Child and Adolescent Development Exam 2

How does shape constancy develop in infants?

A broad sense of shape constancy seems to be established by the time infants are four or five months old because they see the features of their caregivers, bottles, cribs, and toys from all different angles very early on.

What is accommodation?

Accommodation is the modification of existing schemes in order to incorporate new events or knowledge. Piaget stated that when assimilation didn't enable children to make sense of new events, child modify existing schemes through accommodation.

What are schemes?

According to Piaget, schemes are action patterns (such as reflexes) or mental structures that are involved in the acquisition or organization of knowledge. Piaget believed we create schemes for every concept we encounter in our lives.

When can an infant typically creep?

An infant can typically creep around nine to ten months.

When can an infant typically roll over?

An infant can typically roll over, from back to stomach and from stomach to back, by about six months.

When can an infant typically sit unsupported?

An infant can typically sit unsupported by about seven months.

When can an infant typically walk?

An infant can typically walk around their first birthday. The range is twelve to thirty months.

When can an infant typically crawl?

An infant typically begins to crawl at about eight to nine months.

What growth patterns in weight occur in infancy?

An infant usually doubles their birth weight in about five months, and triple it by their first birthday. Infants gain another 4-7 pounds during the second year. The average child is 26-28 pounds by their third birthday.

What growth patterns in height occur in infancy?

An infant's height usually increases by about 50% in the first year. Infants grow another 4-6 inches during the second year. The average child is 54-56 inches tall by their third birthday.

What is assimilation?

Assimilation is the incorporation of new events or knowledge into existing schemes. Piaget hypothesized that children try to use assimilation to absorb new events into existing schemes.

How does an infant's ability to life and hold their torso and head develop?

At birth, infants can move their heads slightly to the side, which is helpful in avoiding suffocation. At about one month, infants can raise their heads. By two months, they can also life their chests while lying on their stomachs. By three to six months, infants generally manage to hold their heads quite well and don't need support when being held.

What is canalization?

Canalization is the tendency to return to one's genetically predetermined pattern of growth.

What is cephalocaudal development?

Cephalocaudal development is development that proceeds from the upper part of the head to the lower parts of the body. The head and the brain develop and grow first, and then the brain assists the rest of the body as it develops and grows. The development of the brain first is essential for the subsequent development of the rest of the body (arms, torsos, and legs).

How does an infant's locomotion ability develop?

Children gain the capacity to move their bodies through a sequence of activities that include rolling over, sitting up, crawling, creeping, walking, and running. As children mature and move, their muscle strength, the density of their bones, and their balance and coordination improve.

What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development is the development of children's ways of perceiving and mentally representing the world.

What is colostrum?

Colostrum is the breast milk a mother produces the first few days after giving birth that is packed with nutrients.

What are dendrites?

Dendrites are short fibers that extend from the cell body and receive incoming messages from thousands of other neurons.

What is differentiation?

Differentiation is the processes by which behaviors and physical structures become more specialized. Children's physical reactions become less global and more specific as they mature. An infant whose finger has been pricked may trash about and cry, while a toddler will only cry and withdraw the finger, and an adult will withdraw the finger.

What is failure to thrive?

Failure to thrive is a disorder of impaired growth in infancy and early childhood characterized by failure to gain weight within normal limits. The disorder could be caused organically, like an underlying health problem resulting in failure to obtain or make use of adequate nutrition (organic FTT), or inorganically, like psychological roots, social roots, or both (inorganic FTT). Children with FTT experience physical growth, cognitive, behavioral, and emotional problems because they don't have the nutrients they need for development.

What is habituation?

Habituation is the process in which one becomes used to a repeated stimulus and therefore pays less attention to it.

Is infant brain development nature or nature?

Infant brain development is both. Development of the areas of the brian that control sensation and movement begins as a result of maturation, but sensory stimulation and physical activity also spur their development. Experience interacts with the unfolding of the genetic code to produce the brain and intellectual functioning.

Is infant motor development nature or nurture?

