Chapter 2

Strategies for Communicating across Differences

.What about your background affects how you communicate with others? What biases may get in the way of your relationships with others? Communication, particularly language, is an important part of helping people feel comfortable to express alternative ideas. How we interact with people affects how they feel about themselves and ultimately how they contribute to the organization. Following are tips for communicating across differences.

Using Technology for Work in Teams

A happy customer with one of LeapFrog's interactive toys. Product teams at the toy maker use wikis to collaborate on new product designs. Although working in teams can be a challenge, online collaborative tools can help you manage documents and deadlines—and may improve your team communication. More businesses are using online tools and are finding these useful results: improved work processes and outcomes, better collaboration, more contributions, improved knowledge management, less email, and fewer meetings., Wikis are websites where groups of people collaborate on projects and edit each other's content. At LeapFrog, the toy maker, a team of researchers, product designers, and engineers uses a wiki to "log new product ideas, track concepts over the course of their development, and spark better collaboration between team members." Wiggio and Wikispaces are free and offer enough functionality for small team projects, whereas enterprise wikis offer more functionality and control for large companies and major projects. Google products offer much of a wiki's functionality. On Google Drive, you can share documents (Google Docs) and revise and comment on others' work (Figure 7). If you're using Microsoft applications rather than Google Docs, you can still show revisions using the "Track Changes" and "Comment" features. Although this type of sharing doesn't offer the functionality—or the benefits—of using a wiki, these tools may be just enough for simple projects.

team

A team is a group of individuals who depend on each other to accomplish a common objective. Teams are often more creative and accomplish more work than individuals working alone; a group's total output exceeds the sum of each individual's contribution. As a manager, if you work well as part of a team and can resolve conflicts, you will likely be seen as an effective leader with potential for promotion.

Sexual Orientation

Although same-sex marriage is now legal and has become more accepted in the United States, can gays and lesbians bring their whole selves to work? Can they speak about their social and family lives, just as straight people talk about theirs? To pave the way for others, Apple CEO Tim Cook wrote "I'm proud to be gay" in an open letter in BloombergBusinessweek. In his chapter in Passion and Purpose, Josh Bronstein talks about his decision to "come out"—to be openly gay at work: The energy required to hide my identity from those who I assumed wouldn't like it distracted me from the work I was being paid to do. Since then, being openly gay has only helped me professionally—I've benefited from a stronger sense of community and a professional network that spans functional silos, more confidence when speaking with senior leaders, and the comfort of always being able to use accurate pronouns.

Conflict Resolution

As discussed earlier, conflicts are a natural and effective part of the team process—until they become personal or disruptive. Most conflicts in groups can be prevented if a group spends time developing itself into a team, getting to know each other, establishing ground rules, and discussing norms for group behavior. However, no matter how much planning is done or how conscientiously team members work, conflicts occasionally show up. Consider using these strategies to manage team conflicts: Ignore fleeting issues. Try not to overact to minor annoyances. If someone introduces an irrelevant topic once during a meeting, you can probably let it go. Think of each problem as a group problem. It's tempting to defuse conflicts by making one member a scapegoat—for example, "We'd be finished with this report now if Sam had done his part; you can never depend on him." Rarely is one person solely responsible for the success or failure of a group effort. Were expectations clear to Sam? Was he waiting for data from someone else? Did he need help but couldn't get it from the rest of the team? What is the team's role in encouraging or allowing behavior, and what can each of you do differently to encourage more constructive behavior? Be realistic about team performance. Don't assume responsibility for others' happiness. You're responsible for being a fully contributing member of the team, behaving ethically, and treating others with respect. But the purpose of the group is not to develop lifelong friendships or to solve other people's time-management or personal problems. If someone is sick, you may decide to extend a deadline, but you do not need to spend 20 minutes of a meeting talking about the illness. Encourage all contributions, even if people disagree. You may not like what someone has to say, but differences contribute to productive conflict. Try to respond in a nonthreatening, constructive way. If the atmosphere temporarily becomes tense, you can make a light comment, laugh, or offer a compliment to restore harmony and move the group forward. Address persistent conflicts directly. If interpersonal conflict develops into a permanent part of group interactions, it's best to address the conflict directly. Working through the conflict as a team may not be fun, but it will bring you to greater understanding and a higher level of productivity. It takes a brave manager to say, "I'd like to talk about how we interact with each other at these meetings. It seems like we often end up fighting—it's not productive, and someone usually gets hurt. Does anyone else feel that way? What can we do differently?"

