Cog Psych
Capacity theories of attention are concerned with the...
"....amount of mental effort required to perform a task."
Formula for STM capacity
"7+ or minus 2 items"
Define SUBSIDIARY TASK
"A task that typically measures how quickly people can react to a target stimulus to evaluate the capacity demands of the primary task."
Define MULTIMODE THEORY
"A theory proposing that people's intentions and the demands of the task determine the information-processing stage at which information is selected."
Define CAPACITY THEORY
"A theory proposing that we have a limited amount of mental effort to distribute across tasks, so there are limitations on the # of tasks we can perform at the same time."
BOTTLENECK THEORY definition
"A theory that attempts to explain how people select information when some information processing stage becomes overloaded with too much information."
In encoding & retrieval studies in which people are asked to encode words using the 3 category below which 2 worked the best when given retrieval cues in the same category? 1 - rhyming 2 - sentence 3 - category
"Category" & "Sentence" retrieval cues worked the best — When people were given these cues and they had previously encoded in a way that matched — and they were "recreated in the recall process — they had really great success and remembered almost "every word" (.81 for "category" retrieval cue & .78 for "sentence" retrieval cue)
Define INCIDENTAL LEARNING
"Learning that occurs when we do not make a conscious effort to learn."
Nickerson & Adams (1979) are known for their "Penny" experiment, which provides a classic example of how even when people have a reported certainty that they are seeing an image in their minds, their ability to correctly identify stuff when it's been slightly morphed is often bad.
"Penny"
serial position effect
"The ability to recall words at the beginning and end of a list better than words in the middle of the list." (shows not all information is processed equally)
MENTAL EFFORT definition
"The amount of mental capacity required to perform a task."
What is the primary goal for studying ATTENTION in Psychology?
"The primary goal of attention research is to... 1 - understand which information is selected 2 - how it is selected 3 - and what happens to both selected and unselected information."
Definition of cognitive psychology
"The scientific study of a variety of mental processes of the mind."
CONCEPT IDENTIFICATION THROUGH RULES
"a task that requires deciding whether an item is an example of a concept."
The fact that cognitive psychology is often called "_______" reflects the predominant approach to the subject used by cognitive psychologists.
"human information processing"
Atkinson & Raugh studied how the _______ could be used for remembering foreign words by tying a concrete keyword to an abstract keyword to be learned. What were the 2 steps that were specifically used in their study on learning Russian vocal words?
"keyword method" Step 1 = associate the foreign word w/ an English word that sounds similar to the Russian word Step 2 = form a mental image of the keyword interacting with the English translation
People performing the word-fragment test only have to identify the word, not judge whether they have previously seen the word during the experiment. Good performance on a word-fragment test is an example of "______."
"priming."
The following illustrated what effect? Prof reads a list of words. I tried to recall as many as I could right afterward prof said everyone should have gotten the last word on list (I did) prof said since words all belonged to an obvious theme (I wrote down the word "sleep" and he guessed that everyone else would, too, even though it wasn't on the list he read!) This is an illustration of the "_____" — which can be explained by the fact that the list began to decay from our memories pretty quickly. But only b/c we simultaneously recognized an obvious theme in the list, our mind filled in the blanks and most people wrote down the word "sleep" even though it wasn't even in the list the prof read! "Sometimes we invent stuff that's not there."
"reconstruction effect"
Major assumption by Broadbent?
"the listener can recognize information on only one channel at a time."
What are 3 prominent theories about how attention might work?
#1 = BROADBENT's MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATTENTION (aka, "Broadbent's Filter Model" per the book) #2 = TREISMAN's ATTENUATION MODEL OF ATTENTION #3 = DEUTSCH & DEUTSCH's LATE SELECTION MODEL OF ATTENTION
In addition to Kosslyn, Ball, & Reister's (1978) fictional map study, what 2 other studies also show that we can interact with visual memory, which thus affects what memories we have recalled if we at first stored them visually? All 3 studies show we've got a distinct kind of memory called visual memory but it's flawed.
#1--> Farah's 1998 research on brain activity in the visual cortex — Also interested in the same things Kosslyn, Ball, & Reister were. i.e., can we interact w/ visual memory stored in our minds? They looked at the neurological side of this. Brain activity mapping "showed conclusively" that when people were accessing visual memories, they weren't just accessing them in their hippocampus, which is very commonly tied to both STM and LTM, but they were also accessing an area of their brain called the "visual cortex" (which is often called "the occipital lobe"), in the very back of the brain. In essence, the way in which ppl were asked to identify things in their minds (visualize them) activated those areas of the brain — both of those things activated not only the visual cortex but also specific places w/in the visual cortex. This "screamed" that our minds are actually accessing visual information when we're asked to recreate visual images — rather than just creating some bit of semantic info. #2-->Levine, Warach, & Farah's 1985 research on visual memory location skills for those w/ occipital lobe damage — There were other studies BEFORE Farah's that suggested that certain areas of the brain stored visual info that we accessed later to recreate that visual memory. These studies had shown that when people have damage to their visual cortex and other areas linked to visual memory that their ability to not only attend to visual info in specific areas (like hemispheres or specific spots) becomes extremely challenged — but also their ability to RECALL info of their memory in those areas is obliterated once that damage has occurred. Essentially, they cannot remember what they've seen if their visual cortex is damaged.
*Define DEFINING FEATURE *Define CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE
*A feature that is necessary to be a member of that category *A feature that is usually present in members of that category but is not necessary
Define ALGORITHM vs HEURISTIC
*Algorithm: A self-contained step-by-step process enacted when attempting to solve a problem (detailed, step-by-step responses) e.g., Writing down what happened every single day — detail by detail what happened the entire summer. This would be more time-consuming than a heuristic would be. It might take more time and effort, but you definitely know you'll get to your summer summary (or whatever task it is you are trying to complete) if you do this every day. *Heuristic: A practical approach enacted when attempting to solve a problem. Will probably get you to the right answer, but will skip a bunch of steps to get there. It will be A LOT EASIER. (short-hand quick responses) e.g., Organizing an essay into "good" days, "bad" days, and "okay" days — instead of writing everything down every day of the summer, as you would w/ the algorithm approach, maybe the day just before you go back you figure out bucket categories to make things more efficient. To do this, you think of all the "good days," "bad days," and "okay days" and summarize those in buckets. You might miss some stuff that happened. You might not be super clear on things, but doing something like that might make your paper a little more coherent and might increase your chances of getting a good grade.
Describe the difference in results between lab and naturalistic studies on TOT state by Brown & McNiell, 1966.
*Both TOT studies — found that the best way to retrieve info was through partial spelling info of the word to be retrieved *Naturalistic TOT study — Participants recorded TOT events as they occurred outside the library in real life. Naturalistic studies yielded more SPONTANEOUS RETRIEVALS in which the word just "suddenly pops to mind." This makes sense b/c spontaneous retrieval tends to happen when people are engaged in automatic activities, like cleaning or doing dishes. *Lab TOT study — B/c participants are kept busy searching for words and aren't engaged in any automatic, meditative other activities, they were less likely to have spontaneous retrievals.
Describe the difference between PRECISE ELABORATION & IMPRECISE ELABORATION.
*IMPRECISE ELABORATION = Doesn't really make any story out of the situation. i.e., about what will happen next, etc. & thus less effective at retention --> "the fat man read the sign that was 2 feet high" Vs. *PRECISE ELABORATION = Attaches more of a story to the situation — the possibility of imagining an ENTIRE context around it (winter, visualizing his ******* slipping on the ice, etc.) so it is more memorable. That more precise image is more likely to stick in your head. So that when you're asked to recall it, you've got that vivid image to help you retain that information so it's more easily retrievable later. --> "the fat man read the sign warning about thin ice" A week f/ now you'll remember that fat man and the sign.
*Lexical decision tasks: *High-constraint sentences: *Low-constraint sentences:
*Lexical decision tasks: Deciding if something is a word in sentences (Schwanengflugel & Shoben, 1985) *High-constraint sentences: Sentences that produce a high expectation for a particular word based on the topic e.g., "The dog ate his bone" vs. "The dog ate his bean." —When ppl are asked to identify if "bone" or "bean" is a word in e/ of these sentences, they are faster at identifying "bone" as a word b/c they expect that word to occur based on the topic. They do not expect "bean" to occur. *Low-constraint sentences: Sentences that produce a high expectation for a particular word based on the probability e.g., "The lady was an excellent cook." vs. "The lady was an excellent chef." —Chances are you'll identify "cook" as a word more quickly than "chef" in this same exercise b/c there are more "cooks" generally than chefs. Thus, the probability is higher that word would come in this context. ^^Longer delays in the high-constraint unexpected words
Define SCHEMAS and how they're different f/ basic categorization strategies we also learned about in this class
*Schemas— a knowledge structure that provides a framework for organizing clusters of information. Schemas allow us to understand something via an "overarching cluster" as opposed to separate entities. This is very different than what we've talked about so far when looking at the idea of memory and also the idea of categorization. In all the categorization stuff we've talked about in previous modules, each item or each detail is considered its own separate entity (things called "nodes"). --> Schema theory argues that when we're accessing information, we're not just accessing that one bit of info itself. Instead, we're also accessing a whole bunch of other things that theoretically go hand-in-hand w/ that bit of information.
3 types of Induced-structure problems? (Problems that require finding a pattern among a fixed set of relations so that you can guess what is going to be a continuation of that pattern or match up possible outcomes w/ the pattern that you see.
*Series extrapolation problem: Finding a pattern among a sequence of items to continue that pattern and find the next logical step in it. *Analogy problem: A four-term problem that requires finding the answer that completes the relation. E.g., A is to B as C is to ____. *Progressive matrices tests: A collection of objects with a pattern of properties with one object missing, requiring you to identify the patterns in order to identify the missing object.
2 areas of the brain and how they are linked to language when damaged.
*Wernicke's area (werking grammar): Linked to good grammar, not meaning —W for Left side of brain (vs R), very close to back of temporal lobe. -Patients suffering f/ damage here can actually say a sentence, but the sentence makes no sense whatsoever. *Broca's area (broken grammar): Linked to good meaning, not grammar —Further up in the brain. -Patients suffering f/ damage here have an ability to express an idea, but the way it's expressed in terms of the order of the words, and the way the idea is designed in their heads is scrambled
Schmidt (1991) distinguishes among 4 different types of distinctiveness. Name and describe.
--> #1) PRIMARY DISTINCTIVENESS: Distinctiveness is defined relative to the immediate context (e.g., black word among red words) --> #2) SECONDARY DISTINCTIVENESS: defined relative to info in our LTM rather than immediate context (e.g., orthographically distinctive words are shaped differently than other words in our LTM and thus are distinct when we come across them) --> #3) EMOTIONAL DISTINCTIVENESS: motivated by the finding that events producing strong emotional responses are sometimes remembered well (e.g., flashbulb memories) --> #4) PROCESSING DISTINCTIVENESS: depends on how we process the stimulus; i.e., the memory code we create for the item rather than the characteristics of the item itself.
Define VISUAL BUFFER Define ATTENTION WINDOW
--> A component of Kosslyn's model in which a general visual image is maintained in STM --> The attended part of the visual buffer in Kosslyn's model
Define KEYWORD Define KEYWORD METHOD
--> A concrete word that sounds like an abstract word so that it can be substituted for the abstract word in an interactive image --> A mnemonic strategy using keywords to improved paired-associates learning.
For Nickerson & Adams' "Penny Experiment" provide the following: --> HOW IT WORKED: --> RESULTS: --> IMPLICATION:
--> HOW IT WORKED: Had people look at images of something they should have seen thousands of times in their lives — the back or head of a PENNY and had them try to identify what the correct order of all the characteristics on that penny actually was --> RESULTS: Most people failed at being able to identify WHERE the details on the penny - the order of its elements — were supposed to be. Despite the fact that in theory they've seen a penny thousands of times in their lives. --> IMPLICATION: It's weird that we can't close our eyes and PERFECTLY imagine something we've seen thousands of times. But we cannot. Visual memory is imperfect!
Hegarty's 1992 pulley system experiment is one study that really highlighted the value of being able to interact with visual memory & HOW we might be doing it.... --> HOW'D IT WORK: --> CONDITIONS: *Condition 1: *Condition 2: --> RESULTS: *Condition 1: *Condition 2: --> IMPLICATIONS:
--> HOW'D IT WORK: Had people look at a very elaborate pulley system. --> CONDITIONS: *Condition 1: Imagining movement -participants were required to look at pulley systems that were very complicated and had to assess how they worked. *Condition 2: No movement imagery -participants were asked just to look at a pulley system and just remember the shapes and all the bends and curves. --> RESULTS: *Condition 1: Imagining movement -When people were asked to imagine movement (what will happen when the rope gets pulled?) and then imaging the whole pulley system f/ one end to the other inside their heads — those people who had already imagined the path of the rope already while they were looking at the actual pulley were able to trace the path so that there was almost a perfect correlation between the length of the string and the time it took them to be able to trace their way from one end of the string to the other. *Condition 2: No movement imagery Only looked at the pulley -No correlation between the length of the pulley and their time they took to imagine going f/ one end of the string to the other. --> IMPLICATIONS: Hegarty said experiment suggest that people in condition 2 were just ballparking b/c that's all they could do b/c they hadn't interacted w/ the picture like the first group did, who b/c they had done so were recreating in their minds going down the length of the string, as they had already done before in real life. Not only are we capable of interacting w/ visual information stored in our heads, but also if we interact w/ visual info when it's actually presented to us we will be able to recreate that interaction in our heads later and it can be pretty darn accurate.