Infant motor development is both. Certain voluntary motor activities are not possible until the brain has matured in terms of myelination and the differentiation of the motor areas of the cortex, but infants also need some opportunity to experiment before they can engage in milestones such as sitting up and walking.

Is infant perceptual development nature or nurture?

Infant perceptual development is both. Our inborn sensory capacities play a crucial role in our perceptual development, but experience also plays a role. Newborns come into the world with a number of perceptual skills and are born with tendencies to track moving objects, scan the horizon, and prefer certain stimuli. Sensory changes tend to be linked to maturation of the nervous system. However, there is also evidence that failure to receive adequate sensory stimulation during these critical periods can result in permanent sensory deficits.

How does coordination of the senses develop in infants?

Infants as young as one month can recognize that objects experienced by one sense are the same as those experienced through another sense.

When do infants start to social smile?

Infants begin to social smile around two to four months. Before this, smiles were reflective and not purposeful or meaningful. Infants learn that smiling elicits caregiver respond and attention, which they love, so they do it.

How does cephalocaudal development occur in infancy?

Infants can hold up their heads before they gain control over their arms, torsos, and legs. They begin to gain control over their arms first, then their torsos, and then their legs. Infants can sit up before they can crawl and walk, and when they first walk they use their hands to hold onto a person or object for support. Their arms grow more rapidly than the legs do at first.

When can infants indicate hunger and fullness?

Infants can indicated hunger between four to six months by learning forward and indicate fullness by turning away from food.

How does proximodistal development occur in infancy?

Infants gain control over their trunks and their shoulders before they can control their arms, hands, and fingers. They can grab large objects before picking up tiny ones with their fingers, and they swipe at objects with their arms before they voluntarily grasp them with their fingers. Infants gain control over their hips and upper legs before they can direct their lower legs, feet, and toes. Infants can roll over and sit up before they can walk.

How does depth perception develop in infants?

Infants generally respond to cues for depth by the time they are able to crawl, which is around six to eight months, and most have the good sense to avoid "going off the deep end."

Do infants grow gradually or in spurts?

Infants grow in spurts. Research shows that about 90-95% of the time, they are not growing at all, but grow in a twenty-four hour spurt or so.

What visual stimuli do infants prefer?

Infants prefer complex stimuli, like stripes and curved lives. The more complex a stimuli, the more interested an infant is in that stimuli. Infants also love to look at faces.

What should infants be fed?

Infants should be fed either breast milk or an iron-fortified infant formula. Newborns only need a tablespoon of breastmilk in the beginning because their stomach is the size of a cherry, and they should be fed every two to three hours. Solid foods are introduced at 4 to 6 months.

What should you give infants when they're working on their ability to grasp objects?

Infants start successfully grasping objects between four and six months. Caregivers should give their four to six month old infants rattles, large plastic spoons, mobiles, and other brightly colored hanging toys that can be grasped but are not choking hazards.

How does an infant's ability to control their hands develop?

Infants track slowly moving objects with their eyes shortly after birth, but don't reach for them, and they show a grasp reflex, but don't reliably reach for the objects that appear to interest them. Grasping is reflexive at first. Voluntary grasping replaces reflexive grasping by the ages of three to four months. By about three months, infants make clumsy swipes at objects, but fail to grasp them because their aim is poor or they mess up the timing of closing their hands. Between four and six months, infants become more successful at grasping objects, but they may not know how to let go if it and hold it until their attention is diverted. By the age of four to six months, they can transfer objects between hands, and the thumb comes into play at about nine to twelve months. Between the ages of five and eleven months, infants adjust their hands in anticipation of grasping moving targets and gather information from the objects' movement to predict their future location and catch them. Children can stack two blocks at fifteen months, three blocks at eighteen months, and five blocks at twenty-four months. At about twenty-four months of age, children can also copy horizontal and vertical lines.

What are some inorganic causes for FTT?

Inorganic causes for FTT include psychological roots, social roots, or both, like refusing to eat or neglect and abuse.

