Chp 7: Learning
continuous reinforcement
(fixed ratio of 1:1) learning occurs rapidly (best choice for mastering behavior) every target behavior results in reinforcement once the response is firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule ex. rat gets a food pellet for every level pushed
2 reasons why pavlov's work remains so important:
1. classical conditioning is how organisms (all) learn to adapt to environment and survive 2. showed us how a process, such as learning, can be studied objectively -salivary response was an observable measurable behavior (no guesses what went on in dogs mind)
1. Telemarketers are reinforced by what schedule? 2. People checking the oven to see if cookies are done in which schedule 3. airline frequent flyer programs that offer a free flight every 25,000 mi of travel
1. variable-ratio schedule (after a varying number of calls) 2.fixed interval schedule 3. fixed ratio schedule
operant conditioning response acqusition extinction cognitive processes biological predispositions
1. voluntary 2. associating réponse with consequence (reinforcer or punishment) 3. responding decreases when reinforcement stops 4. organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; also exhibit latent learning, w/o reinforcement 5. organisms best learn behaviors similar to natural behaviors
classical conditioning: response acqusition extinction cognitive processes biological predispositions
1.automatic 2. associating events 3. CR decreases when CS is repeatedly present alone 4. organisms develop expectation that CS signals arrival of US 5. natural predispositions contain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated
a _____ produces no salivation response
NS
An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your blinking eye. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS, US, UR, CS and CR?
NS= tone before conditioning US= air puff UR= blink to air puff CS= tone after conditioning CR= blinking to tone
In the "little albert experience" the infant learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing loud noise as the rat was present. What was the US, UR, NS, CS, CR
NS= white rat US= loud noise UR= fear response CS= rat after pairing CR= fear of white rat
the _____ is repeatedly presented just after the NS. The ______ continues to produce _______
US; US; UR
positive reinforcement
add a desirable/rewarding stimulus ex. pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay the person who paints your house
positive punishment
addition of an aversive stimulus (punishment) ex. child given extra chores ex. rat given electric shock
positive punishment = negative punishment=
administer something undesired end something desired
antisocial models
aggressive, harmful modeling behavior- have a negative, destructive effect
how to make a new NS become a new CS without the presence of a US?
all that is required is for it to become associated with a previously conditioned stimulus ex. if tone signals food and produces salivation, then a light that becomes associated with a tone may also trigger salivation
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus unlearned -food, water
punishment
any event that weakens (decreases the frequency of a behavior happening again
as we repeat behaviors in a given context the behaviors become....
associated with the contexts our next experience of the context then evokes a habitual response
unconditioned response:
automatic natural response to a stimulus (before conditioning)
Thorndikes Law of Effect
behavior followed by a pleasant outcome (reward) is likely to happen again punished behavior less likely to occur
With _____ conditioning, we learn association through events we cannot control. With ______ conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events
classical, operant
extinction: repeated presentation of the ______ without the US causes the ______ to no longer elicit the _______
conditioned stimulus; conditioned stimulus; conditioned response ex. dogs started salivating less and less when tone was triggered and no food appeared
process of learning associations is _____
conditioning
extinction
diminished (weakened) responding that occurs when the CS no longer signals an upcoming US
does watching violent TV programs cause aggressive behavior?
exposure to violent films increases aggressive behavior correlational evidence: when TV is introduced into societies, violence goes up
conditioned reinforcer
get their power through learned association with primary reinforcers stimulus that gains its power to reinforce through its association with a primary reinforcer -money -good grades
reinforcement _____ behavior. Punishment _____ behavior
increases; decreases
acquisition
initial (stage) learning of the stimulus-response relationship when one links NS to US so that NS begins triggering the CR in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
classical conditioning is biologically adaptive because..