--> Are all hierarchical categories equal? --> Explain the differences between each of the 3 Rosch categories.
--> No, all hierarchical categories are not equal. Here's how they're different: 1 - Superordinate categories —-> ONLY A FEW SIMILARITIES between members. MANY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEMBERS 2 - Basic-level categories —-> EASY TO IDENTIFY SIMILARITIES & DIFFERENCES --> Thus, basic-level categories are the most common way of categorizing real-world items 3 - Subordinate categories —-> MANY SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MEMBERS. HARD TO IDENTIFY DIFFERENCES
Craik & Watkins (1973) asked people to listen to a series of word lists and at the end of e/ list t report the last word beginning w/ a particular letter. They were then told to rehearse that word in their minds until they accounted another letter starting with the same letter, or until the list ended. They controlled the amount of time a word would have to be maintained in STM by varying the # of intervening words from 0 to 12. The purpose of the experiment was to what? Results? Implications?
--> PURPOSE: Vary the length of time a word would have to be maintained in the STM. In other words, manipulate amount of MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL. --> RESULTS: Craik & Watkins found that the amount of maintenance rehearsal did NOT impact eventual recall. --> IMPLICATIONS: Rehearsal does not automatically cause learning. B/c the students did not try to attach any kind of lasting memory-code to the task b/c they thought they would only have to memorize the word for a short period of time (e.g., until they encountered another "g" word in the list, then they could just forget about the prior one).
Regarding the results of Johnston & Heinz's multimode theory/Capacity Model experiment, match each condition to the below. CONDITIONS: A) no lists of words to shadow/repeat out loud at all B) only 1 list of words to shadow/repeat out loud C) 2 lists of words based on SENSORY CUES/PITCH (male vs. female) to shadow D) 2 lists of words based on SEMANTIC CUES/MEANING (category words) to shadow --> Reaction times to the light signal/subsidiary task (pushing button) supported what was predicted: -#1 Fastest reaction time to light signal = -#2 fastest reaction time to light signal = -#3 reaction time to light signal = #4 reaction time to light signal (slowest) = --> Performance on shadowing the words was also affected: -Fewest shadowing errors = -#2 fewest shadowing errors = -Most shadowing errors =
--> Reaction times to the light signal/subsidiary task (pushing button) supported what was predicted: -#1 Fastest reaction time to light signal = A -#2 fastest reaction time to light signal = B -#3 reaction time to light signal = C #4 reaction time to light signal (slowest) = D --> Performance on shadowing the words was also affected: -Fewest shadowing errors = B -#2 fewest shadowing errors = C -Most shadowing errors = D
Define PARALLEL REPRESENTATION Define SEQUENTIAL REPRESENTATION
--> Representation of knowledge in which more than one item at a time can be processed --> Representation of knowledge in which only ONE item at a time can be processed
Phelps & Sharot (2008) studied the overconfidence people often have in their memories of emotional events. --> They found that a part of the brain called the ______ is responsible for the strong sense of recollection of emotional events. --> However the recollection is based on only ____________. In contrast, the encoding & retrieval of neutral events include more ______. --> RESULTS: For emotional events, the ______ of memory for a few details may matter; for neutral events, the _______ of contextual details may be more important
--> amygdala --> a few central details; context --> Quality (emotional memories); Quantity (neutral memories)
ATTRIBUTE rules in categorization and can be further broken down into what 2 categories?
-->Disjunctive rule — categorization requiring JUST ONE of several components (This is the most basic attribute rule for sorting what's out there. Involves using just 1 attribute to sort things into a category.) --> Conjunctive rule — categorization requiring ALL of several required components (This is a much more complex attribute rule for sorting what's out there. Involves using several attributes to qualify things to be sorted into a category. This method also potentially creates many smaller "extra groups".)
What was my own nickname for Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention? For Treisman's Attenuation Model of Attention?
-Broadbent nickname = "insta-gone filter" -Treisman nickname = "insta-dampen filter"
At first, shadowing experiments supported _______'s Model of Attention b/c subjects were almost completely unaware of the content of the message being played in the unattended ear. However, later research indicated that listeners could occasionally report information on the UNATTENDED channel. Specifically, _____ (1959) discovered that subjects sometimes heard their own names on the unattended channel. And ______ (1960) found that the ______ effects of language would sometimes cause subjects to report words on the unattended channel and therefore "shadow" in appropriately (i.e., get the info wrong that they should be paying attention to in the attended ear) — if a word being fed into the unattended ear fit the context of the sentence that was being fed into the attended ear, they would sometimes say the words that were not supposed to be shadowed instead.
-Broadbent's -Moray -Treisman; contextual
Emberson, Lupyan, Goldstein, & Spivey (2010)'s experiment on effects of overhearing half of another person's cell phone conversation on driving: -Results: ______ -Implications: ____
-Results:Performance on a visual monitoring task declined when participants heard only half of a cell phone conversation perhaps b/c it is less predictable than hearing both sides of the conversation. In contrast, performance was NOT disrupted when participants heard BOTH sides (the complete conversation) -Implications: Less cognitive effort is required for having to fill in the blanks when we have access to the whole conversation. Listening to a passenger talk on a cell phone while driving can be almost as distracting as talking on a cell phone yourself! Thus, processing language requires controlled processing and mental effort!
Fill in the blanks regarding Strayer & Johnston (2001) research on cell phone use & listening to the radio while driving -STUDY WAS ABOUT: __________ -Hypothesis: ____ -How it worked: ____ -Conditions: ____ -What was measured: _____ -Results?
-STUDY WAS ABOUT: Divided Attention -HYPOTHESIS: Conversing w/ someone on a cell phone while driving would decrease driving performance -HOW IT WORKED: Participants were shown a "red signal" and a "green signal" at intervals ranging f/ 10-20 seconds. They were asked to push a button when they saw the RED signal. They did this in the following conditions.... -CONDITIONS: 1) Listening to the radio 2) Having a conversation on a handheld cell phone 3) Having a conversation on a hands-free cell phone - WHAT WAS MEASURED: Probability of missing the red signal & the reaction time to press the button when the red signal was detected -RESULTS: a) Support hypothesis that the ATTENTIONAL demands of using a cell phone do indeed interfere w/ performance (delays in reaction time to signal were caused). b) Not the same for radio — Listening to a radio requires so little mental effort that no interference (no delay in reaction time to signal) is caused. c) Further, the lack of difference in the data between handheld and hands-free cell phone use shows that interference is caused by the MENTAL DEMANDS rather than the physical aspect of having one less hand while driving.
Both _____ and _____ place the bottleneck if attention at the _____ stage, but ______ places it after.
-Treisman and Broadbent -pattern recognition -Deutsch and Deutsch
As far as Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention goes, answer these: -YEAR OF MODEL: -BOTTLENECK TIMING: -ASSOCIATED EXPERIMENT:
-YEAR OF MODEL: 1958 -BOTTLENECK TIMING: At the perception/pattern recognition stage -ASSOCIATED EXPERIMENT: Enlisted men in England's Royal Navy + "digits"
As far as Treisman's Attenuation Model of Attention goes: -YEAR OF MODEL: -BOTTLENECK TIMING IN MODEL: -ASSOCIATED EXPERIMENT: -HOW THE EXPERIMENT WENT ABOUT CHALLENGING BROADBENT'S ASSUMPTION:
-YEAR OF MODEL: 1960 -BOTTLENECK TIMING IN MODEL: perception/pattern recognition stage -ASSOCIATED EXPERIMENT: Shadowing experiments ("repeat out loud" experiments) -HOW THE EXPERIMENT WENT ABOUT CHALLENGING BROADBENT'S ASSUMPTION: Challenged the assumption that the listener can recognize info on only one channel at a time by presenting a different but continuous message to e/ ear and then asked the listener to "shadow" or repeat out loud one of the messages. Shadowing a message gives proof that the listener is following instructions and attending to (paying attention in) the correct ear.
Kahneman's Capacity Model: -Year: ? -Core tenets of theory: ?
-Year: 1973 -Core tenets: Capacity theory assumes there is a general limit on a person's capacity to perform mental work.
Johnston and Heinz's Capacity Model of Attention: -Year: -How it differs from the bottleneck models: -Core tenets of theory: -Implications:
-Year: 1978 -How it differs from the bottleneck models: Johnston and Heniz's theory actually illustrates how a bottleneck theory RELATES to a capacity theory But unlike the earlier bottleneck theories, this theory proposed that the LISTENER HAS CONTROL OVER LOCATION OF THE BOTTLENECK -Core tenets of theory: This control by the listener over bottleneck location can vary along a spectrum (ranging from prior to pattern recognition a la Broadbent to just before STM a la Deutsch/Deutsch) -Implications: Suggests attention is FLEXIBLE
Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention relies on "the proposition that a bottleneck occurs at the _______ stage & that _____ determines what information reaches the pattern recognition state."
-pattern recognition -attention
In the Royal Navy "digits" experiment, when subjects were asked to report digits as they came in chronologically, their performance got _____ the less time that transpired between the issuing of the digits (i.e., people performed _____ when there was more time between receiving the #s in their ears). Broadbent thus assumed that what?
-worse -better -Broadbent assumed it took TIME to switch attention between ears b/c the "flap" or "filter" doesn't have enough time to switch back & forth, thus causing performance to deteriorate.
One of the best ways to remember material over a lifetime is simply.... a) Whose experiments showed this? b) In the experiment, ______ were forgotten more rapidly than ____ over the first 3 years but then leveled off at no difference c) The experiment also found that even after 10 years, people were still recalling more than _____% of the material. d) According to this experiment, the best predictor of retention of high school algebra is what?
.... to spend considerable time studying it a) Conway - at the university in England on retention intervals ranging from 3 to 125 years b) names more rapidly than concepts c) 25% d) continued study of advanced mathematics
"Essentially what we're looking at with concept of sensory memory is the threshold between...."
....the area of ATTENTION and the area MEMORY
Hasher & Zacks proposed 5 criteria for distinguishing between automatic & effortful/controlled processing. What were they?
1 ) Intentional vs. incidental learning — Intentional learning happens when we consciously make the effort to learn & incidental learning happens whether we mean to learn or not. - BOTH incidental learning AND intentional learning will serve you well when trying to complete automatically processed tasks. - However, incidental learning is less effective for helping you complete effortful/controlled-processed tasks 2) Effect of instructions & practice — Receiving instructions on how to perform a task or practicing it over and over again should not affect automatic processes b/c they can already be carried out efficiently. But instructions/practicing should definitely improve performance on effortful processes. 3) Task interference (multitasking) — Multi-tasking between 2 automatically processed tasks should create no interference on performance of those tasks b/c e/ task requires very little to no capacity. Multi-tasking between 2 effortful processed tasks will indeed create interference on performance due to the amount of available capacity being strained. 4) Depression or high arousal —Emotional states do not affect performance on automatically processed tasks but they can indeed get in the way of performance on effortful processed tasks (think of how SANS depressed me and prevented me from being able to plan how to move forward in life!) 5) Developmental trends — Automatic processes show very little change w/ age. They're acquired early in life and do not decline w/ old age. But effortful processes indeed show developmental changes; they are not performed as well by young children or elderly.
Treisman's Attenuation Model consisted of what 2 main parts? Describe them.
1 - "SELECTIVE FILTER" — (Double black line in diagram) distinguishes between 2 messages on the basis of each message's physical characteristics (e.g., the message's location, intensity, pitch, etc.). What's important to remember about Treisman's filter is that it does NOT completely block out the unattended message; it merely further attenuates it, making it less likely to be heard 2 - "DICTIONARY" — (Blue box at top) recognizes the message/word ONLY IF the intensity or (subjective) loudness of the word exceeds its "THRESHOLD" (the minimum intensity/loudness needed for recognition of that particular word by the dictionary)
What are the 3 steps of learning according to Atkinson & Shiffrin?
1 - Acquisition of Knowledge 2 - Retention 3 - Retrieval
3 types of Arrangement problems? (Problems that require rearranging parts in order to satisfy specified criterion. When we take something that's cluttered, & make order out of it)
1 - Anagrams: Rearranging a string of letters to form a word. Classic example of an "arrangement problem." 2 - Sentence structuring: Reorganizing words to form a coherent sentence. Example of an "arrangement problem." 3 - Environment structuring: Reorganizing stimuli/elements of our environment to make work. --> *Matchstick problem: Classic example of an "environment structuring" "arrangement problem." People are given a box of matches, tacks, and a candle. Then they are asked to find a way with this combo of stimuli to hang the candle on the wall and light it. What happens w/ the matchstick problem is that some people who are given cues in different ways can solve this problem but others really struggle with reconfiguring those bits of the environment they're encountering that accomplishes some kind of end-state.
What are the 3 major assumptions of cognitive psychology?
