Chapter 15 biology
All human egg cells carry a single X chromosome, and half of the sperm carry an X and the other carry a Y. This means that there is a what. As a result, just about half the zygotes will be males and half will be females
50 % of getting X or Y sperm
Typhoid
A disease that is caused by a bacterium that enters into through cells in the digestive system. The protein made from an allele of Cystic fibrosis helps block the entryway of this bacterium. People who are Heterozygous for Cystic fibrosis have an advantage but still don't get cystic fibrosis
Sex linked gene
A gene located on a sex chromosome
Sex-linked gene
A gene located on a sex chromosome
Malaria
A mosquito borne infection caused by a parasite that loves inside of red blood cells. A person with one allele of sickle cell are normally healthy and have a high resistant to malaria.
23 Paris
A typical human cells contains 46 chromosomes in how many pairs
3 billion bases
At how many bases, the human haploid genome is larger than the genome of many other organisms
Sex-linkage
Because the X and Y chromosomes determine sex, the genes located on them show a pattern of inheritance called
Genes DNA sequence
Changes in what can change proteins by altering their amino acid sequences, which may directly affect a persons phenotype
Pedigree
Chart that shows the presence or absence of a trait according to the relationship within a family across several generations
Autosome
Chromosome that is not a sex chromosomes ;also called autosomal chromosome
Autosomal chromosomes
Chromosomes that is not a sex chromosomes. Chromosomes 1-22. 44 chromosomes.
Three bases
Cystic fibrosis usually results from the deletion of how many bases in the gene for a protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator.CFTR normally allows chloride ions to pass across cell membranes. The loss of these bases removes a single amino acid-phenylalanine- from CFTR, causing the protein to fold improperly. Caused by a recessive allele. Symptoms are digestive problems and heavy mucus that clots their lungs and breathing passageways. Need breathing treatment
Sex-linked diseases
Disorders that are passed down through families through one of the X or Y chromosomes
Autosomal disorders
Disorders where you inherit tow mutated genes on an autosomal chromosome (1-22)
An example of nondisjunction in which there are three chromosomes on Chromosome 21, which causes cognitive disabilities and certain birth defects
Down Syndrome
Nondisjunction( homogenous chromosomes don't separate properly) and trisomy(three bodies) on Chromosome 21
Down syndrome is caused by what. This causes cognitive disabilities and certain birth defects.
Tiny pores
Drawing a strand of DNA through what. Each base creates a different kind of electrical signal as it passes through the pire, allowing the bases to be read one by one.
Genome
Entire set of genetic information that an organism carries in its DNA
Restriction enzyme
Enzyme that cuts DNA at a sequence of nucleotides
Nondisjunction
Error in meiosis in which the homologous chromosomes fail to separate properly
X chromosomes
Females have two copies of what, and males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome
A male will have an X and Y chromosomes, making their side read 46, XY. A female contains two X's chromosomes, making their code read 46, XX. A Y chromosome is smaller than a X chromosome, so it will look like a big and little x. An X chromosome contains around 1400 genes and an Y chromosome contains about 158 genes, which is associated with male sex determination/sperm development.
How can you tell the difference between male and female bey observing their karyotype
Restriction enzymes can cut at specific sites. They precisely cut DNA molecules into smaller pieces, several hundred bases in length. Bacteria use restriction enzymes to cut and inactivate the DNA of bacteriophage. A restriction enzyme is like a key that fits only one lock. The overhangs are called "stick ends" because they can bond or "stick" to a DNA fragment with the complementary base sequence.
How do restriction enzymes work and what do they cause
DNA is placed inside of the wells and the other end is positively charged because DNA has a negative charge so it will move to that end. The short and smaller pieces of DNA will move the fastest/farther East. The longer and bigger pieces will move slower/shorter. It does this because the gel has pores, which makes it harder for the DNA to get through
How does gel electrophoresis work
20,000 genes
Human cells contain about how many genes, which is not a large number compared to the cells of other species
Human DNA sequence
Human genome project finished the first complete what
Color blindness
Humans have three gene responsible for color vision, all located on the X chromosome. In males, a defective allele for any of these genes results in what
Dominant allele for a protein found in the brain
Huntingtons disease is caused by a what. The allele for this disease contains a long string of bases in which the codon CAG coding for glutamine repeats over and over, more than 40 times. The system primos are mental deterioration and uncontrollable movements. The greater the number of codon repeats, the earlier the disease appears, and the more sever its symptoms are.