Group-Oriented Behavior

As shown earlier, the business environment in capitalistic societies, such as the United States and Canada, places great value on how individuals contribute to an organization. Individual effort is often stressed more than group effort, and a competitive atmosphere prevails. But in other cultures, originality and independence of judgment are not valued as highly as teamwork. The Japanese say, "A nail standing out will be hammered down." The Japanese go to great lengths to reach decisions through group consensus. The Toyoda family changed the company name to Toyota in 1937 for its clearer sound and more favorable number of strokes for writing the name. Closely related to the concept of group-oriented behavior is the notion of "saving face." People save face when they avoid embarrassment. When Akio Toyoda, the Japanese president of Toyota Motor Corporation, apologized for many vehicle recalls, he demonstrated emotion and great humility—far more than might have been expected of an American business leader. Akio Toyoda apologizes at a recall press conference for Toyota Motor Company. Human relationships are highly valued in Japanese cultures and are embodied in the concept of wa, the Japanese pursuit of harmony. This concept makes it difficult for the Japanese to say "no" to a request because it would be impolite. They are very reluctant to offend others—even if they unintentionally mislead them instead. A "yes" to a Japanese person might mean "Yes, I understand you" rather than "Yes, I agree." To an American, the Japanese style of communication may seem too indirect and verbose. At one point during Toyoda's testimony before Congress, the committee chair said, "What I'm trying to find out ... is that a yes or a no?" To Japanese viewers, this sounded rude and disrespectful. Latin Americans also tend to avoid an outright "no" in their business dealings, preferring instead a milder, less explicit response. For successful intercultural communications, you have to read between the lines because what is left unsaid or unwritten may be just as important as what is said or written.

Age

Because people are living and working longer, more generations are represented in the workforce. Much has been written about differences among the generations, but according to recent research, some of these differences—particularly the negative effects—may be overstated. According to one study of approximately 100,000 people in 34 countries within North America, Europe, and Asia Pacific, 42% of employees say they have experienced intergenerational conflict at work, but the same percentage say that generational differences improve productivity. These numbers are very consistent by generation and geographic region. Between 68% and 75% of employees do adapt their communication style for colleagues from different generations; however, the method people prefer for communicating (e.g., face-to-face or email) is similar across generations and countries., It's best to be aware of potential differences but—as discussed throughout this section—not to judge people based only on their age. Assuming that an older worker doesn't understand technology or that a younger worker doesn't understand the business is unfair to individuals and may lead to bad business decisions. Also, avoid age-biased language, such as referring to people as "old," "senior citizens," or worse.

Commenting on Peers' Writing

Commenting on a peer's writing is useful for both of you. Your peer receives feedback to improve his or her writing, and you practice techniques to objectively evaluate others'—and eventually your own—writing. When done effectively, giving each other feedback can build a sense of community within the team. Follow the tips in Figure 6 for commenting on peer writing.

Work Team Communication

Communicate effectively and ethically in small groups. By definition, people who work in organizations communicate with other people. Working in small groups and with diverse groups of people is one of the most enriching—and sometimes one of the most challenging—aspects of a business environment. In this chapter, we'll explore ways that you can get the most out of your experience working with and learning from others. A team is a group of individuals who depend on each other to accomplish a common objective. Teams are often more creative and accomplish more work than individuals working alone; a group's total output exceeds the sum of each individual's contribution. As a manager, if you work well as part of a team and can resolve conflicts, you will likely be seen as an effective leader with potential for promotion. On the other hand, teams can waste time and create a toxic environment. If you have worked as part of a team, you know all too well that people don't always contribute equally. Someone you might call a "slacker" is practicing social loafing, the psychological term for avoiding individual responsibility in a group setting. Two to seven members—with five often as an ideal—seem to work best for effective work teams. Smaller teams often lack diversity of skills and interests to function well, and larger teams struggle with managing their interactions because two or three people may dominate discussions and make key decisions.

Maintain Formality

Compared to U.S. and Canadian cultures, most other cultures value and respect a much more formal approach to business dealings. Call others by their titles and family names unless specifically asked to do otherwise. By both verbal and nonverbal clues, convey an attitude of propriety and decorum. Although you may think these strategies sound cold, most other cultures consider these appropriate.

Company Scenario Dewey, Wright, and Howe

Dewey, Wright, and Howe is an international law firm that hires college interns. This company scenario, described at www.cengagebrain.com, challenges you to face many of the issues discussed in Chapter 2. Working through the activities for Dewey, Wright, and Howe, you'll have the opportunity to do the following: Collaborate in a wiki to produce team results. Practice participating in meetings and giving and receiving feedback. Manage conflict in a multicultural environment. Your team of interns at Dewey is asked to create an Orientation Plan for new hires—and you'll run into a few obstacles along the way: conflicting messages, different communication styles, and a questionable ethical situation. But don't worry—you'll have plenty of direction with a detailed work plan, and you'll rely on your team members for good, sound advice throughout the process.

Diversity

Diversity is the collective strength of experiences, skills, talents, perspectives, and cultures that each agent and employee brings to State Farm. It's how we create a dynamic business environment to serve our customers.