1 - Any processes of the mind are UNIVERSAL across individuals 2 - These processes of the mind can be studied at several LEVELS 3 - There is an INTERACTIVE nature between many of these processes that can also be examined (ULI)
What support do we have that Baddelley's theory of working memory is accurate? (That there were 4 distinct components — phonological loop, visuospatial pad, central executive, & episodic buffer)
1 - Brain activity findings support Baddelley's theory of working memory by showing that areas of cerebral cortex are tied to Baddelley's components -—> Suggests that memory is more multi-faceted than originally thought. We used to think hippocampus was hub of all memories, but then we started to see that different parts of the brain get activated when we try to remember different types of memory (spatial vs. auditory, etc.) 2 - Capacity research shows all of Baddelley's components can disrupt the capacity of the other components -—>When peoples' brain activities are measured when they're activating different kinds of memories, their memory can be hindered on memory tasks when they're grasping at different types of memories at the same time. 3 - Distraction research shows you can lower memory of each component separately but also that utilization of components don't affect all components the same way —-> Numerous studies have been done in "distraction research" to disrupt specific aspects of working memory. The 3 classic studies are: A) Phrase activity: People are asked to repeat a phrase over and over while they are also trying to remember something— --> Results show that phrase you repeat can greatly impact your ability to remember other AUDITORY/word-related info greatly diminished. But it does NOT have an impact on anything that has to do with central executive, episodic buffer, or visuospatial sketchpad. It can hinder your capacity to an extent, but it doesn't completely obliterate your auditory memory ability. B) Key stroke activity: When people are asked to hit a certain sequence on a keypad— --> "Completely obliterates" their visuospatial memory. But doesn't have a huge detrimental effect on someone's ability to memorize a certain set of words. Impacts it to an extent, but not nearly as robust an effect. C) Random number activity: When people are asked to randomly hit #s on a computer as they're trying to memorize a list of words, figure out a series of steps, or figure out a location of something — --> That series of tasks only affects central executive memory-making
Advantages to Controlled Processing?
1 - Can help us adapt to new situations 2 - Can help us process more important/pertinent information—sometimes 3 - Fewer mistakes --> Research also shows that if we are in a situation in which "perfect responses" or adept responses are critical, being able to take a step back, slow down, and be deliberate about how you're acting can be very useful. This is where controlled processing has its value. Yes, it takes more energy — but at least then we don't make as many mistakes and aren't as susceptible to the kinds of errors that occur w/ automatic processing.
Name 3 different types of processing
1 - Conceptually driven processes --> Processes that are influenced by a person's own retrieval strategies. Reflect subject-driven activities such as elaborating on and organizing information. These processes help people do better on DIRECT memory tests, like recall and recognition tests 2 - Data-driven processes —-> Initiated and guided by perceptual information in the material at-hand at the moment (the stimulus material), such as familiarity. These processes help people do better on indirect memory tests AND direct memory tests (although it's more predominant for indirect tests). INDIRECT memory tests are more data-driven. 3 - Recognition memory processes —-> Two-process theory that involves deciding whether an item had previously occurred in a specified context. Relies on both conceptually-driven processes AND data-driven processes.
2 main concepts associated w/ the storage alterations that occur in LTM to make it imperfect?
1 - DECAY of information over time — A lot of information decays in our brain over time if there's no reason to put into long term memory. 2 - Role of RECONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSING in memory— When there are gaps in the information that's made it into our LTM, we then tend to try to fill in those gaps.
What are the 3 different types of memory proposed by MULTIMEMORY THEORY?
1 - Episodic 2 - Semantic 3 - Procedural (ESP)
We know semantic organization appears to help us BETTER RECALL & MAKE SENSE OF information — but how do we access it? Prior, to the Spreading Activation Model, what are the two most commonly discussed models for accessing info we've stored in our heads to answer questions like the one below? e.g., "does a cat has four legs?"
1 - Feature comparison model: A model of accessing information by comparing the features of the items — in our heads, once we've formed categories, our ability to answer questions comes directly f/ the overlapping of the question and our knowledge stored of the information at hand. It's all about OVERLAPPING of characteristics that are being asked about. (Prof calls this the "weird pattern of overlap model".) ¬ e.g., "does a cat have four legs?" Feature comparison model says we have a categorized idea of "cats" in our head, and we also have a categorized idea of "animals with 4 legs" in our head. B/c there is so much overlap between cats & animals who have 4 legs, our ability to answer "yes" to this question is thus very quick. ¬ e.g., "does a bird have feathers?" Feature comparison model says we have a categorized idea of "birds" in our head, and we would compare all the birds we've learned about and stored in our head. We would compare if they all had feathers. We'd also compare that to all the animals stored in our heads who don't have feathers. We'd likely find there aren't many animals stored in our heads who don't have feathers and qualify as birds. In essence, we'd think of lots of birds, and if we can't think of many birds who don't have feathers, then we could quickly answer yes to this question, too. 2 - Hierarchical network model: A model of accessing information by the hierarchical relations specified in a semantic network. If we're storing info in our heads in a hierarchical way (e.g., superordinate, basic-level, subordinate), perhaps we are going up and down those hierarchical charts when we are trying to answer questions. ¬ e.g., "does a cat have four legs?" Hierarchical model would say the process to answering this question looks like this — okay, cats are part of the superordinate group "animals;" some animals do have 4 legs, others do not; then we have to work our way down in terms of what makes an animal bipedal vs. quadrupedal; then eventually after working our way up & down the semantic network we've created in our heads, we've found enough overlap between cats & those quadrupeds we've stored in our brains to be able to answer "yes, a cat has 4 legs!"
According to William James, what 2 things are at the core or "essence" of "ATTENTION"?
1 - Focalization 2 - concentration
Although categorization has many benefits, what are its 3 general pitfalls?
1 - Incorrect generalization issues —-> STEREOTYPING CONCERNS, especially w/ "out-groups" 2 - Difficulty in learning new categories —-> "Puppy vs. kitten issue" with development — When we are starting to learn new categories in the first place and trying to create distinctions between what is supposed to be in a given category and what isn't. e.g., for young kids, learning something as simple as what a puppy is can be a challenge when they have incorrect basic-level categories that they've created. If a child decides that everything w/ 4 legs, whiskers, tail, & fur is a PUPPY, then they might mistake a kitty for that puppy. Unfortunately, when they do that, not only will they be wrong when they continually call a kitten a puppy, but the ability to create a NEW CATEGORY for kittens becomes exceptionally challenging for young kids. 3 - Difficulty in altering learned generalizations —-> Penguins example — e.g., kids often struggle when learning that a penguin is a bird b/c a penguin doesn't match perfectly with all requirements for what a bird is for kids (it doesn't fly; it spends most of its time spending; its feather don't look like feathers, etc.). It's a challenge for kids to alter their thinking of what a bird is when they learn a penguin is also a bird.
What are the 2 main visual mnemonic devices?
1 - Method of Loci 2 - Imagery pairing
WHEN DO WE KNOW THAT a skill HAS BECOME AUTOMATIC?
1 - Multitasking abilities —You're able to do other activities while you're doing that automatic processing. 2 - Low rates of errors — The RATE of errors is much lower for tasked that are automatically processed. 3 - Lack of change in performance across situations — The amount of time it takes to complete a task will get faster the more automatic the processing for that task becomes, and you will become much more CONSISTENT in HOW you complete the task, too.
WHY is LTM so inaccurate? — Why is LTM so often "unbelievably distorted"?
1 - Original issues during encoding — The first stage that creates distortions in memory. 2 - Alterations of info during storage — The storage process itself creates distortions. 3 - Manipulation of the info during the recall process — Things like episodic buffer and working memory are also subject to creating distortions.
Explain the 4 main reasons for WHY we categorize
1 - REDUCES COMPLEXITY of our environment --> Categorization helps us reduce the ambiguity of our everyday experiences. 2 - Allows us to better —and more quickly — IDENTIFY objects --> This works for things, people (e.g., if we pair people in a group together, we can get a quick sense of what all the individuals are like just by quickly clumping them together and assuming some general characteristics), situations, etc. 3 - LEARNING information is easier --> B/c categorization helps prevent us from being bogged down in learning brand new criteria for every new experience, we can learn a lot more about our world, much faster. 4 - Interaction in NEW SITUATIONS is easier — --> When we pair situations together, we can know how to react appropriately w/o having to think about it b/c we know this situation is similar to another one we've encountered. This helps us react much more quickly than if we were trying to treat something as a distinct entity. (RILN)
In the Levels of Processing exercise we did in lecture, how did prof categorize the processing level of each of the below? 1. RHYMING = As the list is being read, think of a word that rhymes w/ the word being read 2. As the list is being read, think of something from your CHILDHOOD that relates to the word being read
1 - RHYMING = This was an example of "medium processing" unlike the first "Es" example - you are sort of thinking about the words rather than just the surface info b/c you have to find something to rhyme with them. You are making connections but not as much as you could. 2 - RELATING TO CHILDHOOD = "deep processing"
What are the 2 key differences between LTM and STM?
1 - Rapid rate of forgetting (STM's is way higher) 2 - Limited capacity (STM has limited capacity, but LTM does not)
What are the main 2 characteristics of ATTENTION & the types of models associated w/ each?
1 - SELECTION (bottleneck models of attention) 2 - MENTAL EFFORT (capacity models of attention)
3 basic principles of SCHEMAS ^^Thus, there's a lot more involved w/ schemas than any of the other categorization and memory subjects we've encountered that look more at specific "____" than at general overarching _____ of info like schemas do!
1 - Schemas involve an interaction between the individual & the new information —-> This means they also involve a lot of "intentionality" 2 - The learner takes past knowledge and applies it to new information —-> Schemas require accessing and application of old stuff and marrying it w/ the new info we encounter in new situations. 3 - The learner also combines information into a whole, instead of looking at it as separate entities ^^"nodes"; clusters
What were the 3 main components of the hypothesis that was supported by the Johnston & Heinz experiment?
1 - Selective attention requires capacity — as supported by consistent finding across their experiments that reaction times to light signal/subsidiary task were slower when listener had to listen to 2 lists instead of one 2 - Amount of capacity required increases between "early" to "late" modes of selection — as supported by consistent finding that reaction times to light signal/subsidiary task were slower when the listener also had to shadow words on the basis of semantic cues instead of sensory cues 3 - A person can increase breadth of attention but only at a cost in capacity expenditure & selection accuracy — as supported by the COMBO of the finding that reaction times to light signal/subsidiary task slowed when listener was also shadowing words based on semantic cues AND the fact that performance on the selective-listening task deteriorated
In order to both identify when someone is saying a sentence that makes no sense AND to identify which of the meanings is intended from an ambiguous sentence like the examples in the last slide showed, Chomsky said we have to focus on two different aspects of the sentence itself:
1 - Surface Structure: The actual structure of a spoken sentence *Syntax: The general rules a person is following to convey an idea 2 - Deep Structure: The underlying meaning of a sentence *Semantics: What did you actually mean? What is the point of a statement?
What 2 main things does the COCKTAIL EFFECT imply?
1 - THE LIMITS OF ATTENTION: When we are talking about our attention, it's probably not INFINITE. E.g., at that cocktail party before you heard your name being uttered as a trigger word in that other peripheral conversation, you likely had no conscious idea what they were talking about. Thus, this suggests that the Deutsche/Deutsche model of attention being unlimited and ALL information getting equal cognitive processing attention is "questionable at best." 2 - THE IMPORTANCE OF INTENTIONALITY WITH ATTENTION: Intentionality plays a critical role in attention. The cocktail effect shows that everything in our environment does NOT have an equal chance of being attended to. What we block to focus on is in line with what we DEEM IMPORTANT.
In terms of the 3 models/theories of attention and how those are supported or not supported by the cocktail effect... 1 - TREISMAN'S MODEL OF ATTENTION: 2 - Deutsche/Deutsche MODEL OF ATTENTION: 3- BROADBENT'S MODEL OF ATTENTION:
1 - TREISMAN'S MODEL OF ATTENTION: The cocktail effect seems to support Treisman's model of attention. Why? We do seem to process a lot of info that is in our environment, but it's only the stuff we find important/critical that we give a considerable amount of our cognitive resources 2 - DEUTSCH DEUTSCH MODEL OF ATTENTION: The cocktail effect doesn't COMPLETELY reject the Deutsche/Deutsche model of attention. Why? There's a possibility that all things in our environment are indeed equally processed, but it's just that we forget the peripheral/unattended things so quickly that we don't even realize we've processed them in the first place. 3 - BROADBENT'S MODEL OF ATTENTION: However, the cocktail effect does indeed allow us to reject the Broadbent model of attention completely. i.e., we do NOT immediately filter the material that we deem unimportant as soon as we come into contact with it. Why? B/c if we did indeed immediately filter everything - if we were deflecting it already -- then our ability to redirect our attention as soon as we hear our name or any "trigger" words shouldn't be there. We shouldn't have been able to hear our name coming from those peripheral goings-on b/c we would have decided it wasn't important from the outset.
In a nutshell, the Atikinson & Shiffrin model emphasizes what 4 things?
