Chapter 5

How can athletes stimulate connective tissue adaptations, specifically in cartilage?

- mod intensity anaerobic exercise - ensure that load is applied throughout the ROM

What are 3 main functions of cartilage?

- provide a smooth joint articulating surface - act as a shock absorber for forces directed through the joint - aid in the attachment of connective tissue to the skeleton

Rate-pressure Product (Stroke Volume)

A measure of myocardial work; Characterized by heart rate X systolic blood pressure Typically remains constant or decreases following resistance training

Myogenesis

A muscular adaptation from anaerobic training: Increased muscle protein synthesis and subsequent growth Due to: - an increase of signaling of muscle contraction

Myotatic Reflex

A neuromuscular adaptation from anaerobic training: harnesses the elastic properties of the muscle and connective tissue and acts to positively increase force production without any additional energy requirement

Hyperplasia

increase in the number of muscle fibers via longitudinal fiber splitting in response to high-intensity resistance training

Parasympathetic Overtraining Syndrome

increased parasympathetic activity at rest and with exercise; eventually all states of overtraining culminate in the parasympathetic syndrome and the chronic suppression of most physiological systems throughout the body

Sympathetic Overtraining Syndrome

increased sympathetic activity at rest; is thought to develop before parasympathetic syndrome and predominates in younger athletes who train for speed and power

Hydroxyapatite

Hardy crystals consisting of calcium and phosphate that form the bone matrix.

What are exercise that can increase bone mineral density?

High impact cyclical loading exercises ex. gymnastic, volleyball, or basketball

Describe the two primary types of cartilage.

Hyaline Cartilage (articular cartilage) - found on articulating surfaces of bones Fibrous Cartilage - tough form of cartilage found in the intervertebral discs of the spine and the the junctions where tendons attach to bone Both get nutrients via diffusion from synovial fluid

Overtraining Syndrome

Prolonged maladaptation, not only of the athlete, but also of several biological, neurochemical, and hormonal regulation mechanisms. Can last as long as 6 months >. Also called... - burnout - chronic overwork - over fatigue

Describe hormone receptor changes due to anaerobic resistance training

Resistance training has been shown to upregulate androgen receptors within 48 to 72 hours after working out

What is the relationship between muscle size and firing rate (vs. recruiment)?

Smaller muscles rely more on an increased firing rate to enhance force production Larger muscles depend more on recruitment to enhance force production

How does Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage (EIMD) help w/ muscular adaptations from anaerobic training?

Structural changes from EIMD influence gene expression in an effort to strengthen muscle tissue and protect it from further damage

Reactive Hyperemia

if blood supply cut off then restored, flow increases above normal during rest periods

Procollagen

parent protein to collagen; synthesized and secreted by fibroblasts; indicates collagen formation

Anaerobic Alactic System

phosphagen or creatine phosphate system

Describe acute CV responses to anaerobic exercise

- HR, SV, CO, and BP all increase sig. during resistance exercise - Increased blood flow to active muscles

Activation of what two things are the prerequisites of hypertrophy of active muscle?

- activation of fibroblasts - subsequent growth of the connective tissue network

How can athletes stimulate connective tissue adaptations, specifically in tendons, ligaments, and fascia? (2)

- high intensity loading patterns using external resistances - forces should be exerted throughout the full range of motion of a join, and whenever possible multiple joint exercises should be used

Neural adaptations from anaerobic resistance training is due to what 4 changes?

- improved agonist muscle recruitment - improved firing rates - greater synchronization in neural discharge timing - reduction of inhibitory mechanisms (ex. GTOs)

What are the first signs and sx of prolonged training without full recovery?

- increase fatigue - decreased vigor - hormonal disturbances

Name physical and physiological adaptations of anaerobic resistance training (5)

- increased performance (speed, strength, endurance, power) - increased muscle fiber volume and cross sectional area - increased enzyme activity - increased metabolic energy stores - increased fat-free mass

What sites in the body can connective tissue increase strength and load bearing capacity?

- junction b/w tendon (and ligament) and bone surface - within the body of the tendon or ligament - in the network of fascia within skeletal muscle

How can athletes stimulate bone formation?

- select multi-joint, structural exercise that involve many muscle groups - select exercises the direct axial force vectors through the spine and hip and apply heavier loads - use the principle of progressive overload to stress the msk system - use both heavy-load exercise and ballistic/high impact exercise to expose bone to diff intensities - vary exercise selection. Creates collagen formation in multiple direction to increase strength

The degree to which blood flow is increased in the working muscles during anaerobic training is dependent on what 3 factors ?

- the intensity of resistance - the length of time of the effort (ex. the # of reps) - the size of the muscle mass activated

Describe the 4 stages of overtraining continuum?