Gametes
If nondisjunction occurs during meiosis, what with an abnormal number of chromosomes may result, leading to a disorder of chromosome numbers
1200 bases
If you were to compare the genomes of two unrelated individuals, you would find that most-built not all-of their DNA will match base for base with each other. On average, about one base in how many will not match between two individuals. Biologists call these single base differences single nucleotide polymorphism called SNPs. Some of these are associated with certain traits, including the susceptibility to particular to diseases or medical conditions. This enables physicians to tailor or medical treatments to a patient
Two copies
In order for a recessive allele to be expressed in females, it must be present in how many copies, one on each X chromosome. This means that the recessive phenotype of a sex linked genetic disorder tends to be much more common amoung males than among females.
An example of nondisjunction when a person receive an extra chromosome, which prevents them from reproducing
Klinefelter Syndrome
Nondisjunction of the X chromosome
Klinefelter syndrome is caused by what, which leads to men receiving an extra X chromosome and allows no reproducing
Dominance
Many human traits follow a pattern of simple what
Karyotype
Micrograph of the complete diploid set of chromosomes grouped togethr in pairs arranged deceasing size
Karyotype
Micrograph of the complete diploid set of chromosomes together in pairs, arranged in order of decreasing size
Restriction enzymes
Natural enzymes that could cut DNA at specific sites. By using tools that cut, separate, and copy Nucleic acids, scientists can now read DNA base sequences
Gel electrophoresis
Once DNA has been cut by restriction enzymes, scientists can use a technique known as
Proteins
One of the most striking aspects of the human genome is how little of it actually codes for what-only about 2 percent
Sex chromomes
One of two chromosomes that determines an individual's sex
Sex chromosomes
One of two chromosomes that determines on individual's sex. Chromosome 23. Two sex chromosomes either XX (females) or XY (males)
Gel electrophoresis
Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel
gel electrophoresis
Procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel
Genomic imprinting
Process in which epigenetic chemical marks can be passed from one generation to the next in a sex specific way. Some genes that are only expressed if they came from a male parents tand there are some genes that are only expressed if they came from a female parent. Nearly 100 genes in humans are imprinted in this way
Genomic imprinting
Process in which epileptic chemical marks can be passed from one generation to the net in a sex specific way
10 percent
Sequencing RNA not for proteins makes up what percent of genes
100,000 billion bases per year
Sequencing has been improved and automated over the decades, becoming faster, less expensive, and more accurate. Tasks that once took a person a year to do can now be done in a matter of hours. Some labs sequence well over how many bases per year, with hundreds of DNA fragments being sequenced simultaneously.
Karyotype
Shows the complete diploid set of chromosomes grouped together in pairs, arranged in order of decreasing size
Pedigree
Shows the presence or absence of a trait according to the relationships among parents, siblings, and offspring
Recessive allele/ defective allele for beta-globin
Sickle cells disease is heredity are and is caused by a what. The hemoglobin is not normal, which is the oxygen carrying protein in the red blood cell. It is caused by a what, which makes the defective polypeptide male hemoglobin less soluble, causing hemoglobin molecules to stick together when the blood's oxygen levels decrease. Hemoglobin tends to clump together into king fibers that push against the membranes of red blood cells and distort their shape. The shape is more rigid than normal, so they tend to get stuck together in capillaries. This causes damage to cells, tissue, and organs
Process of reading DNA
Single stranded DNA fragments are placed in a test tube containing DNA polymerase along with four nucleotide bases. As the enzyme foes to work, it uses the unknown strand as a template to make a one new strand after another. Scientist also add a small number of bases that have a chemical dye attached. Each time a dye labeled base us added to a new DNA, the synthesis of that strand stops. When DNA synthesis is completed, the results is a series of color coded DNA fragments of different lengths. Researchers can then separate these frágüeme net soften by gel electrophoresis. The order of colored beads on the gel tells the exact sequence of bases in DNA
Codominant
The alleles for many human genes display what inheritance
Genome
The full set of genetic information that an organism carries in its DNA
Pedigree
The information gained from what analysis makes it possible to determine the nature of genes and alleles associated with inherited human traits. Based on it, you can often determine if an allele for a trait is dominant or recessive, as well as autosomal or sex-linked
A normal karyotype for a human is 46 chromosomes. Both genders contain 44 autosomal chromosomes, but males hace an X and a Y chromosome, and a female contains 2 X chromomes. Females= 46,XX and males= 46, XY
The number of chromosomes in a normal human karyotype and the difference between their sex chromosomes.