What is marasmus?

Marasmus is a form of failure to thrive that is characterized by wasting away due to a diet low in essential nutrients. Marasmus is a wasted, potentially lethal body condition caused by inadequate nutrition and characterized by painful thinness. It can be a result of a mother not producing not enough milk or bottle feeding being inadequate.

When can an infant typically stand?

Most infants can remain standing while holding onto something at the age of eight to nine months when they're placed standing up. They might also be able to walk a bit when supported by adults. At ten to eleven months, infants can typically pull themselves to a standing position by holding onto something and can stand briefly without holding on.

What is motor development?

Motor development involves the activity of muscles, leading to changes in posture, movement, and coordination of movement with the infant's developing sensory apparatus. Infants follow cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of development and differentiation. Infant gain control of their heads and upper torsos before they can effectively use their arms, and they can control their trunks and shoulders before they can use their hands and fingers.

What is multiple sclerosis?

Multiple sclerosis is a disorder in which myelin is replaced by hard, fibrous tissue that disrupts the timing of neural transmission, thus interfering with muscle control.

What is myelin sheath?

Myelin sheath is a fatty, white substance that encases and insulates neurons, permitting more rapid transmission of neural impulses

What is myelination?

Myelination is the process by which axons are coated with myelin. Myelination is not complete at birth; It is part of the maturation process. Infants are often helpless because of the incomplete myelination of their neurons. Only neurons in the brain stem are myelinated at birth.

When does myelination of the motor area of the cerebral cortex occur?

Myelination of the motor area of the cerebral cortex begins at about the fourth month of prenatal development. Myelin develops rapidly along the major motor pathways from the cerebral cortex during the last month of pregnancy and continues after birth.

How does hearing develop in infants?

Myelination of the neurons and pathways involved in hearing continue until about the age of four. By eighteen months, the accuracy of their sound-localizing ability approaches that of adults. Sensitivity to sound, range of pitch, ability to detect differences in pitch and loudness, and auditory acuity increases and improves in the first few months of life/first few years.

What are nerves?

Nerves are bundles of axons from many neurons.

What are neurons?

Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system that receive and transmit messages from one part of the body to another. People are born with about 100 billion neurons, most of which are in the brain and not connected, and these are the neurons you will have for the rest of your life. You cannot make neurons after birth. Neurons vary according to their functions and locations in the body. Each neuron possesses a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

What are neurotransmitters?

Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that make possible the transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to another.

What do newborns focus on when they look at human faces?

Newborns direct their attention to the edges of objects for the first several weeks. As early as one month, infants tend to pay most attention to the edges of faces, including the chin, ears, and hairline. They also look at some inner features, like the eyes and the mouth. After two months, this tendency seems to fade and infants begin looking at inner features first. It is theorized that newborns are more concerned with locating things and their attention is captured by sharp contracts in brightness and shape, while infants tend to focus on the what of things.

What is object permanence?

Object permanence is the recognition that an object or person continues to exist when it is out of sight. Infants develop object permanence around eight to twelve months. Earlier in that age range, the A not B error occurs. Infants later in the age range do not exhibit the A not B error, which suggests that they need a certain degree of maturation of the front loves of the cerebral cortex.

Can a child's growth catch up to the typical course after it had been deflected by another factor?

Once the factor affecting development and growth is addressed, a child's rate of growth can accelerate and return to the typical course of growth.

What are some organic causes for FTT?

Organic causes for FTT include underlying health problems resulting in failure to obtain or make use of adequate nutrition, like the infant instantly vomiting up food or the mother's breastmilk not having nutrients.

What is perceptual constancy?

Perceptual constancy is the tendency to perceive an object to be the same, even though the sensations produced by the object may differ under various conditions.

Who is Piaget?

Piaget is a Swiss psychologist. He wasn't studying psychology at the time, but he was working on testing, specifically in children, and found that children of the same age would answer questions wrong in the exact same way. This peaked his interest. He wanted to explain how we learn information at different stages and what we are able to do with it. He started observing his own children and applied what he was observing to other children. He hypothesized that children's cognitive processes develop in an orderly sequence of stages and identified four major stages.