1 - The distinction between STM and LTM —-> two advantages of LTM over STM is its unlimited capacity and much slower rate of forgetting 2 - The role of REHEARSAL in transferring info into LTM — authors assumed e/ time an item was rehearsed, info about that item entered into the LTM. 3 - The serial position effect —-> the better recall of words at the end of the list can be explained by their storage in STM (recency effect). -Also illustrates primacy effect for items that have made it to LTM due to verbal rehearsal. 4 - Control processes facilitate acquisition of knowledge —-> A strategy that determines how information is processed/learned
What are the 2 important characteristics of thresholds?
1 - Thresholds VARY depending on the word e.g., Some words have permanently lower threshholds than others & are thus more easily recognized (like a person's name or danger-signals like "fire!") 2 — Thresholds CAN BE MOMENTARILY LOWERED by the listener's EXPECTATIONS e.g., if someone first hears the words "sitting at a mahogany," the threshold for the word "table" might be momentarily lowered and more easily hearable
Atkinson/Shiffrin 3 CONTROL PROCESSES or primary ways of learning, or acquisition strategies? (or memory tricks! a person uses to facilitate the learning of new things)
1 - Verbal rehearsal —-> repeating verbal info — either aloud or silently — over and over until it is learned (to keep it active in STM or to transfer it into LTM). 2 - Coding —-> Semantic elaboration of info to make it easier to remember. Attempts to place the info to be learned in the context of additional, easily retrievable info, like a mnemonic device (e.g., "Every good boy does fine" for E, G, B, D, F) 3 - Imaging —> Creating visual images to make verbal material easier to remember. VIC
Disadvantages of automatic processing?
1 - You've run into people who are SO automatic w/ their processing that they do a lot without thinking at all! This isn't ideal either. These kinds of people end up doing lots of stupid things over the years that come back to bite them. 2 - STROOP EFFECT — Sometimes automatic processing can hinder performance on tasks that require controlled processing. Sometimes it's so automatic it becomes a nuisance!
2 most common types of mnemonic devices?
1 - chunking — as a mnemonic device usually only works if you're distilling something more abstract down to something already familiar to you. Lets you take in more information at a given time. (e.g., it' easy to remember your phone # in chunks of 3 and 4 digits) 2 - acronyms and phrases (e.g., "Every Good Boy Does Fine")
Posner & Snyder (1975) 3 criteria for determining if a skill is automatic?
1 - it occurs w/o intention 2 - it does not give rise to conscious awareness 3 - it does not interfere w/ other mental activities
If the Levels of Processing Model assumes that retention is determined by type of encoding used, what type of encoding yields: 1 - most shallow retention 2 - moderate retention 3 - deepest retention?
1 - most shallow retention = STRUCTURAL encoding —-> Sometimes referred to as "sensory" intake. Involves just paying attention to the info on the surface of things; not trying to make any connections or trying to "make sense of it." (e.g., reading a book chapter, and just reading the words w/o trying to comprehend the meaning of what those words actually imply) 2 - moderate retention = ACOUSTING encoding —-> Still not super deep processing but you are at least trying to make sense of what you are taking in. 3 - deepest retention = SEMANTIC ENCODING —-> You're actually making connections and tying info you're accumulating into something you've already learned in the past. You're really trying to comprehend exactly what it is you're taking in. This eventually became known as "Deep processing"
3 weaknesses of the Feature Comparison Model?
1 - predictions made are weak b/c it relies too ,much on similarity ratings between example and concept and those can be subjective 2 - requires computation rather than using stored information directly 3 - assumes too might ash people can identify "DEFINING FEATURES" of categories easily & obecjtively
What 2 main things provide evidence that Bartlett's Schema Theory might be true?
1 Our access of schemas & answers to "yes/no" questions appear to be moderated by our sensory systems —-> Provides a perfect example supporting Bartlett's Schema theory. When people are given a specific work and then asked to answer "yes/no" to questions about RELATED objects that are theoretically part of the same schema of a certain object (not questions about the certain object itself). E.g., The prof tells you to think of the word "blue" and then asks "Is the ocean mostly salt water?" You can answer that question faster if you've thought of the word "blue" before hearing the question than if you had not been thinking of the word "blue" before you heard the question. This screams that somewhere in your brain — even though the prof never told you to think of oceans before he asked the question — that the word "blue" activated a whole bunch of things related to "blue stuff" and in doing so your brain started, before even hearing the question about the ocean, activating schemas of how oceans work...and thus, boom, you were able to answer that question more quickly than if you hadn't been primed in advance. 2 Autobiographical activation in the brain across several areas —-> Scans of brains while people are telling autobiographical stories show different clusters in their brain activating as they get into different components of their stories of their life.
What does the Stroop Effect imply?
1) AUTOMATIC PROCESSES TRUMP CONTROLLED PROCESSES — When our automatic and controlled attention competes, there are costs associated with it! Stroop effect suggests that once something has become automatic, then it is impossible not to perform that automatic task when the stimuli activates it. It will TRUMP controlled processing (color identification in that example is not as automatic a processing task as reading is) In other words, "when there is a controlled process that is competing with an automated process, the automated process almost always wins." Our brain will naturally just engage w/ the automatic process and just kind of forgo the controlled process unless we dedicate a ton of energy and cognitive resources to doing that controlled process. But that will come at a cost!: ¬ It will greatly affect our speed ¬ It will greatly affect the errors we make ¬ In essence, all of our cognitive resources need to be dedicated to that activity 2) AUTOMATIC PROCESSES ARE ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE TO INHIBIT WHEN THEY ARE ACTIVATED BY STIMULI —Automatic processing SUPER quick but that it is almost IMPOSSIBLE to turn it off!
THREE major categories of problem-solving that most cognitive psychologists have focused on over the years.
1) Arrangement problems: Problems that require rearranging parts to satisfy specified criterion 2) Induced-structure problems: Problems that require finding a pattern among a fixed set of relations — when you need to discern a pattern that's being displayed then you need to match that pattern. 3) Transformation problems: Problems that require changing initial states through a sequence of operations to match the goal state — when you're given a starting point & an endpoint and then through change you need to find a way to meet what's called a "goal state."
What 2 things provide evidence that the Spreading Activation Model might be true? 1) ______ seems to replicate the spreading activation effect, even if the explanations aren't perfect. In essence, _____ proves that the brain is replicating the Spreading Activation theory when accessing information/memories. The linked areas get activated at the same time based on one trigger word, indicating, for example, that when you hear the word "red," the part of the brain that houses "fire engine" and other clustered words are also being activated. That's why all those various areas light up! 2) The Spreading Activation model can explain why _____ happen. It's b/c we've clustered certain memories or concepts with each other, and when you are exposed to one of those concepts, all of its immediate clustered friends also get activated. All the areas of the brain that relate to the Spreading Activation of different structures seem to be active again when people are recalling _____.
1) Brain imaging; brain imaging 2) false memories; false memories
Weaknesses of SPREADING ACTIVATION MODEL?
1) Can't explain WHY the connections were made 2) It's frustratingly hard to reject only b/c it's so complex & malleable --> Most psychologists do not like complex and malleable concepts or theories b/c it makes it almost impossible to DISPROVE whether or not those concepts or theories actually work.
Name 2 types of INDIRECT MEMORY tests
1) Initial letter tests 2) Word fragment tests — depends on implicit memory for words. People performing the word-fragment test only have to identify the word, not judge whether they have previously seen the word during the experiment. Good performance on a word-fragment test is an example of "priming."
What are the 5 main ways we categorize NEW items into groups?
1) Prototype rule — A classification strategy that selects the category whose prototype is the most similar to the classified item. A prototype is an item in a group that we can compare all new items to. --> E.g., applying the prototype rule to the dog example: we carry a prototype of what a dog should be like in our heads (an imaginary dog of some sort - the "form" of a general dog that has lots of characteristics of many dogs you know) and then we compare all new items against that prototype (or general dog) in order to determine if that new "item" is a part of that dog category. 2) Feature-frequency rule — Another classification strategy that selects the category having the most feature matches w/ the classified item. --> E.g., if you go back to the furniture example, using the feature-frequency rule would involve distilling down what all the brainstormed furniture examples have in common — each item provides comfort, or it has functionality, etc 3) Exemplars — Items that are considered a "best" representation of a category. Another way to quickly decide whether or not something is a member of a group. 4) Nearest-neighbor rule — A strategy that selects the category containing an item most similar to the classified item. 5) Average distance rule — A strategy that selects the category containing items having the greatest average similarity to the classified item.
2 types of direct memory tests?
1) Recall tests 2) Recognition tests — differs from a recall task b/c it tests judgment of whether an item was previously presented, usually within a specified context
HOW do we solve Induced-Structure Problems?
1) Relations: People solve induced-structure problems by looking at the nature of the connection between the objects of the pattern. How are each of the objects in the pattern related to each other? 2) Sternberg's Theory (1977)— Famous cognitive psychologist who said that we're actually going through a lot of steps while we're trying to determine these "relations" in an induced-structure problem. Sternberg argued that if you go through the below steps, you'll not only be better able to solve induced-structure problems, but you'll be able to solve them w/ a lot of confidence as well. Research backs Sternberg up to show that we really do go through all of these steps in our heads when solving induced-structure problems. ¬ Step 1 *Encoding: Identifying the attributes of the objects that could be important. What are the characteristics of these items in the pattern that I'm looking at? E.g., are they squared #s? Even #s? etc . ¬ Step 2 *Inference: Establishing relationships between the first objects. E.g., is that 2nd # in the progressive #s class larger or smaller than the one that came before it? Is it 3 points larger or smaller? Etc. ¬ Step 3 *Mapping: Applying the relationship to the other objects later in the pattern once you've determined a relationship between the first objects in the pattern and seeing if it still holds. If after you've tested that relationship to see if it pans out for all successive items, and you find it DOES not pan out, then you return to step 1 and try to make another "inference." ¬ Step 4 *Application: Determining the possible relationship from the successful mapping. This is where you fill in the blank on your own and actually identify/conjur what would come next in the pattern. [EIMA]
What 2 rates determine the # of items someone can keep active in STM?
1) Speed person can PRONOUNCE items on a list (enables verbal rehearsal, which keeps items in STM longer) 2) Speed person can RETRIEVE items f/ STM
What level of coding is required to answer the following questions a) Is the word in capital letters? b) Does the word rhyme with WEIGHT? c) Would the word fit in the sentence "He met a ______ in the street"?
1) Structural 2) Phonemic 3) Semantic
Farrah (1998) was known for illustrating how neuroscience proves that we use mental imagery performing many cognitive tasks. What were her 2 main arguments? --> Evidence that visual ____ and visual ____ use the same areas of the brain come from 2 very different methods for measuring brain activity. Both indicate that many tasks in which we would expect visual imagery to be involved show increased activity in that part of the brain for visual perception. a) _____ b) _____
1) That visual imagery uses the same brain areas as vision 2) That selective damage to the brain impairs visual imagery in the same manner that it impairs vision --> perception and imagery a) cerebral blood flow b) ERP (using electrodes on the scalp to measure brain waves)
Evidence our brain is using context clues to determine meaning?
1) Word superiority effect: The finding that letters in words are easier to identify than letters in non-words...or letters alone...even in short time spans — e.g., if you were asked to find the second letter in "back" vs. in "cakb," you'd probably be able to say "a" for both but it would take you a little bit longer for "cakb" since it's not a real word vs. much more quickly for "back" — BACK — CAKB 2) Sentence superiority effect: The idea that processing a word is easier when it is part of a sentence — "Bank" (by itself) — vs. "The bank ran out of money." ^^What's important about all of these examples is we're not just looking at the RULES of grammar when we're comprehending language, we're looking at the INTENT, too.
In terms of context, how effective are each of the below scenarios per the Encoding Specificity Principle? Retrieval cues are... 1) most effective when.... 2) 2nd most effective when... 3) least effective when... For each of the below retrieval cues meant to help in the recall of the word "hail," give the type of encoding AND type of context a) "Associated w/ SLEET" b) "Associated w/ SNOW" c) "Associated w/ BAIL" ^^Which retrieval cue was most effective?
1) most effective when....mirroring ORIGINAL CONTEXT 2) 2nd most effective when...using SIMILAR context 3) 3rd most effective when...using DIFFERENT context a) "Associated w/ SLEET" --> semantic cue; original context (sleet is a lot like hail) b) "Associated w/ SNOW" --> semantic cue; SIMILAR context (snow is not as much like hail as sleet is, but it's similar) c) "Associated w/ BAIL" --> phonemic cue; DIFFERENT context (bail only rhymes w/ hail; has nothing to do the word contextually) ^^"SLEET" (semantic/original context) was most effective in aiding recall of word "hail!"
According to the Capacity Model of Attention, the choice of which activities to support is influenced by what 2 things?
1- ENDURING DISPOSITIONS: involuntary attention. Automatic influences to which people direct their attention. (e.g., a novel event, object in sudden motion, something that catches the eye, our own name getting mentioned all automatically attract our attention) 2- MOMENTARY INTENTIONS: voluntary attention. Have to do w/ our specific goals at a particular moment in time (e.g., we may have the objective at 1pm on Tuesday to find a friend at the airport as she deplanes so we are focusing on that, etc.)
At what 3 major levels are the processes of the mind most often studied? Describe them.