Sticky ends
The overhangs are called what because they can bond, or stick to a DNA fragment with the complementary base sequence
Smaller the DNA fragments
The what kind of DNA fragments travel faster and farther it moves
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Ac
This act makes it illegal for insurance companies and employers to discriminate based on information from genetic tests
Autosomes
To distinguish them form the sex chromosomes, the remaining 44 human chromosomes are known as autosomal chromosomes, or
When the chromosomes sail to separate, it can result in a what
Trisomy( three chromosomes)
Nondisjunction of the X chromosome
Turner Syndrome is caused by what. This lads to females receiving one X chromosome and doesn't allow women to reproduce
An example of nondisjunction when a woman only receives one X chromosome, which leaves to not be able to reproduce
Turner syndrome
Sex chromosomes
Two of the 46 chromosomes in the human genome are known as what because they determine an individual's sex
Sickle Cell Amelia, Huntington's disease, and cystic fibrosis
What are some examples of autosomal disorders
Color blindness, hemophilia, Menkes Disease, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy
What are some examples of sex-linked diseases
The Human Genome Project finished the first complete human DNA sequence. They wanted to sequence the entire human genome. We learned that human cells contain about 20,000 genes, which is not a large number compared to the cells of other species. We are unsure of the functions of more than 25 percent of our genes. Because of this, now we can start to tell our genetic codes and look for any risk factors for certain diseases or genetic disorders. This can be a good thing because we can get a warning or tell if someone has a disease or disorder. The bad thing is that it can be used against people to. If a insurance company or a job can tell that you are at higher risk for something , they can cause you to pay higher insurance or not get a job because you could cost them a lot of money. Also we can figure out our relationships with other people
What are the goals and what have we learned from the human genome project and how does it relate to everyday life
RH+ and RH- are both forms of an RH blood type. RH+ is dominant, so if they have at least one copy, they will have RH+. RH- is recessive, so they have to have both copies of it to have RH-. The ABO blood group is codominant/ multiple allele. The three possible alleles are IA, IB, and i. IA and IB are codominant, but are dominant over i. If IA and IB will form AB. IA= A blood, IB= B, and two copies of i= O blood
What cana we get for blood type from genotype information
Open square= male and no trait Shaded square= male and trait Open circle= female and no trait Shaded circle= female and trait
What do the symbols mean in a pedigree
Sex linked traits are found on the sex chromosomes, unlike other genetic disorders that are found on the autosomal chromosomes. Genes on the Y chromosome are found only in males, Genes found on the X chromosome are found in both genders, This causes alleles found on the X chromosome are more lonely to cause problems in men because they don't have another X chromosome to cover out unlike females do. Example: colorblindness
What is the difference of sex-linked traits demo other genetic disorders
Half of the sperm has a Y chromosome and the other half has an X chromosome, so there is a 50% chance of having a male and a 50% chance of having a female
What is the probability of having a male or a female
We can see genetic disorders, like extra chromosomes, the size, shape, and gender of the person from the Karyotype
What types of information can a Karyotype give
Mitosis
When do scientist study human genetic
Shotgun sequencing
Whole chromosomes are cut into random fragments. These are sequenced automatically, and the information is fed into a computer. A computer progra,m analyzes the data by searching for matching sequences among the fragments, and aligns them to reassemble the fragments and completed the sequence