it helps humans and other animals prepare for good and bad events ENABLES SURVIVAL (and reproduction)
discrimination
learned ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus (which predicts US) and other irrelevant stimuli ex. dogs learned to respond to the sound of a particular tone and not to other tones ex. guard dog may make your heart race, guide dog will probably not
conditioned = ______ unconditioned = ______
learned; unlearned
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences
classical condition is the most basic form of _____ by which all organisms _______ to environment
learning; adapt
association:
minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence
reinforcement
operant conditioning, any event that strengthens (increases the frequency of) a behavior happening again
prosocial models
positive, constructive behavior- has positive effects on behavior
biological constraints
predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive ex. teaching a cat tricks that involve leaping high and landing on feet
learning
process of acquiring new information or behaviors
ratio + variable = interval + variable =
ratio: after an unpredictable number- reinforcement after a random number of behaviors ex. slot machines intervals: unpredictably often- reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time ex. longed-for Facebook message that finally rewards persistence in rechecking Facebook
ratio + fixed = interval + fixed =
ratio: every so many: reinforcement after nth behavior -ex. buy 10 coffees, get one free interval: every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time ex. tuesday discount prices
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause ex. dogs started salivating less and less when tone was triggered and no food appeared after several hours elapsed, dogs salivated after tone
fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement after an exact number of target behaviors ex. rat gets food pellet for every 5 lever pushes
variable ratio schedule
reinforcement after variable number of target behaviors -hard to extinguish even when they don't produce the desired results ex. rat gets food pellet every 1-10 lever pushes randomly
fixed interval
reinforcement can be obtained after exact amount of time new food pellet becomes available to rat after 2 minutes passed ex. paycheck every 2 weeks
variable interval:
reinforcement can be obtained after variable (random) amount of time -produce slow, steady responding since there is no knowing when the wait will be over ex. new food pellet becomes available to rat every 2-5 minutes (randomly)
operant conditioning at home
reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence
negative reinforcement
remove an aversive stimulus (punishment)= provides relief from something -NOT PUNISHMENT -results from NR increase the odds that you will repeat these behaviors ex. take painkillers to end pain; fasten seat-belt to end loud beeping alarm
negative punishment
removing a desirable stimulus ex. child is grounded and cannot go to mall ex. rat has food taken away
classical condition and operant conditioning are both forms of ________ learning. The differences are that CC involves _______ behavior whereas OC involves _____ behavior
respondent; operant (behavior that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli)
operant conditioning at work
rewarding specific, achievable behaviors rather than vaguely defined merit increases productivity
operant condition in sports
shaping can be used to train complex skills such as hitting a golf ball reinforcing small successes then gradually increasing the challenge
neutral stimulus:
stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning ex. events dog couldn't see or hear but didn't associate with food-- with food in dogs mouth
spontaneous recovery showed that extinction was ____ the conditioned response rather than ______ it.
suppressing; eliminating
operant conditioning in school:
teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards -rather than have a one seize fits all classroom, getting immediate feedback through reward and punishment
generalization
tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response ex. toddlers taught to fear moving cars also become afraid of moving trucks and motorcycles generalization fears can linger
advertisers pair previously neutral stimuli (brands) with erotic images with the idea that...
the brand will itself elicit the same positive response as the image "sex sells"
conditioned response:
the response to the conditioned stimulus usually the same or very similar to the unconditioned response
unconditioned stimulus
the stimulus that elicits automatic/natural response (before conditioning)
conditioned stimulus
the stimulus that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus initially it does not elicit a response (NS) following conditioning, it elicits a response (CS)
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes
classical conditioning
type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
operant conditioning
type of learning where organisms associate their own actions with consequences actions followed by reinforces increase, those followed by punishment often decrease
_______ produces a unconditioned response
unconditioned stimulus
loud sudden noise is the ______ and the startle/fear is the _______
unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response
aversive stimulus
unpleasant event that is intended to decrease the probability of a behavior when it is presented as a consequence (i.e. punishment)
why do drug counselors advise addicts to change environment when trying to quit an addictive substance?
users often feel a craving when they are again in the drug-using contact- with people or places they associate with previous highs
variable = fixed = interval = ratio =
variable= random (after random amount of time) fixed = exact number interval= time (every 2 weeks) ratio= every specific number of tries (2-5 lever pushes)
why harmful punishment is bad
-punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. Temporary state may reinforce parents punishing behavior -teaches organism certain responses, but not others will be reinforced -punishment can teach fear -physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope
in pavlov's experiment: (NS) (US) (UR) (CS) (CR)
Before conditioning NS- tone US- food in mouth UR- salivation After conditioning CS- tone CR- salivation
the previous neutral stimulus alone now produces a _____ thereby becoming a ______
CR; CS
higher-order conditioning
a new NS can become a new CS without the presence of a US
shaping
a procedure in which reinforces (such as food) guide and animal's actions toward desired behavior -method of successive approximations
cognitive learning
acquire mental information that guides our behavior ex. observational learning lets us learn from others experiences
first step of classical condition is called ______ (when NS becomes CS). When a US no longer follows the CS and the CR becomes weakened, this is called _______
acquisition; extinction
learning allows us to....
adapt to our environment