1. Functional level — involves trying to figure out how things actually work in the mind. This was how psychologists solely used to approach the study of cognitive psych 2. Biological level — as of today, we've transitioned to mostly studying cognitive psych at the biological level (molecular or structural level) 3. Application-based level — also as of today, psychologists are using cognitive psych to apply what we've learned about the human brain's mental processes to other, often "novel" applications (e.g., computer processing and computer learning — specifically the ability of computers to create good language skills) (FBA)
What are the 2 steps of the RECOGNITION MEMORY processing?
1. Judgment of familiarity —-> Applies to BOTH direct memory tests AND indirect memory tests that require perceptual identification. Prior experience with the material makes it more familiar and easier to identify in a perceptually difficult situation. 2. Attempt to retrieve the context in which the item occurred —-> Retrieval of when/where an item occurred. Only applies to direct memory tests b/c indirect memory tests do not require memory for a particular context.
Describe the 4 conditions of Warrington & Wesikrantz's famous study and its results.
1. Recall test - required verbal recall of words on a list they'd been shown -->Amnesiacs did much worse! 2. Recognition memory test - required yes/no decision whether or not a word had been on a list they'd been shown --> Amnesiacs did much worse! 3. Word fragment test - required identification of a word fragment after having been shown a list w/ the word in it --> ZERO difference between amnesiacs & controls 4. Initial letters test - contained first 3 letters of a word that had appears on the list. Subjects had to generate a word that began w/ those 3 letters --> ZERO difference between amnesiacs & controls
How is WORKING MEMORY different from STM?
1. Short term memory focuses on the info you just recently experienced —Focuses ON THE PRESENT 2. STM is important for researchers studying capacity, encoding, & retention —-> Classic research on STM looks only at how much info you can store in your head - not looking at integrating that immediate storage w/ past memories. How do we convert info into something that makes sense? That would be answer by "working memory" instead. 3. Working memory explains the fact that the ability to attend to and store new info gets difficult b/c we're attending to more than just that new info at any given moment? --> What Baddelley argued is that STM is limited when it comes to explaining more complex things like social interaction or how to make sense of this class for example as you're listening to it. It doesn't really account for how our memory is playing a role in those situations in any effective way. This is where the importance of working memory really comes into play.
Working Memory is a combination of what 3 elements according to lecture?
1. Short term memory of information we are processing —-> In the moment right then 2. Long term memory we recall to apply to a new situation —-> Working Memory is essentially about information we're drawing up from past experiences, own thoughts, internal monologue we're applying to the situation we're encountering. If you've got familiarity with something or if you're drawing upon past experiences to understand something more clearly, Working Memory Theory suggests that is PART of your memory store at the moment, and that can take up some CAPACITY. 3. Strategies we use to integrate info —-> Working memory requires techniques. You're engaging in effortful interaction w/ the new info and also w/ past information in an effort to create some coherent story/understanding of what's currently going on as you're interacting w/ stuff on a daily basis.
3 components of Baddelley's original theory of working memory:
1. The phonological loop — Memory store for auditory (verbal - reading stuff on a list, or hearing something). Responsible for retaining auditory memories in your head. 2. The visuospatial sketchpad —Memory of location, where things occurred. Those types of things access your visuospatial sketchpad. 3. The central executive —Manages the use of working memory. Primary function is to "control attention." Allocates information to each component (to the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, etc.) The decision-making component of working memory. Responsible for selecting strategies and integrating information. PVC
Quiz question: Peterson & Peterson estimated that the duration of STM was approximately _____. Wheras Rhodes & Tauber said it lasted ____.
18 seconds 30 seconds
Question f/ class: Visual imagery was not studied for many decades until it was revived in the _____'s.
1960s
What were the difference in students' recall ability in Sperling's 1st vs. 2nd condition?
1st condition: Students could recall only about 4-6 items 2nd condition: EVERY item was recalled, regardless of the row required
The experiment by Sanders & Schroots (1969) showed that a person's memory span can in fact be increased by using material from ________ modalities. E.g., when people were asked to recall a string of 11 consonants, they correctly recalled 5.4 items but when asked to recall a string of 6 consonants filled by a string of 5 spatial positions, they correctly recalled 8.3 items. --> The findings in Sanders & Schroots were caused by the relative ______ between the verbal and visual codes.
2 different modalities --> lack of interference
2 studies that show HOW we interact with visual information stored in our heads? A) Hegarty's 1992 pulley system experiment — Research that really highlighted the value of being able to interact with visual memory. Had people look at a very elaborate pulley system. Condition 1: Imagining movement Some of the participants were required to look at pulley systems that were very complicated and had to assess how they worked. Condition 2: No movement imagery Some participants were asked just to look at a pulley system and just remember the shapes and all the bends and curves. ^^Results: Condition 1: Imagining movement Asked to assess how the system worked while they were looking at the pulley When people were asked to imagine movement (what will happen when the rope gets pulled?) and then imaging the whole pulley system f/ one end to the other inside their heads — those people who had already imagined the path of the rope already while they were looking at the actual pulley They were able to trace the path so that there was almost a perfect correlation between the length of the string and the time it took them to be able to trace their way from one end of the string to the other. ^^Results: Condition 2: No movement imagery Only looked at the pulley No correlation between the length of the pulley and their time they took to imagine going f/ one end of the string to the other. ^^Implications: Hegarty said experiment suggest that people in condition 2 were just ballparking b/c that's all they could do b/c they hadn't taken interacted w/ the picture like the first group did, who b/c they had done so were recreating in their minds going down the length of the string, as they had already done before in real life. Not only are we capable of interacting w/ visual information stored in our heads, but also if we interact w/ visual info when it's actually presented to us we will be able to recreate that interaction in our heads later and it can be pretty darn accurate. B) Shepard & Metzler's mental transformation research (1971) & Cooper & Shepherd's 1973 follow up — Two studies that show how our ability to interact w/ visual information when it's presented to us greatly influences our ability to answer questions about it. They ran a classic "mental rotation study"
2 studies that show HOW we interact with visual information stored in our heads? A) Hegarty's 1992 pulley system experiment B) Shepard & Metzler's mental transformation research (1971) & Cooper & Shepherd's 1973 follow up — classic "mental rotation study"
Cooper & Shepherd's follow-up experiment to their 3D rotation experiment used ___ objects. They were able to show that ______ was perfectly correlated w/ the amount of time people were asked to indicate whether the shape was the exact same as the first one. BIG TAKE-AWAYS FROM BOTH OF SHEPHARD'S EXPERIMENTS THEN?:
2-D; rotation length (Rotation angle = time) TAKEAWAYS: Shephard's research gave us clear-cut evidence that we're not only visually interacting w/ visual information we've stored in our minds about something we've seen BUT ALSO that there is a way to mathematically show we are indeed doing so.
STM has a limited capacity and only lasts __________ to ________ in the absence of attending to its content.
20 to 30 seconds
Rhodes & Tauber's (2011) summary of the literature (30+ second benefit) — looked into how we can test how much we've retained. Found ______ is a good cut-off for being able to accurately assess how much of the info retained is really just a byproduct of the _____ and how much is there for good/permanently (i.e., has made it f/ STM to LTM)
30 seconds; the recency effect
How many conditions were there in Baddelley & Godden's scuba diver Context Dependent Experiment on encoding specificity and the environment? Describe them. RESULTS? IMPLICATIONS?
4 different memory conditions — Participants actually went out into the middle of the ocean (the school was in Florida) & performed a word memory task (they were read a long list of words and were asked to recreate those words). They were put in unusual environments while doing this: 1 - GET WORDS THEN DIVE & RECALL --> Had scuba gear on w/ tanks, were ready to go swimming, and then were presented the list of words while they were on the surface of the boat. Then they had to dive down into the water. Then asked to recreate the list. 2 - STAY ON BOAT & RUN AROUND --> Had scuba gear on w/ tanks, were ready to go swimming, and then were presented the list of words while they were on the surface of the boat. Then they had to run around on the boat. Then asked to recreate the list. 3 - 40 FT THEN SWIM BACK UP --> Actually had to dive down 40 ft before they were presented list of words. After they were presented the list of words, they had to swim up to the boat. Then asked to recreate the list. 4 - 40 FT THEN SWIM IN CIRCLES --> Actually had to dive down 40 ft before they were presented list of words. After they were presented the list of words, they had to swim in circles. Then asked to recreate the list. RESULTS: Baddelley found it didn't matter if you were on the boat or under water to begin w/ — what mattered is that you STAYED in your original location. Their recall was significantly better than people who had to change locations before attempting retrieval of the words that were read to them. Thus, conditions 2 (starting in the boat and running around on the boat) and 4 (starting at bottom and swimming in circles) IMPLICATIONS: The environment plays a key role in one's ability to recall information
"It was the number ____ that plagued ___________. The "magic number ___" kept appearing in 2 different kinds of studies — experiments on the absolute judgment task and on memory span. 7; Miller; 7
7; Miller; 7
"The horses went down to the stables" has __ morphemes.
9 morphemes (The, horse, "s", went, down, to, the, stable, "s") broken down by future tense, past, plural, etc.
CHUNKS
A cluster of items that has been stored as a unit in LTM.
Define ATTENUATION
A decrease in the perceived loudness of an unattended message
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
A diagnostic technique that uses MAGNETIC FIELDS and computerized images to locate mental operations in the brain.
positron-emission tomography (PET)
A diagnostic technique that uses RADIOACTIVE TRACERS to study brain activity by measuring the amount of BLOOD FLOW in different parts of the brain.
Event-related potential (ERP)
A diagnostic technique that uses electrodes placed on the SCALP to measure the DURATION of brain waves during mental tasks. (think of "event" being a time word and this being the best temporal measurement of brain activity)
SEMANTIC CODE
A memory code based on the MEANING of the stimulus.
Define SEMANTIC CODING
A memory code based on the meaning of a stimulus.
ACOUSTIC CODE
A memory code based on the sound of the stimulus
Define STRUCTURAL ENCODING
A memory code that emphasizes the physical structure of a stimulus.
Define PHONEMIC CODING
A memory code that emphasizes the pronunciation of a stimulus.
Define CATEGORIES
A method of organizing knowledge that groups objects or events together b/c of their "relatedness."
Define AROUSAL
A physiological state that influences the distribution of mental capacity to various tasks
EXHAUSTIVE SEARCH
A search of STM that continues until the test items I compared w/ all items in the memory set.
SELF-TERMINATING SEARCH
A search of STM that stops as soon as the test item is successfully matched to an item in the memory set
MEMORY SET
A set of items in STM that can be compared against a test item to determine whether the test item is stored in STM
Define VISUAL SCANNING
A shift in attention across a visual display or image (illustrated in the "fictional map" study by Kosslyn, Ball, & Reisler)
Define CONCEPT IDENTIFICATION --> In concept identification tasks, the experimenter selects a _______ to define a concept, and the task requires discovering the rules through learning which patterns are examples of the concept. --> Limitation of concept identification?
A task that requires deciding whether an item is an example of a concept, where concepts are typically defined by logical rules. --> logical rule --> not every category can be distilled down to just one rule (e.g., all animals are not a dog or a cat, etc.)
Define INCIDENTAL LEARNING TASK
A task that requires people to make judgments about stimuli without knowing that they will later be tested on their recall of the stimuli
Define PLAN
A temporarily ordered sequence of operations for carrying out some task.
DIRECT MEMORY TEST
A test that asks people to recall or recognize past events from their lives. During direct memory tests, people KNOW their memory is being actively evaluated.
INDIRECT MEMORY TEST
A test that does not explicitly ask about past events but is influenced by memory of past events. Instructions refer only to the current task at hand and do not refer to prior events in someone's life. During this type of test, subjects are unaware their memory is being evaluated.
Define PROPOSITIONAL THEORY --> Kosslyn & Pomerantz disputed propositional theory by showing that we often process images in the same way that we process _______ (not semantically).
A theory that all knowledge, including spatial knowledge, can be expressed in SEMANTIC-BASED propositions --> perceptual information
Define DUAL-CODING THEORY
A theory that memory is improved when items can be represented by both verbal and visual memory codes
Define LEVELS OF PROCESSING
A theory that proposes that "deeper" (semantic) levels of processing enhance memory.
Define PROTOTYPE
A typical version of a member of a category
Using rules to categorize things can come in what 2 different forms?
A) Logical rule —-> creating categories based on logical relations e.g., anything that falls in the category of "tools" would follow the logical rule that they can be used for something B) Attribute rule —-> creating categories based on attributes of the objects. We're looking for attributes of objects or elements to help us put them into distinct groups or similar groups.
AMODAL KNOWLEDGE vs MODAL KNOWLEDGE
AMODAL KNOWLEDGE = knowledge that is abstracted f/ SENSORY experiences (all models studied prior to Barsalou) MODAL KNOWLEDGE = knowledge REPRESENTED as sensory experiences (supported by Barsalou who said knowledge is stored in sensory experiences)
When differentiating between "intentional" and "unintentional" types of processing, the main way psychologists "divi" this up is into "______" vs. "_____" processing
AUTOMATIC; CONTROLLED
Define AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC and give examples
AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC: Our attempt to evaluate a topic based on the immediate examples that come to mind — • Classic example of availability heuristic = Which is more common in the English language? —Words that start w/ "K" or words that start w/ "K" as the third letter? o 3x more Most ppl assume the answer would be that there are more words that start w/ "k" b/c it's A LOT easier to think of those words off the bat than words that have "k" as the third letter — but that would be wrong. There are actually 3x more words that have "k" as the third letter! This example really shows us that although heuristics seem like great shortcuts sometimes, they don't always get us to the right answer. They are sometimes fallible. Are you more likely to be killed by a shark or by falling airplane parts? Most people likely employ the availability heuristic here and answer they're more likely to be killed by a shark. But they would again be wrong. WAY more people are killed annually by falling airplane parts than sharks! We have vivid images in our heads of shark attacks.
