetite centers in the brain

loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting. Effects digestive system

What happens when a pathogen is ingested?

macrophage and dentritic cells ingest the pathogen then digested then a small portion of the pathogen attaches to the surface of the macrophage

Phospholipids

makes up the plasma membrane

M protein

membrane proteins involved in assembling the virus

PCR technique

molecular tests

One role for the immune system

monitor lymph fluid for the presence of pathogens done in the lymph nodes

H spike and N spike variations are caused by

mutations

Which of the following are correct regarding antigenic drift?

mutations may be introduced by the action of the RNA polymerase enzyme it may result in a reduced fidelity for flu vaccines it is due to minor mutations in the structure of the H and N spikes

Physical Barrier for Pathogen- Skin

normal bacteria on the surface, along with chemicals released by oil and sweat glands, inhibit bacterial growth

What surrounds the single stranded RNA in the coronavirus

nucleocapsid

Antigenic Drift

occurs when there are small changes in the surface spikes of the influenza virus causes flu vaccine to be less effective due to mutations after creation

Targets of the cell life cycle for antiviral medications- Uncoating

once inside the cell some viruses provide an enzyme to remove their genetic material from the capsid

Spleen

organ where blood is filtered and cleaned by the action of macrophages

Risks Factors of Covid-19

over 65 medical conditions such as asthma, kidney disease, diabetes, heart disorders obesity compromised immune systems

Evolution is described as the change in heritable traits of a(n) __________ over a period of time.

population

MHC I Markers

present on every nucleated cell of the body general self identification tag

MHC II Markers

present on the immune system cells that provide the link between the nonspecific and specific immune responses

Ingredient of Flu Shot Antibiotics

prevents bacterial growth during the preparation and storage of the vaccine

epithelial cells lining for respiratory system

primary target of the influenza virus

5 characteristics to determine if something is alive or not

process energy and materials maintain an internal environment respond to stimuli from the environment reproduce adapt to changing environmental conditions

B lymphocytes immune response

produces antibodies; second form of adaptive immunity; referred to as antibody-mediated immunity

Immune system is responsible for

protecting our bodies from foriegn pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria works closely with lymphatic system

cytochrome c proteins

protein used in many organism used to get energy from nutrients such as carbohydrates. proves the closer 2 organism's DNA to each other the closer in evolution they are.

Antigens are usually

proteins or large carbohydrates that are specific to pathogens

Transitional fossils

provide an indication of the timeline of changes in a species overtime

converting RNA to mRNA in influenza

provides a from of RNA polymerase capable of converting the viral RNA to mRNA. translates to form the viral proteins needed for biosynthesis

epidemic disease

rapid increase in infection rates among the population

ACE 2 (angiotensin converting enzyme 2)

receptors involved in regulating peptide hormones (angiotensin) which controls blood pressure

epithelial cells role

regulate the activities of the body, checks every substance entering or leaving before entering the blood stream

Angiotensin in the lungs

regulates amount of blood flowing into the alveoli; exchanges gas

Lysogenic Cycle Stages

remains inactive in host cells after penetration, host cell divides which replicated the host DNA and virus DNA are replicated. remains inactive until environmental factors signal for it to reenter the lytic cycle 1) Attachment 2)Penetration 3)Integration with Host DNA 4)Host cell divides 5)Biosynthesis 6)Maturation 7)Release

Ingredient of Flu Shot Egg Protein

remnants from the production of the vaccine

RNA Virus

requires host cell's DNA to start protein synthesis

Cell Based Vaccine process

same as chicken egg procedure except instead of egg cells it is mammalian cell cultures

Stabilizing population

selection favors common traits and selects against extreme variants (Average)

Hox genes

similarity in embryonic development is due to the action of a series of developmental genes called? (control) early embryonic development of all animals

Barrier to entry (innate defense)

skin and mucous membrane

T cells have the ability to activate

specific B cells

Researchers are most concerned about mutations that develop in the _________ protein(s) on the coronavirus that causes COVID-19.

spike

S protein

spike protein responsible for the attachment of the virus to specific receptors on the host cell

Ingredient of Flu Shot Gelatin(MSG)

stabilize the vaccine and protect it from temperature variations during storage

Homologous structurees

structures that are similar because they have been inherited from a common ancestor

analogous structures

structures that serve the same function, appear the same, but evolved independently as adaptations to the environment

Alfred Russel Wallace

studied biogeography of south pacific islands, proposed concept of speciation(how a population changes into a new species over time)

Nucleocapsid

surrounds the genetic material of the coronavirus; helical protein structure

Targets of the cell life cycle for antiviral medications- Attachment Phase

target either the molecules on the surface of the cell the proteins that the virus uses to attach to the cell (spike proteins)

Tamiflu

targets the release stage inhibits a viral enzyme called neuraminidase allows the virus to leave the host cell

plasma membrane

the barrier between the interior of the cell and the exterior environment

warmth and pain when sick is caused by

the immune system engages the pathogens in the lymph nodes

Thymus

the organ where T lymphocytes mature

Mutations causes

the protein to become non-functional which can result in the undergoing apoptosis can cause the final protein to have slightly different shape or configuration

T lymphocytes

travel to thymus matures to develop receptors recognizing a single form of antigen

H1N1 and H3N2

two forms of influenza A in humans

Newer vaccines are designed to

use other proteins within the capsid of the virus as the basis for programming the adaptive repsonses

Biosynthesis

virus hijacks machinery to make new capsid proteins and copies of the genetic material. consumes host cells energy and materials

asymptomatic phase

virus incubates; no symptoms of covid-19; still infectious

Targets of the cell life cycle for antiviral medications- Release

viruses provides an enzyme that interacts with specific molecules in the cell's membrane to allow the newly formed viruses to escape the host cell

Thymus

where T lymphocytes mature

lymph nodes

where interstitial fluid is filtered and cleansed by white blood cells called macrophages

Red Bone Marrow

where the lymphocyte cells of the body are produced. location for maturation of B lymphocytes