Chapter 10: Thinking & Language

Objective 11| Describe the basic structural units of a language.

All languages have the same basic structural units. Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language. Morphemes are the elementary units of meaning; some (such as I) are words, but most are elements such as prefixes (anti-) or suffixes (-ing). Grammar is the system of rules that enable us to communicate and understand others. Semantics, which is part of grammar, is a set of rules for deriving meaning in a given language. Syntax, also part of grammar, is a set of rules for ordering words into sentences.

Objective 14| Summarize Whorf's linguistic determinism hypothesis, and comment on its standing in contemporary psychology.

Although the linguistic relativity hypothesis suggested that language determines thought, it is more accurate to say that language influences thought. Studies of the effects of the generic pronoun he show that subtle prejudices can be conveyed by the words we choose to express our everyday thoughts. Some evidence indicates that vocabulary enrichment, particularly immersion in bilingual education, can enhance thinking.

Objective 12| Trace the course of language acquisition from the babbling stage through the two-word stage.

At about 4 months of age, infants babble, making a wide range of sounds found in languages located all over the world. By about 10 months, their babbling contains only the sounds found in their household language. Around 12 months of age, babies speak on single words. This one-word stage evolves into two-word (telegraphic) utterances before their second birthday. Shortly after that, children begin speaking in full sentences. The timing of these stages varies a little from one child to another, but all children follow this sequence.

Objective 17| Outline the arguments for and against the idea that animals and humans share the capacity for language.

Bees dance to communicate the direction and distance of food, parrots sort items by number, and dogs comprehend and respond to complicated human commands. Several species of apes have learned to communicate with humans by signing or by pushing buttons wired to a computer. These apes have developed vocabularies of hundreds of words, have communicated by stringing these words together. and have taught their skills to younger animals, who - like humans - tend to acquire the skills most easily and thoroughly if taught them at a very young age. Nevertheless, research reveals an important difference between apes and humans facilities with language: Only humans can master the verbal or signed expression of complex rules of syntax.

Objective 13| Discuss Skinner's and Chomsky's contributions to the nature-nurture debate over how children acquire language, and explain why statistical learning and critical periods are important concepts in children's language and learning.

Behaviorist Skinner (representing the nurture side of the language development debate) proposed that we learn language by the familiar principles of association (of sights of things with sounds of words), imitation (of words and syntax modeled by others), and reinforcement (with smiles and hugs after saying something right). Challenging this claim, linguistic Chomsky (representing the nature position) argues that we are born with a language acquisition device that biologically prepares us to learn language. He cites as evidence the species-wide presence of language and its underlying grammar; children's amazing rate of acquiring vocab; and the uniform sequence of the stages of language development. Statistical learning is the ability to detect speech patterns (such as syllable breaks). Childhood is a critical period for learning spoken and signed language: Children who do not learn language during this early period lose their ability to fully master language.

Objective 16| List five cognitive skills shared by the great apes and humans.

Both humans and the great apes form concepts, display insight, use and create tools, transmit cultural innovations, and have a theory of mind (including the capacity for reasoning, self-recognition, empathy, imitation, and understanding another's mind).

Objective 15| Discuss the value of thinking in images.

We often think in images when we use procedural memory - our unconscious memory system for motor and cognitive skills and conditioned associations. Researchers have found that thinking in images is especially useful for mentally practicing upcoming events and can actually increase our skills.