Personal Spaces for Social Interaction

Finally, social behavior is very culture dependent. For example, in the Japanese culture, who bows first upon meeting, how deeply the person bows, and how long the bow is held depend on one's status. Before you travel or interact with people from other countries, become familiar with these and other customs, for example, giving (and accepting) gifts, exchanging business cards, the degree of formality expected, and how people entertain.

Constructive Feedback

Giving and receiving constructive feedback is critical to working through team problems. These proven methods for giving and receiving criticism work equally well for giving and receiving praise. How easily do you accept feedback? How comfortable are you giving feedback? Do you tend to invite or avoid conflict?

On The Tonight Show, actor Jonah Hill apologized for a homophobic remark.

Homophobic and heterosexist language is still far too common and should never be used in the workplace. Jonah Hill, actor and outspoken supporter of gay rights, insulted an aggressive paparazzo with a homophobic slur. He apologized on The Tonight Show: I wanted to hurt him back, and I said the most hurtful word that I could think of at that moment. I didn't mean it in the sense of the word.... [but] that doesn't matter.... The word I chose was grotesque, and no one deserves to say or hear words like that.... I've been a supporter of the LGBTQ [lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning] community my entire life, and I completely let the members of that community and everybody else down ...

The Value of Diversity

Imagine a company in which everyone is exactly the same. How would you allocate work when everyone has the same skills? How would you generate new ideas when everyone thinks the same way? Diversity among employees provides richness and strength for an organization. People from varied backgrounds and perspectives help companies solve problems, make better decisions, and create a much more interesting place to work. Companies recognize the need for diversity and actively seek employees from different backgrounds. Clothing retailer Abercrombie & Fitch's focus on diversity is prominent on the career pages of its website (Figure 14).

Acknowledge the Need for Feedback

Imagine a work environment—or a class—in which you never receive feedback on your performance. How would you know what you do well and what skills you need to develop? Feedback is the only way to find out what needs to be improved. Your team must agree that giving and receiving feedback is part of your team's culture—how you'll work together. This way, no one will be surprised when he or she receives feedback.

Offending and Taking Offense

In a truly inclusive working environment, we encourage differences rather than squelch them. This kind of management inspires diversity of thought and ultimately leads to better decisions. But this isn't necessarily an easy way to work, and sometimes, we mess up. We make assumptions that aren't accurate and use terms that unintentionally offend. In her book 35 Dumb Things Well-Intended People Say, Maura Cullen tells about using the word blackmail during a meeting, which someone found to have racial connotations. Was the woman being overly sensitive? Who's to judge? Cullen didn't; she simply replaced the word with coerced and then spoke with her colleague after the meeting so they could understand each other better. We have to be our own advocates. When we bring our whole selves to work, we take risks—and we have responsibilities. You may have to educate coworkers who don't know you and what you need. When something offends you at work, you have every right to say so, but try to address issues rationally. Calling someone a racist likely won't improve your working relationship or change the person's behavior. Use the tips for team communication at the beginning of the chapter for giving constructive feedback and resolving conflicts. With this approach, you'll contribute to the type of place where everyone feels valued and wants to work.

Inclusion

Inclusion is about respecting and valuing the unique dimension each agent and employee adds to the organization. We recognize that agents and employees are at their creative and productive best when they work in an inclusive work environment.

Intercultural Communication

LO 3 Communicate with intercultural audiences. Intercultural communication (or cross-cultural communication) takes place between people from different cultures when a message is created by someone from one culture to be understood by someone from another culture. More broadly, multiculturalism refers to appreciating diversity among people, typically beyond differences in countries of origin. To be successful in today's global, multicultural business environment, managers need to appreciate differences among people. Although English may be the standard language for business, by no means do we have one standard for all business communication. If you want to do business abroad, you need to understand different cultures and adapt to the local language of business. With a dozen hotel brands in 91 countries, Hilton Worldwide knows the challenges of employees working and traveling internationally. The company's online resource "Culture Wise" prepares employees to navigate cultural differences. For several countries, employees learn about travel tips, business practices, employee development, negotiations, and so on. When we talk about culture, we mean the customary traits, attitudes, and behaviors of a group of people. Ethnocentrism is the belief that an individual's own cultural group is superior. This attitude hinders communication, understanding, and goodwill between business partners. Diversity has a profound effect on our lives and poses opportunities and challenges for managers: opportunities to expand our own thinking and learn about other cultures—and challenges in communication. Although you'll learn in this chapter about communicating with people from different cultures, keep in mind that each member of a culture is an individual. We generalize here to teach broad principles for communication, but you should always adapt to individuals, who may think, feel, and act quite differently from the cultural norm or stereotype.

Diversity and Inclusion within the United States

LO 4 Communicate with diverse populations. Of course, we have much diversity within the United States. Each year, the United States becomes even more diverse, which creates tremendous opportunities for companies—and a few challenges for business communicators.