Sperling (1963) provided evidence that _________ occur when participants made errors that sounded like the correct response. The subsequent work of _____ (1964) also established that ___________ occur in STM by asking subjects to recall sequences of letters in the proper order that he had grouped between high within group confusability (BCPTV) and low within group confusability (FMNSX).
Acoustic confusions; Conrad; Acoustic confusions
Explain the reconstruction effect's link to "HINDSIGHT BIAS"
After we experience something, we tend to remember it in a way that matches up with the end results. E.g., if you've had a bad break-up you might find yourself saying "I never really liked him anyway." Suggests that even if our memory of something isn't going to be perfect, then at least our memory will at least line up with what the end outcome is or what we expected.
Compare strengths/weaknesses of algorithms vs. heuristics
Algorithms are: ¬ Accurate (answers should eventually be obtained) — Algorithms will almost always get us to the right answer. ¬ Straight-forward about how to follow ¬ Time-consuming and sometimes energy-intensive Heuristics are: ¬ Easier to engage in and quick ¬ Prone to human error — Not nearly as sure-fire accurate as algorithms ¬ Based on experience — The experience you have with a certain heuristic "greatly dictate" how successful your use of that heuristic will be.
How do AMNESIACS typically perform on recency effect tests vs. primacy effect test?
Amnesiacs are good at memory tests that test recency effect & STM but terrible at memory tests that test primacy effect b/c their LTM is screwed. Amnesiacs were great at recalling the most recent words at the end of a list but awful at recalling words that first appeared at the beginning.
CONTINUOUS DIMENSION --> One of the characteristics of ________ tasks that bothered Rosch is that objects in ________ often have continuous dimensions rather than the discrete dimensions studied in concept identification. Colors, for example, vary along a continuum in which red gradually becomes orange, & orange gradually becomes yellow, etc.
An attribute that can take on any value along a dimension --> concept-identification tasks; natural categories
Define IDEAL (and the type of categorization it's used in)
An attribute value that relates to the goal of a goal-derived category. Something that achieve the majority of the goals that you might have in a specific situation. E.g., if your goal at a party is to blend in, then more non-descript items would be "ideal" for your category, and would rank toward the top of your list. But if your goal at a party is to look expensively dressed, then more expensive-looking items would be more "ideal" for your category, ranking near the top of your list
ACOUSTIC CONFUSION
An error that sounds like the correct answer
MULTIMODAL CODE
An integration of memory codes such as combing visual and verbal codes
Define PRIMARY DISTINCTIVENESS (give an example)
An item distinct from other items in the immediate context. (e.g., a word written in black font when it's included w/ all red-font words carries primary distinctiveness)
Define HIERARCHICALLY ORGANIZED
An organizing strategy in which larger categories are partitioned into smaller categories.
Define PHONEME
Any of the basic sounds of a language that are combined to form speech
PHONEME
Any of the basic sounds of a language that are combined to form speech
Who is known for work on the "overconfidence of retention"?
Atkinson
How did Atkinson & Shiffrin's 1968 experiment work? What were the results & what effects did they illustrate?
Atkinson & Shiffrin's 1968 experiment: Required the learning of abstract, meaningless material and therefore encouraged the use of verbal rehearsal o Subjects shown #/letter pairs, like 31-Q, 42-B, 53-A, etc. o e/ pair shown for 3 seconds, followed by 3 seconds before the next trial o interspersed btwn "study trials" were "test trials" where only the 2-digit # was shown o Subject was asked to give the letter that had accompanied the 2-digit # earlier o One variable = # of trials that occurred between the "study trials" & "test trials" — some subjects were tested on the very next trial, others after a delay as long as 17 trials Atkinson & Shiffrin's results: The extent of learning depended on how long a particular #/letter pair was maintained in the rehearsal set (was rehearsed). Both rehearsal amount and length of time between being exposed to what's supposed to be remembered help us learn. In their experiment, once an item has been rehearsed long enough it is no longer in STM, and the answer has to be retrieved from LTM. Thus, Atkinson & Shiffrin illustrate the PRIMACY EFFECT o They also proposed that an item that is NOT rehearsed can be responded to correctly only if it is tested on the trial immediately following its presentation. Thus, in this way Atkinson & Shiffrin also illustrate the RECENCY EFFECT.
_____ processing is "performing mental operations that require very little mental effort."
Automatic
Per _______, b/c retention, capacity, & encoding must consider all 4 components (phonological loop, visuospacial sketchpad, central executive, & episodic buffer), then if we've got auditory info to process, then that will hinder how much spatial info we can remember. Similarly, if we're drawing on past memories to understand what's going on in the moment, all of those activations take their toll on the capacity of other ones.
Baddelley's theory of working memory
_____'s Schema Theory— Picked up the schema torch after Piaget, to give it a more cognitive-based focus instead of a developmental one. --> He argued that if we are storing information in our heads using schemas instead of via individual bits of information separately, we had to talk less about these things called "_____" (individual pieces of info) and instead more about "_____" — these overarching ways that an entire cluster of information is accessed when we're presented w/ information.
Bartlett's --> "nodes"; "supernodes"
A researcher named _____ (1932) tied selective perception to _____ to explain differences in opinion about events and the details of those events. He argued that everyone uses ____ to encode memories and make sense of experiences differently. Many of us activate ____ that cause us to greatly distort what it is we are experiencing in a way that NO ONE else can replicate b/c everyone uses unique _____ for a given situation.
Bartlett; schemas; schemas; schemas; schemas
Both inattentional blindness & selective perception show that as we're encoding information: A) we're not catching everything B) some of the things we are catching are being distorted the moment we're taking it in b/c of our expectations of what we should be experiencing & what we should remember from a particular event
Both inattentional blindness & selective perception show that as we're encoding information: A) we're not catching everything B) some of the things we are catching are being distorted the moment we're taking it in b/c of our expectations of what we should be experiencing & what we should remember from a particular event
_______ suggested that as info is coming in, our mind is a filtering system THE MOMENT that info hits us. And then what we do is immediately grab onto the stuff we deem important ("______" material) and then deflect what we don't deem to be important (the "_____" material). i.e., we don't even process that "unimportant" stuff at all. It's like those things never happened at all. There's no way to access it, no way to interact with it, it's just completely blocked from our perception in general.
Broadbent "attended" material "non-attended" material
In _____'s model, an unattended message can only be recognized if attention switches to that message before it decays from the sensory store (i.e., if the filter lets it through before it decays). Since this happens rarely, most unattended messages appear to instantly be filtered
Broadbent's
One of the first theories proposed on attention ever. This model has been with us for a # of decades. It wasn't until a # of years after it was introduced until people started challenging this model.
Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention
What theory of attention does this describe? Immediate selection of attended/unattended material
Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention
Which model of Attention is "Y-shaped"?
Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention
"Brown, Deffenbacher, & Sturgill" (1977) ran a study on why context matters for eye-witness accuracy. They showed that errors in eyewitness identification are increased by what and why?
By showing mug shots to a witness before the police line-up is seen Why = The witness then might falsely identify a person b/c of increased familiarity from having seen the mugshot before the line up married with the failure to recall the context in which that person was actually previously seen.
Per Baddelley, the ______ determines what pieces of perception are allocated to each component of working memory.
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
2 weaknesses/exceptions to the hierarchical network model? --> Which model tries to correct these weaknesses?
CLASSIFICATION TIMES = 1 - Sometimes retrieval time is not dependent on hierarchical level -e.g., verifying a chimp is. primate takes longer than that it's an animal) 2 - Doesn't account for typicality effect (i.e., doesn't account that more typical members of a category might be easier to identify) --> The feature comparison model
The second part of attention is ______ or "investing mental effort in one or more tasks."
CONCENTRATION
________ emphasize the amount of mental effort required to perform tasks and are concerned w/ how ____ is allocated to different activities.
Capacity theories; effort
______ can cause us to incorrectly make assumptions about people after categorizing them into groups. Stereotyping itself doesn't mean that you are always making incorrect assumptions about someone; it just means that you're lumping a lot of people together and assuming that they're similar. However, sometimes those lumps don't work. It is at that point that _____ becomes a problem in rather than an advantage.
Categorization; categorization
The _____ component of Baddelley's model of working memory is responsible for making decisions.
Central Executive
What researchers are associated with the Duck/Rabbit image and what does that image show about visual memory? RESULT of their experiment?
Chambers & Reisberg, 1992 --> WHAT EXPERIMENT ILLUSTRATED: Issue #2 w/ visual memory (Fuzzy approximations of visual info hinders the ability to manipulate the info we've seen.) --> RESULTS: Once people saw one animal, that got stuck in their minds once that image was taken away. The ability to identify what that 2nd animal was through recall was minimal at best.
The main conclusion of De Groot's study on what topic was that the difference in skill between masters & lesser players results more f/ differences in ________ & ______ than f/ differences in how they planned their moves.
Chess; perception & memory
In Eleanor Rosch's ______, she argued that for pretty much everything we are looking at in our lives — for any time of grouping we're looking at — we tend to have 3 different ways we can sort that info in our heads. What are those 3 different ways? (use classic examples from lecture to illustrate) Rosch argued that we tend to usually operate on the _____ level when trying to make sense of everyday experiences. Thus it is the most important level of the 3.
Concept of Hierarchical Organization of Categories of Information 1 - Superordinate categories — ANIMALS —-> Big general groups, w/ small amount of similarity 2 - Basic-level categories — DOGS —-> Middle-level of shared attributes between groups, also the most important category. 3 - Subordinate categories— TERRIERS —-> Very specific members that fit into a small subgroup --> Basic level = most commonly use level.
Whose study was this and what was the ultimate takeaway? o Study: Tested students on ability to recall names & general concepts over retention intervals ranging from 3 to 125 months o Results: Names were forgotten much more rapidly than concepts over initial 3 years -But between 3 - 10 yrs, recall leveled off and there was little difference btwn recall of names and concepts
Conway, Cohen, & Stanhope (1991) — Showed that names are harder to remember than concepts.
Their research turned 100 years of assumptions about repetition being the crucial ingredient for retention and getting info f/ STM into LTM.
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
How did Craik & Tulving combat the criticism of their Levels of Processing Model — to show that it wasn't that people simply spent more time during deep processing and instead actually connected meaningfully to the material, thus leading to retention? -Describe the experiment. -Describe the results
Craik & Tulving's 1975 "consonant-2 vowel-2 consonant" experiment = They had participants judge whether the words being read to them had a particular pattern of letters somewhere w/in the word — specifically the "consonant-2 vowel-2 consonant" pattern If the word had that pattern, or didn't have it, participants were supposed to keep that in mind. Notice: Obviously the time required to identify these patters took MUCH LONGER than just counting Es, finding a rhyming word, or associating the word w/ your childhood (the last of which requires processing at the semantic level). Results: Even though WAY MORE time was required to identify the complex patterns in the words, recall was not improved. Instead, semantically processing the words (associating words w/ childhood memories) was FAR more effective. Thus, TIME cannot be the reason people are retaining things better. It's not energy spent it's the WAY people are connecting info that is important for retention.
If we look back in the history of memory research, for almost a century, people studying memory argued there were temporal stages of memory that formed an un-modifiable step-by-step process AND that the only way things "stayed in our heads" was through the process of repetition (e.g., you had to read a word over & over again for it to stay in your head, OR you had to think of a situation over and over again for you to be able to remember it long-term.) This model for memory-making stuck for nearly 100 years until researchers ____________________ stepped in w/ their "_______ Model."
Craik and Lockhart; Levels of Processing Model
Define PROCESSING DISTINCTIVENESS Example?
Creation of a memory code that makes that memory distinct from other memories EXAMPLE: Fact that people remember faces as caricatures is an example of processing distinctiveness b/c it allows us to ensure that we remember e/ person we meet as distinctively as possible
An advantage of having schematic knowledge is that we can sometimes rely on _____ -- or likely values that enable us to make intelligent guesses in the absence of specific knowledge.
DEFAULT KNOWLEDGE
Amnesiacs' tend to perform relatively poorly on what kinds of tests? Research found that their poor performance was related to damage to _______(where facts and events are stored)
DIRECT MEMORY TESTS (vs their normal performance on "indirect memory tests") ; the hippocampus
Episodic memory is measured by _____ tests, which require recall or recognition of material that occurred earlier in the experiment
DIRECT memory tests
Paivio came up with the __________ theory, which stated that there were ___ ways to retain info: 1) ______ 2) _____ --> Paivio argued that the _________ is the most important determinant of ease I'm forming an image (In other words, it's easy to form amp image to represent a concrete object but difficult to form an image for an abstract concept)
DUAL-CODING THEORY; 2 1) Verbal elaboration/association --> use of verbal associations to help remember or learn a word 2) Visual elaboration --> use of a mental image to represent a word hence, "dual coding"
_______ are more accurate for assessing what info has really stuck in the LTM vs. what hasn't and thus what we need to keep studying. Temporary STM storage gives false notion of what's been learned.