- training overload - acute fatigue - functional overreaching - nonfunctional overreaching - overtraining syndrome

Male bodybuilders have been found to have lower systolic and diastolic BP and HR during sets of ___% to ____% of 1RM performed to momentary muscular fatigue

50-100%

How long does it take for bone adaptations to occur?

6+ months

Osteoporosis

A condition in which the body's bones become weak and break easily due to a decrease in bone mass density

What are the 2 types of EMG? What is the role of each?

1. Surface EMG: monitors superficial muscle 2. Intramuscular EMG: a needle electrode is inserted into the belly of the muscle itself

What 4 specific changes can occur within a tendon that contribute to its increase in size and strength?

1. an increase in collagen fibril diameter 2. a greater # of covalent cross-links w/in the hypertrophied fiber 3. an increase in the # of collagen fibers 4. an increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils

Muscular contractions greater than ______% of max voluntary contraction impede peripheral blood flow within the muscle during a set

20%

Strength performance in general is readily maintained for up to ______ weeks of inactivity, but may decline faster in highly trained athletes

4

When one is performing a box-to-box plyometric drop jump, in order to generate sufficient force in a limited amount of time )<200 ms), which muscle fibers are bypassed through the principle of selective recruitment? A. I B. IIa C. IIx D. IIc

A. I

Pennation angle

Affects the force production capabilities as well as the range of motion of a muscle The larger the pennation angle, the greater increase in CSA Resistance training has been shown to increase the angle of pennation

What type of exercise stresses the Anaerobic Alactic System? How can you minimize fatigue with this type of exercise?

Any exercise less than 10 seconds in duration. Minimize fatigue by allowing almost complete recovery btw sets (5-7 minutes) ex. sprints and plyometrics

Name psychological factors that accompany overtraining (5)

Athletes w/ OTS is accompanied with... - decreased vigor - decrease motivation and confidence - raised levels of tension - increases depression, anger, fatigue, confusion, anxiety, and irritability - impaired concentration

Following prolonged periods of detraining in elite strength/power athletes, which of the following physical characteristics will likely show the largest reduction as a consequence of the removal of an anaerobic training stimulus? A. total fat mass B. fast-twitch fiber cross-sectional area C. slow-twitch fiber cross-sectional area D. total type 1 muscle fiber content

B. fast-twitch fiber cross-sectional area

Bilateral Deficit vs Bilateral Facilitation

BD: asymmetries in force production between unilateral and bilateral movements BF: an increase in voluntary activation of the agonist muscle group during bilateral movements

Which of the following performance or physiological characteristics is NOT usually observed in a state of nonfunctional overreaching (NFOR) within athlete populations? A stagnation and a decrease in performance B. hormonal disturbances C. mood disturbances and depression D. increased levels of fatigue

C. mood disturbances and depression

Following a period of chronic high-intensity resistance training, a variety of physiological adaptations take place in a number of systems within the body that promote improved athletic performance in strength/power activities. If an elite athlete were to under 12 weeks of heavy strength training, which of the following adaptations would NOT be expected consequent to this type of anaerobic exercise? A. a transition from type IIx to type IIa muscle fiber B. increased pennation angle in certain muscle groups C. reduced sarcoplasmic reticulum and T-tubule density D. elevated sodium-potassium ATPase activity

C. reduced sarcoplasmic reticulum and T-tubule density

Following resistance training, augmented neural drive to the working musculature is the result of I. increased agonist muscle recruitment II. muscle hypertrophy III. improved firing rate IV. greater synchronization A. all of the above B. I and IV only C. I, II, and III only D. I, II, and IV only

D. I, II, and IV only

In which of the following athletes might you expect limited bone mineral density (BMD) levels as a consequence of the force vectors and the physical demands associated with the given sport? A. a 16-year-old gymnast with a seven-year training history in her sport B. a 23-year-old offensive lineman who has lifted weights for eight years C. a 33-year-old track cyclist who has a 1RM squat of 352 pounds D. a 19-year-old 800 m freestyle swimmer with one year of dryland training

D. a 19-year old 800 m freestyle swimmer with one year of dryland swimming

Stroke volume and cardiac output increase mostly with eccentric or concentric exercises

Eccentric Exercises - esp when the valsalva technique is used

Define Osteogenic Stimuli. How you can increase osteogenic stimuli?

Factors that stimulate new bone formation To increase osteogenic stimuli exercises should: - involve multiple joints - be structural (direct force vectors primarily through the spine and hip) - apply external loads heavier than those w/ single joint assistance exercise ex. squat, power clean, deadlift, snatch, push jerk, and shoulder press

True or False. Anaerobic exercise results in substantial increases in muscle and blood pH

False. Reductions of muscle and blood pH Which allows the body to improve its buffering capacity and allows for increased tolerance of H+ accumulation

True or False. Tendon stiffness decreases as a result of resistance training

False. Tendon stiffness increases.