Summary

LO1 Communicate effectively and ethically in small groups. Teams can accomplish more and better quality work in less time than individuals can if the teams function properly. Otherwise, teams can waste time and cause interpersonal conflicts. Conflict about ideas is a helpful part of the group process, but interpersonal conflicts are detrimental. Consensus and conformity can lead to productivity, but too much focus on either can lead to groupthink. When a team first forms, group members should get to know each other and decide how they'll operate. They should acknowledge the need for positive and negative feedback and know how to give productive feedback, particularly on team writing. When problems arise, group members should react to them appropriately, consider them as group problems, and be realistic about what to expect from the group. LO2 Collaborate to improve team writing. For group writing projects, team members should identify project requirements, create a project plan, draft the writing, revise the writing, and finalize the project. Teams find it useful to collaborative online for writing projects. Wikis can lead to improved work processes, more contributions, better work outcomes, and fewer meetings. LO3 Communicate with intercultural audiences. Understanding cultural differences is essential to success in a global business environment. Although individuals often defy stereotypes, consider differences in context sensitivity, feelings about space, group-oriented behavior, and other factors. When communicating with people from other cultures, maintain formality, show respect, and write and speak clearly. LO4 Communicate with diverse populations. In the United States, the population is becoming increasingly diverse. This diversity brings great value to companies and encourages us to appreciate differences and create an inclusive workplace. You can demonstrate respect through your language choices about race and ethnicity, sex and gender identity, age, sexual orientation, ability, and other variables among employees.

Learning objectives

LO1Communicate effectively and ethically in small groups. LO2Collaborate to improve team writing. LO3Communicate with intercultural audiences. LO4Communicate with diverse populations.

Show Respect

Learn about your host country—its geography, form of government, largest cities, culture, current events, and so on. Delta Air Lines missed a step when congratulating the United States on a victory against Ghana during the World Cup. In a tweet, the company showed the United States represented by the Statue of Liberty and Ghana represented by a giraffe (Figure 13). Jokes ensued: the only giraffes in Ghana are at a zoo and a showing of The Lion King.

Applying Strategies for Team Writing

Let's take an example of a start-up business. If you and two friends want to open an ice cream store and need funding—from either a bank or private investors—you would write a business plan. You would probably all do extensive research to make sure the business is feasible. Then, you might have one person write the financial projections, another write the marketing plan, and so on, until you complete the business plan. No one person will have expertise in all areas of planning your new business. When you present your idea to investors, each of you will create slides for your part of the presentation. And later, when you create a website, you may divide up the writing for that too. Consider the steps in Figure 4 when writing as part of a team. Figure 5 shows the start of a simple project plan. You can create something much more detailed, or keep it simple and build on these steps.

Ability

Managers who want to hire the best employees for their companies go beyond the legal requirements and accommodate people with disabilities. One way to think about people is that we're all "differently abled"—each with strengths as well as areas that need development or accommodation. You may have a great eye for design but need help with construction. No one is perfect. Always, everywhere, avoid using language like, "Are you deaf?" "He's a little slow," or "What are you, blind?" Jokes about people with disabilities don't go over well. Instead of using potentially disparaging language, use "people-first language," which respects people's dignity and avoids labels. With people-first language, you identify the person before his or her disability; for example, say, "Alejandro is a sophomore who has epilepsy," rather than referring to "the epileptic"—there's much more to Alejandro than his disability. Also avoid referring to someone as "handicapped." We still have "handicapped" parking spaces—an outdated term—but, when referring to people, a handicap may imply a limitation and a disadvantage. A high school in Texas printed yearbooks that referred to some students with special needs as "mentally retarded." Understandably, parents and students were "shocked" and "appalled." The best approach for communicating with people with disabilities is to use your natural way of speaking and natural eye contact. Try to be yourself.

Abercrombie & Fitch's Careers Website

Many companies today go beyond thinking simply about diversity—which tends to focus on numbers of people—and strive for inclusion. Do all employees feel included and welcomed at work? Are they able to contribute fully to an organization, or do invisible barriers prevent people from participating in relevant meetings, making significant decisions, getting their ideas implemented, and getting promoted? Focusing on an inclusive work environment ensures that all employees can reach their full potential with a company. As you look at companies' websites, you'll see that many of them, like Abercrombie & Fitch's, refer to both diversity and inclusion. State Farm, the insurance company, defines diversity and inclusion as follows: Diversity is the collective strength of experiences, skills, talents, perspectives, and cultures that each agent and employee brings to State Farm. It's how we create a dynamic business environment to serve our customers. Inclusion is about respecting and valuing the unique dimension each agent and employee adds to the organization. We recognize that agents and employees are at their creative and productive best when they work in an inclusive work environment. PepsiCo Chairman and CEO Indra K. Nooyi believes bringing our whole selves to work is the key to inclusion: The only way we will hold on to the best and brightest is to grasp them emotionally. No one may feel excluded. It's our job to draw the best out of everyone. That means employees must be able to immerse their whole selves in a work environment in which they can develop their careers, families and philanthropy, and truly believe they are cared for.