Delayed judgments of learning
What model of attention came after Treisman and how was it different?
Deutsch & Deutsch suggested that maybe unattended stuff gets many more cognitive resources than we think, whereas Treisman had said we can attend to only SOME things on attended channel if the threshold for those things happened to be low enough.
What theory of attention does this describe? All information is processed, but only critical info remembered
Deutsch & Deutsch's Late Selection Model of Attention
The following describes whose Model of Attention? ALL things coming in - all stimuli hitting us - gets PROCESSED EQUALLY. It's just that our memory and ability to interact w/ that stuff is impacted by a last-second decision as to what we want to dedicate our upper-cognitive resources to. In terms of attention, EVERYTHING gets in. But only the critical information gets remembered.
Deutsch and Deutsch
How was the second condition of Sperling's experiment different from the first?
Difference from 1st condition: Flashed up the same letter/# combo. But immediately following the image after it was taken off the screen, a TONE would be played - either high-pitched, medium-pitched, or low-pitched. o If hear high-pitched tone only have to recall the top row o If hear medium-pitched tone only have to recall the middle row o If hear low-pitched tone only have to recall the bottom row
_______ tests ask people to recall or recognize events that occurred earlier.
Direct memory tests
1. Performance on _______ tests requires both familiarity and contextual processing. Improves when either familiarity or context clues are increased vs. 2. _______ tests only require familiarity processing Improves only when familiarity is increased. Context clues do not help on these kinds of tests.
Direct memory; Indirect memory
Define ORTHOGRAPHIC DISTINCTIVENESS
Distinctiveness involving lower-case words that have an unusual shape. (Form of secondary distinctiveness.)
Per Baddelley, the _______ integrates info f/ the senses together.
EPISODIC BUFFER
Bertlett's Schema Theory screams to us that Spreading Activation Theory is not necessarily wrong. It's just that there's more complexity to it than originally thought. There's more to the idea of what gets activated when we're given a specific word or bit of info. Bartlett said that EVERYTHING we group in our minds as related to an idea/concept (be it a script or a stereotype) gets _____ when we're given a bit of information/are asked to access a specific node.
EQUAL WEIGHT e.g., Think about the image with the clusters and the word "red" earlier in the lesson when we talked about the Spreading Activation Model— and how "fire engine" was closer than "sunset" to the word "red." Spreading Activation says that fire engine gets more weight when "red" is accessed vs. "sunset," but Bartlett's Schema Theory would say they both get equally activated!
Which provides more precise temporal information about brain activity? a) fMRI b) PET c) ERP
ERP — recording electrical activity from the scalp does provide more precise temporal information
What kind of categorization technique do experts most often used?
EXEMPLAR (b/c they are well-versed on the perfect example of something and they know exactly what they would want to compare it to)
_____ are used when we go away from using a prototype — or a general version of something f/ a category to judge whether a new item belongs to that group —and instead use a specific example of something from a group to judge if something new is part of that same group.
EXEMPLARS
Type of memory evaluated by direct memory test = ______
EXPLICIT MEMORY
Define IMAGERY POTENTIAL
Ease w/ which a concept can be imaged
Whose experiment was this? And what did it show? People would see clips of a man having a conversation and then getting hit by a car after crossing the street. They were then asked a series of questions. --> Was he "in" or "out" of the crosswalk? — Usually people would answer this kind of question correctly. --> Was there a "yield" or "stop" sign for the car that hit the pedestrian? — Usually people would answer this kind of question correctly. --> BUT THEN SHE tweaked things by asking more leading questions like these, which made people remember the info differently and made people assign blame in the situation when they wouldn't have otherwise. • Was the driver at fault? — Usually people would NOT answer this kind of question correctly. • How fast was the car going when it hit the pedestrian?
Elizabeth Loftus's "Accident Experiment" — Focused on the impact of leading questions and how interviewers can intentionally cause people to remembering things in different ways.
What experiment is an associated version of Strayer & Johnston's cell phone/divided attention experiment?
Emberson, Lupyan, Goldstein, & Spivey (2010) on effects of overhearing half of another person's cell phone conversation on driving
Define TRANSFER-APPROPRIATE PROCESSING
Encoding material in a manner related to how the material will be used later (in other words, the testing situation should dictate how you study)
Define FACT-ORIENTED ACQUISITION
Encoding material in a manner that emphasizes factual knowledge without emphasizing its application.
Define PROBLEM-ORIENTED ACQUISITION
Encoding material in a manner that is helpful for its later use in solving problems.
_________ memory contains temporally dated recollections of personal experience + FACTS (memory of specific events, including when/where they occurred). More autobiographical. DIARY metaphor.
Episodic memory
ENCODING SPECIFICITY
Explains the notion that past info is easier to retrieve if the retrieval cue provided for that info relates to the encoding of the info — you can remember stuff better if during the retrieval process you are able to replicate something that also occurred during the encoding process.
Define CONCRETE-ABSTRACT DIMENSION
Extent to which a concept can be represented by a picture
Imagery pairing relies on what 2 main components?
FAMILIARITY and AROUSING EMOTIONS aid in memory more
In Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention — Name for the "hinged" flap or junction between the sensory store and the limited-capacity perceptual channel, which swings back and forth to allow the balls from either sensory store into the stem.
FILTER
Define VISUAL NEGLECT
Failure to respond to visual stimulation on the side of the visual field that is opposite a brain lesion
Describe results w/ Musen, Shimamura, & Squire (1990)'s study on improvement in reading speed for both amnesiacs and normal people
Found amnesiacs increased their speed as much as those w/o amnesia when rereading the passage. --> no difference on indirect memory tests! BUT amnesiacs were much worse at being able to correctly answer reading comprehension questions for the same passage --> BIG difference on DIRECT memory tests!
The below is the first condition of whose experiment? --> first, he'd expose college-student participants to a tiny computer screen that flashed a combo of 12 #s & letters. That always came in 3 rows of 4 letter-# combinations. --> Then he'd ask participants to recreate ALL 12 #s & letters that they saw. This was challenging b/c they were only shown the screen for 1/20th of a second
George Sperling
Although Craik & Lockhart often get most of the credit for shifting the focus of retention f/ repetition to meaningful level-processing, who was really first to look into this and how? How did their study work? What were the conditions and the outcomes in each?
Hyde & Jenkins came first — It was their research on RETENTION of information through different sets of instruction that first questioned the long-held assumptions about repetition being the best route toward retention *Hyde & Jenkins (1969) study on retention rates — How study worked: People had to read lists of words and while they were listening to the words, they had to do different things to make the words more memorable. *3 conditions examined retention rates of: o A) related words —asked to think of words related to words that had been read --> Everyone did better at recalling words f/ this condition! o B) words containing "e" —count # of "e's" in e/ word to make it more memorable o C) words that had a # of letters —count the # of letters to make them more memorable as a memory cue for the info • Results: Why did people do better in the "related words" condition"? Hyde & Jenkins were SUPER surprised by this and couldn't find a clear indication of why this would be the case. AND THAT is where Craik & Lockhart stepped in.... (in essence though, ppl in that condition were making the words more meaningful by relating them; the other conditions didn't do that)
Type of memory evaluated by indirect memory test = _____
IMPLICIT MEMORY (e.g., memories for processes, skills, etc.)
Procedural memory is measured by _____ memory tests
INDIRECT memory tests
Semantic memory is measured by _____ memory tests that depend only on general knowledge of words and do not require we associate them w/ any time or place
INDIRECT memory tests
According to Hasher/Zacks proposed the following can be automatically encoded into memory w/o our consciously intending to keep track of the info. These are all examples of _________. o Frequency information "data that specifies how often different stimuli occur" (e.g, # of times someone sees a certain picture) o Spatial information "data that about where objects occur in the environment" o Temporal information "data about when & for how long events occur"
Incidental learning
_____ tests usually involve determining whether memory for a list of words helps people identify word fragments or to generate a word from initial letters.
Indirect memory tests
RELATIONAL INFORMATION
Information specifying how concepts are related
What is issue #1 on the topic of VISUAL MEMORY? What is issue #2?
Issue #1 = We can never perfectly visualize things we've seen — even if we've seen those things many times in our lives! Issue #2 — Fuzzy approximations of visual info hinders the ability to manipulate the info we've seen. If our memory of visual information is so flawless, why can't we manipulate memories of it in our minds as easily as we can verbal info?
Define KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION
It is the storage of info in LTM.
Question f/ class: According to Chomsky, which of the following is true of the deep structure of a sentence?
It must be taken into account to resolve some AMBIGUOUS sentences
What is the major disadvantage of the AVERAGE DISTANCE RULE for categorizing new items?
It sucks up a lot of time while you try to make your abstract calculations (you're calculating greatest average similarity to an already-classified item)
The idea of schemas has been around for almost a century at this point. It was introduced by a # of theorists, specifically _____, who was really the champion of the idea of schemas. The idea of schemas first took off in Europe and went unstudied in the USA for many decades.
Jean Piaget
Theorists _______ illustrate the interaction between capacity theory and bottleneck theory by showing that a person has control over the stage at which selection occurs, but late modes of selection (following pattern recognition) require more capacity than early modes. The attempt to comprehend 2 messages therefore results in a decline in accuracy on the primary message and slower responses on a subsidiary task designed to measure capacity.
Johnston & Heinz
According to _______________, "the observer can adopt any mode of attention demanded by or best suited to a particular task!"
Johnston & Heinz Capacity Model of Attention
According to what model is the following true? although a listener can ATTEMPT to understand the meaning of 2 messages at the same time by adopting a "late mode of selection, the use of a late mode is achieved at a cost" • As the perceptual processing system shifts f/ an early to a late mode of selection, it collects more info about the secondary message, but this REDUCES THE CAPACITY to comprehend the secondary message • predicted result/hypothesis: COMPREHENSION OF THE PRIMARY MESSAGE will decline as the listener tries to process a secondary message fully
Johnston & Heinz Capacity Model of Attention
With what model of attention is this experiment associated? --> Tested their hypothesis in a series of 5 experiments --> Assed amount of capacity required to perform tasks by determining how quickly participants could respond to a "subsidiary task" --> Main task in in their research was a selective-listening task, which they used to ensure a bottleneck would be likely to occur --> As participants were being asked to "listen" they were also given a "light signal" (the subsidiary task) that occurred randomly throughout the selective-listening task. --> Participants were asked to respond to the light signal/subsidiary task as quickly as possible by pushing a button --> Assumption by experimenters: The greater the amount of capacity allocated to the selective listening task, the less capacity should remain available for monitoring the signal light of the subsidiary task, thus causing longer reaction times • One experiment's subjects heard pairs of words simultaneously in both ears: o Subjects then asked to shadow (repeat out loud) words based on PITCH or words based on a "semantic" category (i.e., based on meaning) o One set of stimuli: used male vs. female voice; students were asked to shadow only those words spoken by one gender this allowed subjects to employ an "early sensory mode of selection" b/c the pitches of the 2 messages were so immediately recognizable as physically different (male vs. female) • Another cohort of subjects heard pairs of words simultaneously in both ears both spoken by the SAME VOICE. But one of the ears received words from one semantic category (e.g., names of occupations) while the other ear received words from another semantic category (e.g., names of cities): o Subjects then asked to shadow (repeat out loud) words from just ONE of the two semantic categories & to ignore the words from the other category unlike the subjects from the male-female-voice cohort, the subjects from the semantic-words cohort had to rely on "a late, sematic mode of selection" b/c it was necessary to know the meaning of the words to categorize them (more mental effort was required) • Thus, the ______ Theory predicts both that: o 1 - more capacity is required to perform a late mode of selection: And use of the semantic mode should therefore cause slower reaction times to the light signal/subsidiary task and more errors on the selective-listening/shadowing task o 2 - listening to 2 lists should require more capacity than listening to and shadowing 1 list, which in turn should require more capacity than listening to no lists
Johnston & Heinz Capacity Model of Attention (multimode theory)
________ of Attention— and his "Attention and Effort" (1973) helped shift the emphasis from bottleneck theories to capacity theories.
Kahneman's Capacity Model
Which of the following theories is concerned w/ the allocation of mental effort to various activities? a) Kahneman's capacity model b) Treisman's attenuation model c) Broadbent's filter model
Kahneman's capacity model
Strategies like allocating study time and deciding on a mnemonic device (e.g., Atkinson & Shiffrin's verbal rehearsal, coding, or imaging) are all concerned w/ what step in the learning process?
Knowledge acquisition
Researcher ______ tried to answer if time between studying material and recall of that material influenced confidence in what was learned (i.e., judgments of learning). What were the findings?
Koriat (2004) FINDINGS: Most participants incorrectly judged confidence of later retrieval based on ability to immediately retrieve. In other words, the retention interval clearly mattered for recall (i.e., forgetting indeed occurs over time)
People w/ hemispatial neglect usually struggle w/ processing stuff in their _____ visual field, which means that the actual damage occurred on the _____side of the brain (specifically the _____, which contains visual cortex).