What are primary circular reactions?

Primary circular reactions are the repetition of acts that first occurred by chance and that focus on the infant's own body.

What is proximodistal development?

Proximodistal development is development that proceeds from the body's central axis toward the periphery. The brain and the spine are located along the central axis of the body, and these structures develop and grow before the arms and the legs. The development of the brain and spine are essential for the subsequent development of the arms and legs.

What is reactive attachment disorder?

Reactive attachment disorder is a disorder caused by deficiencies in caregiver-child interactions and failure to thrive. Mothers who have children with FTT show fewer adaptive social interactions and fewer positive feelings toward their infants, and they terminate feedings more arbitrarily. Children with FTT are less likely to be securely attached to their mothers.

How does size constancy develop in infants?

Research suggests that size constancy is present in early infancy, as early as two to three months. Some research even suggests that newborns possess rudimentary size constancy.

What are secondary circular reactions?

Secondary circular reactions are the repetition of actions that produce an effect on the environment.

What is shape constancy?

Shape constancy is the tendency to perceive an object as having the same shape even though, when the object is perceived from another angle, the shape projected onto the retina may change dramatically.

What is size constancy?

Size constancy is the tendency to perceive the same objects as being the same size even though their retinal sizes vary as a function of their distance.

When should solid foods be introduced?

Solid foods should be introduced between four to six months. The tongue-thrust reflex must be gone.

What is synaptic pruning?

Synaptic pruning is when we get rid of neurons we don't need. We are born with so many neurons and when they all start making connections it can be overwhelming, so synaptic pruning is necessary. Our body naturally knows to do this.

What are tertiary circular reactions?

Tertiary circular reactions are purposeful adaptations of established schemes to new situations.

How long does the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend infants should be breastfed for?

The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that infants should be breastfed throughout the first year and longer if possible. After one year, infants can be introduced to whole cow's milk, which has great nutrition for the brain, if breastfeeding does not continue.

What is the Visual Cliff study?

The Visual Cliff study is examines depth perception in infants. Infants of various ages were placed in front of a visual cliff. Eight out of ten of the infants who had begun to crawl refused to venture onto the seemingly unsupported surface, even when their mothers encouraged them to. The study also examined infants' emotional responses to the cliff before the infants could crawl. One month old infants show no emotional response, which indicates they did not perceive the visual cliff. Two month old infants showed interest. Nine month olds showed intense fear responses. When the mother was placed opposite the child on the visual cliff and was showing fear on her face, the child wouldn't cross. When the mother was smiling and encouraging the child to cross, the child was much more likely to cross over to her.

What is the age range for newborns?

The age range for newborns is birth through two months.

What is the age range for the developmental period of infancy?

The age range for the developmental period of infancy is birth to 3 years. A child is considered an infant up until their third birthday.

What is the age range for toddlers?

The age range for toddlers is 1 to 2. When a child starts walking, they can be considered a toddler.

What are the visual capabilities of a newborn baby?

The area of the cortex and neurons involved in vision are less myelinated at birth. A newborn baby is extremely nearsighted with a vision of about 20/600 and has poor peripheral vision. They cannot perceive visual stimuli that are off to the side by an angle of more than thirty degrees, compared to an adults of ninety degrees.

What is the axon?

The axon is the long, thin part of the neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons through small branding structures called axon terminals. Messages are released from axon terminals in the form of chemicals called neurotransmitters.

How does the brain develop in infants?

The brain develops prenatally. Cells differentiate and create different brain areas early on. At birth, the parts of the brain involved in heartbeat and respiration, sleeping and arousal, and reflex activity are fairly well myelinated and functional. The areas of the cortex involved in vision, hearing, and the skin senses are less well myelinated at birth. As we age, our neurons become myelinated, more connections form between neurons, and children become more capable of complex and integrated sensorimotor activities. The brain doesn't become fully myelinated until adolescence.