What type of exercise stresses the Anaerobic Lactic System? How can you minimize fatigue with this type of exercise?

Longer duration interval high intensity type anaerobic training w. shorter rest intervals (20-60 secs)

At what part of a training program will you see the most neural adaptation vs muscle hypertrophy vs muscle plateau

Most adaptation: 6-10 weeks Muscle hypertrophy: >10 weeks Muscle plateau: Occurs as accommodation to training load occurs (can be preventing w/ variation)

Overtraining vs Functional Overreaching (FOR)/Overreaching vs. Nonfunctional Overreaching. Include recovery times.

OT: *Long term decrements* in performance with or without associated physiological or psychological signs and symptoms of maladaptation Recovery of overtraining can take several weeks to months --- FO: Purposely intensified training to cause a *brief decrement* in performance followed by a supercompensative improvement in performance. Recovery of overreaching can take a few days or weeks. --- NFOR: State of extreme overreaching leading to stagnation and decrease in performance Recovery of NFOR can take weeks to months

Microfibril

Parallel arrangement of collagen filaments

Size Principle

Principle regarding the recruitment or decruitment or motor units: Motor units are recruited in an ascending order according to their thresholds and firing rates - with small sized motor neurons being recruited first (type 1)

Trabecular Bone vs Cortical Bone

TB: spongy bone. More flexible and inclined to withstand adaptive change. CB: compact bone. Typically dense and forms a outer shell surrounding TB.

Motor Unit

The functional unit of the neuromuscular system. Consists of alpha motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it activates

What is a predominant feature of overtraining syndrome?

The inability to sustain high intensity exercise when training load is maintained or increased

Progressive Overload

To gradually increase the amount of overload so that fitness gains occur, but without potential for injury This principle applies when one is training to increase bone mass.

Principle of Reversibility

Training adaptation can disappear when the training load is insufficient or removed completely - results in a partial or complete loss of gains (depends on the length of the detraining period)

True or False. After the use of anaerobic training, the recruitment of fast twitch motor units is elevated to support the ability to maximally recruit muscles

True Therefore, use estim to promote healing and eliciting muscle gains

True or False. During detraining, the amount of muscle strength retained is rarely lower than the pretraining values

True. Indicates that resistance training has a residual effect when the stimulus is removed.

True or False. High intensity resistance and anaerobic endurance training can change Type IIx muscle fibers to IIa muscle fibers

True. Type IIx muscle fibers change their myosin ATPase content and progressively become more oxidative Typically occurs early in training - ~4 weeks

Describe the ventilatory response to anaerobic exercise.

Ventilation rate is either unaffected or only moderately improved w/ anaerobic training Increased tidal volume and breathing frequency w/ max exercise (opposite in submax exercise)

Stress Fracture

a small crack in the bone that often develops from chronic, excessive impact

Selective Recruitment

allow an athlete to inhibit lower-threshold motor units and in their place activate the higher threshold motor units critical to optimal speed and power performance ex. ballistic muscular contractions - olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, agility training

Volume related overtraining has been shown to increase _________ levels, decreased resting ___________ hormone, and decrease total/free _____________ concentrations

cortisol, LH, testosterone

Detraining

decrement in performance and loss of accumulated physiological adaptations following the *cessation* of anaerobic training OR when there is a substantial reduction in frequency, volume, intensity, or any combination of these variables

Specificity of Loading (to increase bone strength)

demands the use of exercises that directly load the particular region of interest of the skeleton New forces will stimulate bone growth in that area receiving the strain.

Hypertrophy

enlargement of muscle fiber cross-sectional area following training Due to: An increase # of actin, myosin, titin, and nebulin which increases its diameter

Cross-Education

exercising a muscle undergoing resistance training produces increased strength in the contralateral resting muscle AKA there is a central neural adaptation the accounts for general strength gains

Anaerobic Lactic System is another name for...

glycolytic system

Osteoblasts

manufactures and secrete protein to help build bone strength and form the bone matrix (calcium phosphate crystals)

Define Collagen. What are the 2 types?

primary structural component of all connective tissue Type 1: bone, tendon, ligaments Type 2: cartilage

Elastin

protein base similar to collagen that forms elastic tissue in ligaments - allows a certain amount of stretch for ROM of a ligament

Neuromuscular Junction

the junction between a nerve fiber and the muscle it supplies - Anaerobic training appears to induce beneficial morphological changes in the NMJ

Peak Bone Mass

the maximum bone density attained at any time in life, usually occurring in young adulthood

Bone Mineral Density (BMD)

the quantity of mineral deposited in a given area of bone

Ventilatory Equivalent

the ratio of air ventilated to oxygen used by the tissues (Ve/Vo2)

Minimal Essential Strain (MES)

the threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation Consistently exceeding MES signals osteoblasts to migrate to the region w/ the stress and to form bone