Chapter 6
aggressive driving may be defined as
any behavior intended to cause physical, emotional or psychological harm to another within the driving environment.
sexual harrasment
any deliberate or repeated sexual behavior that is unwelcome to the recipiant, as well as other sex related behaviors that are hostile, offensive or degrading
aggressive driving needs to be separated from
assertive or reckless driving (driving in a risky and selfish manner)
Girls bullied at age 8 were more likely to have __________ by the age of 25 than those who were not
attempted or completed suicided
workplace aggression better definition
behavior by an individual or individuals within or outside a organisation that is intended to physically or psychologically harm a worker or workers in a work related context.
Bullying rates are higher for ____ and victimization rates are higher for ____
boys girls
Risk Factors for Workplace Aggression
bullied at school predisposes to later experiences of workplace bullying - Negative affectivity predicts small amount of being bullied in workplace o Tendency to experience distress/sensitive to negative events/pessimistic view of self - Men are mostly bullied by men, women bullied by both men and women - Bullying is less common among higher-status (women are the exception)
_________ has the greatest number of risk factors (and thus should be targeted for intervention)
bully-victims
strain
describes how individual responds to the stressors
bullying can take many forms including
direct and indirect forms
Last type of approach is
feild studies conducted in naturalistic observations to study situational variables
being bullied by a supervisor has the worst results
higher psychological stress, intention to leave, reducded job satisfaction, lower workplace performance.
Victims of both traditional and cyberbullying report
increased risk of suicidal thoughts and suicide
Anonymity
less aggression with people in the car, than alone More aggression when alone in a car and also with tinted windows - Ellison-Potter et al (2001) had P's imagine driving open-top convertible or closed-top convertible o Anonymity significantly increased aggression while driving o Drove faster, through more red lights, more collisions, killed more pedestrians
cyberbullying is carried out by
means of modern technology to inflict intentional harm on a peer repeatedly and over time.
The Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX)
measures drivers general propensities to engage in aggressive behavior when they are angry
victims of bullys twice as likely to report _________ symptoms. But bullies actually report these more that non bullies, but victim-bullies the highest.
psychosomatic
workplace aggression (also called workplace bullying)
refers to behaviors that intended to make another person feel miserable at work over long periods of time
most common way of assessing aggressive driving is through
self-reports
what are the common methods employed to study bullying?
self-reports peer nominations parental, teacher or coworker reports Direct Observation
risk factors for bullying and victimization
1. low socializing skills and internalizing symptoms 2. negative family environment and low peer status 3.) poor acedemic performance and holding negative attitudes (for bullies) 4. low social competence (more of victims and bully-victims) 5.) gender(males) more likely to be bullies, or bully-victims
predictors of aggressive behavior can be divided into two categories
1. personal characteristics of actors involved 2. contextual variables
Risk-glorifying media
1. playing racing games lead to increases in positive evaluations of risk taking, the accessibility of risk-promoting cognition's and risky behavior is simulators. 2.) found risk-glorifying media (games) enhance reckless self-concept when violations of traffic rules are rewarded
two Interventions methods
1. targeting the aggressive driver 2. changing the contextual conditions that influence aggressive driving
Three Contextual risk factors:
1. traffic congestion 2. anonymity 3. risk glorifying media
Personal Risk Factors for Aggressive Driving
1.Boredom susceptibility/sensation seeking related to aggression 2.High levels of narcissism/grandiose feelings of superiority (influenced by gender and trait aggression) Those who scored low on narcissim men more aggressive driving. Opposite of women. combination of anger and narcissism yield highest rates of aggressive driving scores participants (men) who had an obsessive passion for driving - the more aggressively they drove.
Last 2
3. Aggressive driving declines with age, gender gap diminishes with age (yomg men disproportionatly high) 4. Gender - men more aggressive drivers Men show higher levels of violent driving, but mild driver aggression no difference found. Gender differences (the social role model) - men more aggressive because these attribuites fit with male gender roles. Macho men (high masculine identity) show more aggression o Femininity linked to lower aggression (masculinity linked to higher levels)
______ have a higher propensity to engage in sexually harassing behaviors
men
Those who engaged in or watched aggressive sports showed increased belief that it can reduce aggressive tension -
but in reality More aggression displayed in match, more aggression shown by those watching
stress
efers to subjective experience/representation of these stressors by an individual
sports that require extensive physical contact are more likely to
elicit aggressive tendencies in the spectators
Traffic Congestion
frustrates drivers goals of swift progress commuters on high traffic route report more stress and higher aggressive driving. More tailgating in higher traffic. o Causes higher levels of acute driving stress (especially in high as opposed to low time urgency - especially those prone to stress while driving)
spectators watching a wrestling (stylized aggression) or ice hockey ( realistic aggression)
greater hostility and punitiveness than those watching non-aggressive sport.
situational variables include:
heat , time pressure, or status of the offending car, and uses honking horns as the measure of aggressive driving
Two forms of aggression can be seen in sports
instrumental and hostile
a second less popular appraoch
is to study aggressive driving in a simulator to obtain data analogous to real life.
what makes it different from traditional forms
it can be used to humiliate and intimidate a target on a large scale and under the cloak of anonymity.