What is the brain?

The brain is the command center of the developing organism that contains neurons and provides the basis for physical, cognitive, and social development. At birth, the brain weighs 14 ounces. By the first birthday, the brain triples in weight, reaching 70% of its adult weight. The brain grows in size through the proliferation of dendrites and axon terminal and the formation of neuronal connections. As dendrites grow and expand and axon terminals branch and expand, more connections between neurons are made.

What brain structure starts to get myelinated soon after birth?

The cerebellum starts to get myelinated soon after birth. The cerebellum is responsible for voluntary movements and the myelination of the structure coincides with infant motor development (crawling, walking, moving arms and legs).

What occurs in the fifth substage of sensorimotor development?

The fifth substage lasts from about twelve to eighteen months of age. This substage is characterized by purposeful adaptations of established schemes to new situations, also known as tertiary circular reactions. Infants conduct deliberate trial and error behaviors. Piaget described them as budding scientists. An example of this substage would be an infant throwing an object from their high chair in different ways.

What occurs in the first substage of sensorimotor development?

The first substage covers the first month after birth. Newborns learn through the innate reflexes they are born with. They begin to modify these reflexes immediately based on experience. This is how they first interact with their world. An example of this substage would be the sucking reflex. Newborns are born with the sucking reflex and it helps them get the food they need to survive. Within the first few hours, they may accommodate patterns of sucking to the shape of the nipple and the rate of flow of fluid.

What occurs in the fourth substage of sensorimotor development?

The fourth substage occurs between eight to twelve months. This substage is characterized by infants putting their secondary circular reactions together to attain specific goals. They coordinate schemes to attain specific goals. This serves as the beginning of intentionality and of the infant wanting something to happen so they set their mind to make it happen. An example of this substage would be an infant lifting a piece of cloth in order to reach a toy that they had seen a parent place under the cloth earlier. Object permanence develops during this substage.

How does cephalocaudal development occur prenatally?

The head develops more rapidly than the rest of the body, and the brain develops more rapidly than the spinal cord. Arm buds form before leg buds. Infants are born with a strong sucking reflex but have little control over their arms and legs.

What are the body proportions of children?

The length of the head tends to be about one-eighth to one-tenth of the body's height in adults. In children, the head is proportionately larger. Prenatally, the head begins as the largest part of the body. The head gradually diminishes in proportion to the rest of the body as the rest of the body develops. When born, a newborn's arms and legs are about equal in length, roughly one a half times the length of the head. Their neck begins to visibly lengthen by their first birthday and the arms are longer than the legs by their second birthday, only for the legs to catch up with and surpass the arms in length soon.

How does proximodistal development occur prenatally?

The life functions of newborn babies, including heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and elimination of wastes, are all carried out by organs close to the central axis and must be ready to operate when the child is born. These organs develop first, and then the arms and legs are developed.

When does the myelination of neurons involved in the sense of hearing occur?

The myelination of neurons involved in the sense of hearing occur at about the sixth month of pregnancy, coinciding with the period in which fetuses begin to respond to sound. Myelination of the neurons and pathways continues until about the age of four.

When does the myelination of neurons involved in vision occur?

The myelination of neurons involved in vision occurs only shortly before full term, but then they complete the process of myelination rapidly. By five to six months after birth, vision has become the dominant sense.

How does vision develop in infants?

The myelination of neurons involved in vision occurs quickly after birth and dramatic gains in visual acuity occur. By five to six months, an infant has a vision of 20/50 and vision is the most dominant sense. Afterwards, gains in visual acuity become more gradual, approximating adult levels by about three to five years of age. Their peripheral vision expands to an angle of about forty five degrees by the age of seven weeks, and their peripheral vision is about equal to that of an adult by six months.

What is the nature approach to infant brian development?

The nature approach of infant brain development highlights that our brains are genetically predisposed to develop, including myelinating and making connections between neurons. Our body just naturally knows to do these processes. However, these connections aren't going to be made without experience.