Give both Positive and Negative Feedback

Many people take good work for granted and give feedback only when they notice problems. In one study, 67% of employees said they received too little positive feedback. Hearing only complaints can be demoralizing and might discourage people from making any changes at all. Always try to balance positive and constructive feedback. Figure 2 suggests ways to give both positive and constructive feedback. Use "I" statements to describe how someone's behavior affects you. This approach focuses on your reaction and helps avoid attacking or blaming the other person. Use the guidelines in Figure 3, but adapt the model to your own language, so you're authentic and sound natural.

PepsiCo Chairman and CEO Indra Nooyi promotes bringing our whole selves to work.

Nooyi wants people to be who they are at home and at work—not playing a role on the job. One of her eight leadership lessons is "Put your whole self into the job: head, heart and hands." We work (and live) best together when we know each other. This requires us to be vulnerable sometimes and awkward other times. It can be difficult to share we who are and ask for what's important to us. But this kind of openness—both revealing ourselves and accepting what we learn about others—is essential to an inclusive work environment.

Sex and Gender Identity

Of course, more differences exist within each gender group than between groups. We should be careful not to stereotype and wrongly assume that all women or all men communicate or behave in one way. And yet, recognizing that common differences do exist may help us understand each other better and improve communication overall (see Figure 17). Again, these differences are best thought of along a continuum, with plenty of overlap between men and women. Also, for most of us, whether we're male or female is an easy question, but for some, it's not so straightforward. What a culture defines as male or female may not fit how an individual self-identifies. For example, a transgender person may not identify with his or her biological sex or socially defined gender. An individual's biological sex may be different from what we can see. Therefore, male or female pronouns (he or she, him or her) may not work for everyone, and we should be open to other labels to describe one's gender identity. Recognizing these issues, Facebook offers more than 50 gender options for user profiles. In addition to accepting potential differences, we can improve working relationships by avoiding gender-specific language. Follow the strategies in Figure 18 for using inclusive, gender-neutral language.

3Ps in Practice Learning about Bangladesh

Purpose As an employee at Gap, you're going to visit Bangladesh to conduct a brand standards training session to ensure consistency in all stores. Your manager asks you to prepare for your trip by researching the country using the categories in Hilton Worldwide's "Culture Wise" resource discussed earlier in the chapter. Process How would you describe Bangladesh? What's important to know about its history, people, location, and culture? What common phrases and names will be important for you to know? What do's and don'ts would help you be successful in your interactions with people? What do you need to prepare for the travel: flights, hotels, getting around, and so on? What business practices will you be sure to follow? Product Write an email to your manager summarizing your research.

3Ps in Action A Diversity Statement for Gap

Purpose As the new diversity manager for Gap, you have been asked to write a statement on the company's career web pages. Process You consider the following questions as you craft your statement: Who are the primary and secondary audiences for the message? The primary audience includes prospective employees. Customers also may visit the site. What do you want to convey to these audiences? I want to portray Gap as a place that welcomes everyone to work and shop. I need to include our commitment as an equal opportunity employer, but I want to go beyond that generic statement. What else is important to include? Particularly for the primary audience of prospective employees, the message should include employees' responsibilities for maintaining a discrimination- and harassment-free working and shopping environment. Product You produce the following statement, which you'll find at www.gapinc.com/content/gapinc/html/careers/lifeatgap/diversity.html.

Race and Ethnicity

Race, ethnicity, and heritage are complex in the United States. Just because someone looks like a particular race doesn't mean that person identifies with it. He could be adopted, from a mixed-race home, or a third-generation American. Repeatedly hearing "Where are you from?" can get tiresome for someone who has lived in the States his entire life. Even our definition of "minority" is becoming unclear. By 2050, although the non-Hispanic White population will remain the largest group, no one group will represent a majority of the United States. Will we all be "minorities"? Terminology used to refer to groups is constantly evolving. The U.S. Census Form allowed people to select from several categories to identify their origin and race (Figures 15 and 16). But even these categories may not apply to how each person prefers to be identified. Some White Americans prefer the term European American or Caucasian, and some Asian Americans prefer to be identified by their country of origin—for example, Chinese American or Indonesian American. Others prefer different designations. What we call ourselves is not a trivial matter. The terms used to refer to other groups are not ours to establish, and it's easy enough to use terms that others prefer.