- Deffenbacher et al (2003) noted difference between state anger vs. trait anger
o Those high in trait anger only more aggressive when state anger is higher too o High trait anger requires a situational frustration to "activate it"
changing the contextual conditions that influence aggressive driving
o good to decrease contextual stressors (i.e. promote public transit) - Wiesenthal et al (2000) those listening to music in bad traffic were less stressed
bullies chare many individual and contextual risks with
sexual aggression (which may mean they are more likely to engage in the behavior)
Also bullies have higher rates of _______
suicide rates
workplace violence denotes
those acts of workplace aggression that are intended to cause physical harm
Risk factors inherent of work environment:
work constraints, role conflict, role ambiguity o Show larger effect sizes as predictors of workplace aggression
it is estimated that ________ will experience sexual harassment at some point in her working life.
1 in 2
Personal charactersicts:
1. Gender - Male players generally believe rule-violating behaviours (aggress.) to be more ok than females o Males commit more acts of aggression than females in sport o Related to endorsement of masculine gender identity (also linked with perceived competence)
road rage
denotes extreme acts of aggressive driving, involving assultive behavior with the intentions of causing bodily harm and possibly homicide.
Color of uniform
ooked at uniform colours, black is associated with connotations of evil/wicked o Those wearing black rated as more malevolent by participants o Those wearing black received more penalties Switch from non-black to black increased penalties o Referees saw same footage but black or non-black uniforms More willing to give penalties to teams wearing black o P's chose games to play wearing either their own clothes, black clothes, or white clothes Picked more aggressive games when wearing black -
Organizational characteristics predictors for sexual harassment:
organization climate, and masculine work environment (gender ratio or gendered power hierarchy)
school based bullying programs are not __________ in reducing bullying
practically effective
In the UK the first
privately run school was opened in 1999 to give a small group of severely victimized adolescences the oppurtunity to learn in a protected school environment.
only ___ of secondary students would "certainly" intervene
10%
Cosquences Significant impact on victims' well-being and work-related functioning
Decrease in job satisfaction and organizational commitment
targeting aggressive drivers
Deffenbacker et al (2002) high driver anger to three intervention groups, for 8 weeks: o Focus on relaxing, relaxing + cognitive techniques, non-intervention control o Collected baseline driving anger/aggressive driving, then again 4-week follow-up o After 4-weeks, only cognitive + relaxing differed significantly
Sexual harassment is associated w/ a range of negative physical and mental health outcomes
Including risk of developing PTSD Younger employees were most negatively effected global job satisfaction, organisational commitment and work group productivity.
Aggressive behavior outside the field
Research has shown little evidence suggesting athletes are more aggressive off the field nor is there evidence to suggest sports engagement serves as a protective factor against aggression as would be suggested by the catharsis hypothesis.
Interventions of bullying
Small intervention effects found reported higher self-esteem and social competence Teachers knowledge about bullying increased Reduction in bullying did not decrease Feeling safe in schools decreased and anxiety increased(counter intuitive effects)
consists of four sub scales
verbal aggression, personal physical aggression using ones vehicle to express aggression displacing aggression onto others (not the motorists creating the anger)
Revised Negative Acts Questionaire (NAQ-R) measures 22 items addressing 3 dimensions:
1. work related bullying 2.person-related bullying 3. physically intimidating bullying
Bullying is carried out with the intention of inflicting harm on a target person ( meeting the core definition of aggressive behavior) it has two other features:
1.) It involves an imbalance of power between the aggressor and the victim. 2.) it is carried out repeatedly and over time.
Contextual risk factors
1.) Temperature (heat hypothesis) 2.) Color of uniform
Particpant role approach identified four roles over an above bully and victim
1.) assistants to bullies 2.) reinforces of bullies 3.) defenders of the victim 4.) outsiders
______ is critical antecedent of aggression while driving (traffic is the instigating frustration)
anger
Stressors
are measurable properties of work environment
NAQ-r has correlations with reported
psychosomatic symptoms and intentions to leave