What are the auditory capabilities of a newborn baby?

The neurons involved in the sense of hearing occur at about the sixth month of pregnancy, coinciding with the period in which fetuses begin to respond to sound. Newborns are born with a good sense of hearing. They can orient their heads in the direction of a sound.

What is the number one influence on a mother's decision to breastfeed?

The number one influence on a mother's decision to breastfeed is social support, whether people are encouraging you or not.

What is the nurture approach to infant brain development?

The nurture approach to infant brain development highlights the importance of sensory stimulation and motor activity on the development of the brain. Experiencing things makes neurons fire, and the more this happens, the more automatic it will become.

What is the nurture approach to infant motor development?

The nurture approach to infant motor development highlights that certain voluntary activities are not possible until the brain has matured in terms of myelination and the differentiation of the motor areas of the cortex. Humans are intrinsically motivated to move.

What is the nurture approach to infant motor development?

The nurture approach to infant motor development highlights that humans are intrinsically motived to move, but we need to be allowed to move and experiment. If a child doesn't get experience, maturation has still been occurring, so there may be slight delays, but they will catch up.

What is the pincer grasp?

The pincer grasp is the second voluntary grasp children use to hold objects in each hand and inspect them in turn. The use of the thumb is essential to this grasp.

What is the rat experiment with brain development?

The rat experiment raised rats in either impoverished environments or enriched environments. The rats raised in impoverished environments were put in another cage during the day, were unable to see other rats, and were only given water. The rats raised in enriched environments were put in a cage with other rats and toys and were given water and treats. The experiment found that the rats had different developments depending on which environment they were raised in. Enriched environment rats formed many more neural connections, had decreased synaptic pruning, and more dendrites and axon terminals. Impoverished environment rats had too much synaptic pruning.

What occurs in the second substage of sensorimotor development?

The second substage lasts from about one to four months of age. This substage is characterized by infants repeating stimulating actions that first occurred by chance, also known as primary circular reactions. An example of this substage would be an infant sucking their thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeating the action because they found it pleasurable, which would be accommodation.

What is the sensorimotor stage?

The sensorimotor stage refers to the first two years of cognitive development. During this stage, children demonstrate development by means of sensory and motor activity. The stage begins with reflexes and works towards goal-oriented behavior. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six substages.

What occurs in the third substage of sensorimotor development?

The third stage lasts from about four to eight months. This substage is characterized by infants repeating activities because of their effect on the environment, also known as secondary circular reactions. An example of this substage would be an infant learning to shake an object to hear it rattle or to smile to elicit a response form a caregiver.

What is the tongue-thrust reflex?

The tongue-thrust reflex protects the infant from choking by pushing out solid substances when they come in contact with their tongue. However, between four and six months, the reflex diminishes gradually and solid foods are able to be swallowed better.

What is the ulnar grasp?

The ulnar grasp is the first voluntary grasp children use to hold objects between their fingers and their palm.

What are some significant research findings about infants and their preference for the human face?

They can discriminate between their mother's face and a stranger's face after eight hours of mother-infant contact spread over four days. They respond differently to happy, surprised, and sad faces by three to five months of age. They prefer attractive faces to unattractive ones as early as two months.

Why do variations in motor development exist?

Variations in motor development exist because every infant is different. Every infant receives different predispositions and experiences. Some children skip a step. Some children with learning differences or delays might hit milestones later.

How do we study what infants prefer to look at?

We study infants' length of gaze to understand their interests and acknowledgements. We can also track their gaze.

What factors might cause variations in weight among infants?

Weight can be influenced by genetics and nutrition. In addition, if a baby is bigger or smaller at birth, that trend will typically continue. An infant's weight is tracked by their pediatrician at every check-up. Pediatricians ensure that they're following the trajectory and intervene if they deem it necessary.

What happens when a neuron is not making connections to any other neurons?

When a neuron is failing to make connection to other neurons, it's not creating neural impulses and doesn't need to grow. As a result, it is cleaned out.