Tips for Commenting on Peer Writing

Read first for meaning; comment on the large issues first—the information, organization, relevance for the audience, and overall clarity. Assume the role of reader—not instructor. Your job is to help the writer, not to grade the assignment. Point out sections that you liked, as well as those you disliked, explaining specifically why you thought they were effective or ineffective (not "I liked this part," but "You did a good job of explaining this difficult concept"). Use "I" language (not "You need to make this clearer," but "I was confused here"). Comment helpfully—but sparingly. You don't need to point out the same misspelling a dozen times. Emphasize the writer when giving positive feedback, and emphasize the text (rather than the writer) when giving negative feedback: "I'm glad you used the most current data from the annual report." "This argument would be more persuasive for me if it contained the most current data." Avoid taking over the text. Accept that you are reading someone else's writing—not your own. Make constructive suggestions, but avoid making decisions or demands.

Initial Group Goals

Teams work more effectively when the members know each other well—their strengths and weaknesses, work styles, experiences, attitudes, and so on. Starting off by getting to know each other improves the social dimension of your work, which may make tasks go more smoothly and help you enjoy the team experience more. Small talk about friends, family, and social activities before and after meetings is natural and helps establish a supportive and open environment. Even in online meeting environments, you can post a profile to introduce yourself or spend time IMing to learn about each other. Too often, decisions just happen on a team; members may go along with what they think everyone else wants. Instead, teams should agree on how they'll operate and make decisions; for example, consider discussing the following early on with your team: What if someone misses a deliverable or team meeting? How should he or she notify the team? What are the consequences? What if someone needs help completing a task? How should he or she handle this situation? What if two team members are having a conflict? How should it be resolved? Which decisions will be most important for the team? How should the team make those decisions?

Figure 11: Same Sign, Different Meanings

The use of physical touch is very culture specific. Many Asians do not like to be touched except for a brief handshake in greeting. However, handshakes in much of Europe tend to last much longer than in the United States and Canada, and Europeans tend to shake hands every time they see each other, perhaps several times a day. In much of Europe, men often kiss each other upon greeting; if you don't know this custom, you might react inappropriately and embarrass yourself. Our feelings about space are partly an outgrowth of our culture and partly a result of geography and economics. For example, Americans and Canadians are used to wide-open spaces and tend to move about expansively, using hand and arm motions for emphasis. But in Japan, which has much smaller living and working spaces, such abrupt and extensive body movements are not typical. Likewise, Americans and Canadians tend to sit face-to-face so that they can maintain eye contact, whereas the Chinese and Japanese (to whom eye contact is not so important) tend to sit side-by-side during negotiations. Also, the sense of personal space differs among cultures. In the United States and Canada, most business exchanges occur at about five feet, within the "social zone," which is closer than the "public zone," but farther than the "intimate zone" (see Figure 12). However, both in Middle Eastern and Latin American countries, this distance is too far. Businesspeople there tend to stand close enough to feel your breath as you speak. Most Americans and Canadians will unconsciously back away from such close contact.

The Variables of Group Communication

Three factors—conflict, conformity, and consensus—greatly affect a team's performance and how much team members enjoy working together. Let's consider a situation when these variables would come into play. Imagine that you worked for Disney when a young boy was killed by a bus at the Florida theme park. To address this tragedy, you are working on a crisis management team with managers from several departments: transportation, public relations, human resources, and legal. To be successful, this crisis team needs to navigate the variables that shape group communication, explained in Figure 1.

Cultural Differences

To help you understand differences, compare your own culture with another via the Hofstede Centre (https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/). Cultures differ widely in the traits they value. For example, Figure 8 shows that international cultures vary in how much they emphasize individualism, time orientation, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, formality, materialism, and context sensitivity. We can look at communication differences even more deeply through a lens of "high-context" and "low-context" cultures, the last value listed in Figure 8. According to anthropologist Edward T. Hall, high-context cultures rely less on words used and more on subtle actions and reactions of communicators. Communication for these cultures is more implicit and emphasizes relationships among people. Silence is not unusual in these cultures, as it could have great meaning. Low-context cultures, on the other hand, rely on more explicit communication—the words people use. In low-context cultures, tasks are more important than relationships, so people use a direct style of communication, which we'll explore more when we discuss how to organize a message. See examples of high- and low-context cultures along a continuum in Figure 9.

Communicate Clearly

To make your oral and written messages understood, follow these guidelines: Avoid slang, jargon, and other figures of speech. Expressions such as "They'll eat that up" or "out in left field" can confuse even a fluent English speaker. Be specific and illustrate your points with concrete examples. Provide and solicit feedback, summarize frequently, write a summary of points covered in a meeting, ask your counterpart for his or her understanding, and encourage questions. Use a variety of media: handouts (distributed before the meeting to allow time for reading), visuals, models, and so on. Speak plainly and slowly (but not so slowly as to be condescending); choose your words carefully. Use humor sparingly; humor is risky—it may be lost on your counterpart, or worse, it may offend someone. People who know more about, and are more comfortable with, different cultures are more effective managers because they reap the benefits of international business and avoid misunderstandings.

Gap Responds Swiftly to Racist Comments

To represent the diversity of its customers, Gap created an ad featuring Waris Ahluwalia, an Indian-American designer and actor, and Quentin Jones, a model and filmmaker. Much of the reaction was positive, but not everyone was happy with the portrayal. A graffitied version of the ad in a New York City subway included stereotypes of people wearing turbans as bombers and taxi drivers. When Gap learned of the offensive comments, the company said nothing directly about the controversy but published this statement: Gap is a brand that celebrates inclusion and diversity. Our customers and employees are of many different ethnicities, faiths, and lifestyles, and we support them all. In addition, Gap changed its Twitter banner to the original image. Support for the company's response traveled throughout Twitter, with people thanking Gap and promising to shop the store for the holidays. Companies must embrace the increasing diversity of their employees and consumer base. Gap took a risk, and the outcome seemed to outweigh the temporary backlash.

Strategies for Inclusive, Gender-Neutral Language

Use appropriate personal titles and salutations. If a woman has a professional title, use it (Dr. Martha Ralston, the Rev. Deborah Connell). Follow a woman's preference in being addressed as Miss, Mrs., or Ms. If a woman's marital status or her preference is unknown, use Ms. If you don't know the reader's sex or gender, use a gender-neutral salutation (Dear Investor, Dear Neighbor, Dear Customer, Dear Policyholder). Or, you may use the full name in the salutation (Dear Chris Andrews, Dear Terry Brooks). Avoid he or his as generic pronouns (e.g., "Each manager must evaluate his employees annually"). This is debatable, but is easy enough to work around with these alternatives: Use plural nouns and pronouns. "All managers must evaluate their employees annually." (But not: "Each manager must evaluate their employees annually," which uses a plural pronoun to refer to a singular noun.) Use second-person pronouns (you, your). "You must evaluate your employees annually." Omit the pronoun. "Each manager must evaluate employees annually." Use his or her (sparingly). "Each manager must evaluate his or her employees annually." Avoid using "one" as a singular pronoun, which is considered too formal for business communication in the United States.

Cultural Values

We can look at communication differences even more deeply through a lens of "high-context" and "low-context" cultures, the last value listed in Figure 8. According to anthropologist Edward T. Hall, high-context cultures rely less on words used and more on subtle actions and reactions of communicators. Communication for these cultures is more implicit and emphasizes relationships among people. Silence is not unusual in these cultures, as it could have great meaning. Low-context cultures, on the other hand, rely on more explicit communication—the words people use. In low-context cultures, tasks are more important than relationships, so people use a direct style of communication, which we'll explore more when we discuss how to organize a message. See examples of high- and low-context cultures along a continuum in Figure 9.

Income Level or Socioeconomic Status

Wealth has become a polarizing issue around the world. In the United States, for example, the Occupy Movement has inspired protests about—and backlash from—the so-called "one-percent" of earners, and McDonald's and other companies are under fire for paying low wages. In the office, family background and income level may give people an advantage. Someone raised in a family of business executives may understand important work behaviors, for example, what to wear and how to interact with senior-level managers. What if someone can't afford to wear tailored clothes or go out to lunch with the team? Try to be sensitive to financial pressures and how they can affect relationships and perception.

Other Characteristics

What else do we bring to work? Veteran status, political views, whether we have children, and many other qualities make each of us unique and full contributors to an organization. We are all members of different groups with different customs, values, and attitudes.

Delta Air Lines Misrepresents Ghana

When interacting with people from other cultures, withhold judgment. Although different from your own, attitudes held by an entire culture are probably based on sound reasoning. Listen carefully to what is being communicated, trying to understand the other person's perspective. Expect to adapt to different cultures. For Japanese business practices, it is not uncommon for the evening's entertainment to extend beyond dinner. You can expect a second round of drinks or an invitation to a coffee shop. Refusing a drink during social business engagements may even be considered rude or impolite. If you're not a drinker, think about how you would handle the situation in advance.

Diversity of Thought

When people think of diversity or inclusion, they often jump to differences in race and sex, but the concept of diversity is far more complex and interesting. When you're working with a team, you notice how differently everyone approaches a project. Karen sees only problems, Kai jumps right to a solution, and Stephanie wants to put together a schedule. What causes these differences in thought and approach? We all come from different places and bring with us what has shaped us. Growing up in a large family, practicing Judaism, living in an urban area, struggling financially, being diagnosed with Asperger's, being gay—these qualities and experiences make us who we are. The Chancellor's Committee on Diversity at The University of California, San Francisco, defines diversity as "The variety of experiences and perspective which arise from differences in race, culture, religion, mental or physical abilities, heritage, age, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, and other characteristics." Diversity of thought challenges our notion that people within a group all think and act alike. We are far more diverse than our skin color, age, or sex reveal. You may hear people in underrepresented minority groups referred to as "diverse," but they are no more diverse than White males (who are likely members of a minority group as well). Deloitte calls diversity of thought "the new frontier.... a more powerful and nuanced kind of diversity." The consulting firm offers ways managers can manage thought diversity, for example, by hiring for skill gaps and considering candidates who don't always get the "right" answers and by encouraging debate and facilitating tension, rather than avoiding it. This thinking about tension is consistent with team communication, discussed earlier in this chapter: a certain degree of conflict is healthy and necessary for organizations.

The Ethical Dimension of Team Communication

When you agree to participate on a team, you accept certain standards of ethical behavior. One of these standards is to put the good of the team ahead of personal gain. In baseball, team ethics are clear. If a runner is on base, the batter may bunt the ball, knowing he'll probably be thrown out (i.e., the pitcher will get the ball to first base before he gets there). The batter makes the sacrifice for the good of the team, so that the teammate can advance a base. Team members also have an ethical responsibility to respect each other's integrity and emotional needs. Everyone's ideas should be treated with respect, and no one should feel a loss of self-esteem. Team members should be encouraged to produce their best work, rather than feel criticized for not performing up to standard. When a baseball player hits a home run, the entire team celebrates. When a player strikes out, you'll never see team members criticizing him. Finally, each member has an ethical responsibility to promote the team's well-being—refraining from destructive gossip, dominating meetings, and sabotaging work. When New York Yankee Alex Rodriguez admitted using performance-enhancing steroids, for example, his behavior created controversy and bruised the reputation of the entire team. One team member's behavior can undermine the team's ability to reach its goals.

Religion

Whether we were raised in a certain tradition or adopted it later in life, religion helps people create meaning in their lives. At many companies, discussing religious beliefs, like political beliefs, is discouraged. But some companies allow people to practice what is most important to them during the day. Technology companies, for example, are beginning to use prayer rooms as a recruiting tool. In-flight Internet service provider Gogo is building dedicated spaces for Muslims and others to use for prayer or meditation. At the same time, people who don't practice religion should not be forced to do so. Unless the organization is identified with a particular religion, and new hires know this before accepting a job, employees may not want to, for example, pray before business meals. Be mindful about religious differences. Not everyone wants to hear "Merry Christmas" when it's not their holiday. Try to avoid assumptions based on appearance, names, or the majority.

High- and Low-Context Cultures

With restaurants in 119 countries, McDonald's adapts its marketing to local markets. For example, in Latin America, a collectivist society, McDonald's "Glad You Came" (#quebuenoqueviniste) campaign profiled people rather than products, which it showcases for individualist societies (Figure 10). Companies customize their websites for different cultures too. Site navigation for high-context cultures, for example, might include subtle guidance and new pages opening in several new browser windows. This strategy allows the user to select new entry points for further exploration. But for low-context cultures, which tend to have more linear thought patterns, navigational cues may be more explicit, and new pages will open within the current window, to allow the user to go back and forth easily. We all interpret events through our own mental filter, and that filter is based on our unique knowledge, experiences, and perspectives. For example, the language of time is as different among cultures as the language of words. Americans, Canadians, Germans, and Japanese are very time conscious and precise about appointments; Latin American and Middle Eastern cultures tend to be more casual about time. For example, if your Mexican host tells you that he or she will meet with you at 3:00, it's most likely más o menos (Spanish for "more or less") 3:00. Businesspeople in both Asian and Latin American countries tend to favor long negotiations and slow deliberations. They exchange pleasantries for a while before getting down to business. Similarly, many non-Western cultures use silence during meetings to contemplate a decision, whereas businesspeople from the United States and Canada tend to have little tolerance for silence in business negotiations. As a result, Americans and Canadians may rush in and offer compromises and counterproposals that would have been unnecessary if they were more comfortable with the silence—and more patient. Body language, especially gestures and eye contact, also varies among cultures. For example, our sign for "okay"—forming a circle with our forefinger and thumb—means "zero" in France, "money" in Japan, and a vulgarity in Brazil (Figure 11). Americans and Canadians consider eye contact important. In Asian and many Latin American countries, however, looking a colleague full in the eye is considered an irritating sign of poor upbringing.

Collaboration on Team Writing Projects

lo2 Collaborate to improve team writing. The increasing complexity of the workplace makes it difficult for any person to have the time or expertise to write long or complex documents on his or her own. Team writing is common in organizations for sales proposals, recommendation reports, websites, financial analyses, and other projects that require input from people in different functions or departments.

Strategies for Communicating across Cultures

maintain formality, show respect, communicate clearly When communicating with people from different cultures, whether abroad or at home, use the following strategies.