LEFT; right; occipital lobe
Name for the narrow vertical tube in Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention (Y-shaped). Also define it.
LIMITED-CAPACITY PERCEPTUAL CHANNEL --> Definition: "The pattern recognition stage of Broadbent's model, which is protected by the filter (attention) from becoming overloaded with too much perceptual information"
Per the book, the central debate around the bottleneck issue is about the ______ of the BOTTLENECK and WHY it happens. Is it caused by the LIMITATIONS of ______ (Broadbent and Treisman) or ______ takes place (Deutsch)?
LOCATION; PERCEPTION; AFTER PERCEPTION
For a long time, people thought that ____, due to its pristine detail, must be infallible. But research now suggests that ___ might be one of the most fallible types of memory out there.
LTM
People often run into problems choosing good acquisition strategies b/c people tend to be overconfident in assessing whether they've successfully deposited info into ____.
LTM
Key implication of the multiple memory approach?
LTM is not a single unitary system, but rather several subsystems. This involves the distinction between episodic and semantic memory...
The major assumption of an STM model proposed by ________ (1969) is that e/ of the auditory components representing an item can be independently forgotten. In other words, if a name consists of 2 phonemes, a person might remember one phenomenon but not the other. The model also assumes that the auditory components can be forgotten at different rate (i.e., different decay rates).
Laughery
Describe study by Peterson & Peterson. How'd it work? Results?
Looking to see decay rate of STM. Showed that info in STM is lost rapidly unless there is verbal rehearsal. Had people memorize 3 consonants, but prevented them from rehearsing the letters by having them count backwards as well in 3s. Results --> Identified a "rapid forgetting rate" of STM without verbal rehearsal was ~ 18sec.
Strengths of SPREADING ACTIVATION MODEL
Lots of big statistical plusses to the Spreading Activation model. 1) Great ability to predict reaction time to questions —-> The big plus of the Spreading Activation model is that it's able to predict almost perfectly how ppl respond to category-based questions. 2) Accounts for the typicality effect 3) Accounts for the category size effect 4) Accounts for the criteria for "important features" —-> The Spreading Activation model also helps us understand the idea of importance and value. The Spreading Activation model can easily be tied to the concepts of prototypes and exemplars, as we discussed in the last module.
The limited capacity of STM is demonstrated by a task that is often used as a measure of its capacity. It is called either a "digit span" or a "_______" task.
MEMORY SPAN
Question f/ class: A study of psychiatric patients revealed that they reported ___ vivid images than control patients.
MORE VIVID IMAGES
How did Jacoby & Dallas (1981) manipulate familiarity? Results? Implications?
Manipulated familiarity by presenting study material either in the same modality (visual) or in a different modality (auditory) from the final exam RESULTS: As predicted, changing the modality familiarity made the exam material itself less familiar and lowered performance on BOTH recognition-memory and perceptual-identification tasks. IMPLICATIONS: Thus, familiarity processing does indeed apply to indirect memory tests AND direct memory tests, BUT modality shifts cause greater disruption in indirect tests like word-fragment identification as opposed to direct tests of recognition memory.
_______'s paper was important for drawing attention to how little the upper limit varies in performance on absolute judgment tasks and memory span tasks. His paper was also important for suggesting that recording the info to form ______ can help one overcome the limited capacity of STM.
Miller's; chunks
Define SPREADING ACTIVATION MODEL
Model describing how responses to questions are a result of the connections made within semantic networks
____________ is the first clear-cut example of encoding specificity researchers found. Explain why/how it works.
Mood-dependency example — WHY/HOW IT WORKS: Researchers showed that if they got someone angry while reading them a list of words, that subjects were much better at recalling that same list of words later when they were ALSO ANGRY. But if they were HAPPY later when asked to recall, their retrieval was less successful. (This also worked w/ happiness, sadness, etc.) Shows there's a relationship btwn the mood we experience and a rush of memory related to other times we've felt that same emotion.
_______ are the smallest unit of meaning in a sentence. Then these are broken down into ______, the most basic sounds in language.
Morphemes; Phonemes
Unlike the exemplar approach, this approach to categorizing new items does not involve keeping ONE item f/ a group in the mind's eye to compare new items to, but rather keeping many group members in mind when examining a new item. When using the nearest-neighbor rule, we ask ourselves, "what is closest to this new thing? Does it overlap well enough w/ that thing?"...If it does, then BOOM, we put the item into that category. And if the closest thing to it does NOT seem to overlap enough w/ it, then we don't put it into that first thing's category. --> DRAWBACK of this rule? --> ADVANTAGE of this rule?
NEAREST NEIGHBOR RULE --> DRAWBACK: Problems when new items are similar to outliers of a group — Sometimes things can overlap w/ very peripheral elements, leading to your incorrectly pairing things together. (e.g., penguins are an outlier in the category of birds, and if kids were to use the nearest neighbor rule w/ penguins they would probably not at first categorize penguins as birds) --> ADVANTAGE: Very time-efficient way of determining if something is a part of a group. It also doesn't require using just one exemplar (or example) to determine if something is a member of a group.
Was anyone able to recall all 12 letters flashed on the screen during Sperling's experiment?
NO
LTM is memory that has _________ limits and lasts from minutes to an entire life time.
NO capacity limits
AUDITORY MEMORY SPAN
Number of items recalled from STM following an auditory presentation of the items
Question f/ class: An ______ is a task used to try to control the kind of memory encoding processes the subjects applies while encoding new information.
ORIENTING TASK
--> How do we use typicality to determine group membership?—Researchers say that when we think of something as being "typical" we're actually looking at something that shares a lot of characteristics w/ other members of that category. Something that's typical has a LOT OF ______ with other members of the ____-level group. ^^The more ____, the more ____ & the more certain you are the item you are considering is a part of the category in which you're interested. --> ______ is a measure of how frequently the attributes of a category member are shared by other members of that category (a tool for determining typicality)
OVERLAP; basic ^^OVERLAP; typical --> FAMILY RESEMBLANCE
If there is one word to associate w/ Laughery's experiment finding that "each of the auditory components representing an item can be independently forgotten" and that they have different decay rates...would would that word be?
PHONEME
_______'s has both an early stage of selection (filtering mechanism) & a late stage of selection (semantic analysis)
Pashler's "Early & Late Stage Selection" Capacity Model of Attention
Define CLUSTERING
Percentage of occasions in which a word is followed by its primary associate during the free recall of words.
Whose experiment was this? "Subjects in an experiment designed by _________ (1965) had to perform an arithmetic task for 30 seconds before they tried to recall a list of words. The arithmetic task was successful in eliminating the ___________, implying that the words at the end of the list had decayed from STM. -list of 20 nouns -5 sec delay btwn nouns (person running experiment would read a word, pause for 5 sec, read another word, and so on) -Just as w/ Rundus' original test, participant repeats the words being read over and over. -However, THIS time AFTER the 20 words are read, we play the "game of 7s" which eliminates the recency effect, implying that words at the end of the list had decayed f/ STM — Participant is given 2 #s and has to count down backward by 7s f/ the first # to get to the second # before writing down the words from the list of 20 that can be recalled! -How many can you recall now?
Postman & Philip; the recency effect
The _____ is the ability to recall information contained at the BEGINNING of a list better. Caused by retrieval f/ ____. Linked to _____.
Primacy effect; LTM repetition
Type of implicit memory involving learned skills and procedures. Provide example.
Procedural Memory — *e.g., a skill that depends on procedural memory is the improvement of reading speed that occurs when rereading the same passage
_____ memory is the memory for actions, skills, and operations. NOT FACTS, like episodic and semantic memory are concerned with. Factual info is more susceptible to forgetting than procedural info TYPING muscle memory example.
Procedural memory
Both "_______Theories" and "_____ Theories" explain HOW direct tests of memory and indirect tests of memory measure different things.
Processing Theories --> One theoretical approach to explaining this is that direct & indirect memory tests have different processing requirements: & Multimemory Theories --> Some argue that it's not that memory tests are measuring different processes but rather they are measuring DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEMORIES.
Define SEMANTIC DEMENTIA --> Rogers & Patterson (2007) studied how the severity of semantic dementia influences patients' ability to match words & pictures at __________ proposed by Rosch. They found that although ____ categories are easier to retain early in life, _____ categories are easier to retain b/c memory for fewer details are required.
Progressive deterioration of knowledge about words & objects --> at e/ of the 3 hierarchical levels; basic; superordinate
What do the 2 items below show proof of? ¬ E.g., Method of Loci ex — classic grocery store list example that uses visual imagery to aid in memory ¬ E.g., Paivio, Smythe, & Yuille's 1968 study —ran a study that had some words that could easily have visual images associated w/ them and some words that were very difficult to create a corresponding visual image for.
Proof that applying visual images to items we want to recall increases our chances of retaining those items "in unbelievable ways"
INTERFERENCE THEORY
Proposal that forgetting occurs b/c other material interferes w/ the information in memory.
DECAY THEORY
Proposal that information is spontaneously lost over time, even when there is no interference from other material
Define LATE-SELECTION MODEL
Proposal that the bottleneck occurs later after pattern recognition stage, only when information is being selected to be retained in memory
The _______ can be very frustrating when we are trying to learn new information, but it can also be beneficial. There are many occasions when we need to remember something only briefly.
RAPID RATE OF FORGETTING
The ability to distinguish between external and internal sources has been called _____ by Johnston & Rate (1981). --> They said that there are 3 kinds of cues that help us distinguish between imagined and real life. What are they?
REALITY MONITORING --> a) SENSORY INFORMATION: Perceptual events (vs imagined ones) have more spatial detail than imagined events b) CONTEXTUAL INFO: Perceptual events (vs imagined ones) occur in an external context that contains other info c) COGNITIVE OPERATIONS
Researchers have determined that they key way in which we can convert a typically controlled process into an automatic processed task is through ______. What are 2 examples of this?
REPETITION examples: the practice of driving a car and reading
What are the 2 kinds of interference?
RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: Forgetting that occurs b/c of interference f/ material encountered AFTER learning. PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: Forgetting that occurs b/c of interference f/ material encountered BEFORE learning.
How do we categorize? — A very logical way that we categorize info we're being presented is to use _____. This categorization technique suggests that we can create these steadfast ____ that say "if a specific object or element possesses THIS characteristic, then BOOM it's in Group A. But if it possesses another specific characteristic, then BOOM it's in Group B and so on..." ^^This type of categorization is specifically called _________, and is specifically defined as "a task that requires deciding whether an item is an example of a concept."
RULES; RULES; Concept identification through RULES
The ______ is the ability to recall information contained at the END of a list better. Caused by retrieval f/ ____. It is linked to both ______ and _______.
Recency effect; STM lack of disruption and increased ability to PROCESS info
Define EXTERNAL ATTENTION
Refers to attending to (or paying attention to) objects in the environment &/or the specific features of those objects. This involves input from all kinds of senses (sight, taste, aural, etc.) and at various time intervals/spatial locations.
Define INTERNAL ATTENTION
Refers to regulating our internal mental life (e.g., planning what to eat for dinner). Also controls the management of information in short-term working memory and in long-term memory
Define MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL
Rehearsal that keeps information active in STM.
_________________ is an example of improving recall by making items distinct f/ other items in the immediate context. E.g., people recall more items when the material changes f/ words to #s or f/ #s to words than when the material stayed the same.
Release from proactive interference
______ fails to predict learning b/c it can be a misleading indicator of which items are have actually made it to LTM (e.g., if we finish a word test and then IMMEDIATELY try to recall the most recent words on the list, they will still be in our STM so it will be easier to retrieve them, but this is not a faithful indicator at all that you will be able to recall that same info long-term or even in a few hours! The same items are not nearly as retrievable during delayed recall as they were during immediate recall.)
Retrieval fluency
Describe the 2 steps involved in RETRIEVAL
Retrieval step 1 — Deciding initially if you think you have the info in LTM -->To retrieve info f/ LTM , we must first decide whether the info is stored in LTM in the first place. Retrieval step 2 — Searching LTM --> After deciding if it's worth a search of your LTM, you must decide HOW you will conduct the search (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1980, proposed that people develop plans for search LTM. E.g., if asked to recall the 50 states, you could organize your search either by alphabetic order or geographic location)
The Postman & Philip test suggests waiting for a period of time will result in a better estimate of how much we've retained from an experience. Likewise, researchers ______ say wait at least 30 seconds after you've read a chapter to take the practice quiz that comes at the end! That way you'll be able to more accurately predict how you'll truly do on the Test in class.
Rhodes & Tauber
What was one of the first studies to suggest that the serial position effect actually worked?
Rundus test (1971) — Found that the probability of recalling a word depended on its position in the list. Words at the beginning and words at the end were easier to recall than words in the middle (see "U shape" of the "recall curve")
Name for the two upper branches of the Y in Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention?
SENSORY STORE
The _____ provides brief storage for information in its original sensory form. Presumably, a ________ exists for each sense, although the visual and auditory stores have been the most widely studied.
SENSORY STORE; SENSORY STORE
"An experimental method that requires people to repeat the attended message [or the message intended to be paid attention to] out loud."
SHADOWING
SIMILARITIES between Capacity Theories of Attention vs. Bottleneck Theories of Attention? DIFFERENCES?
SIMILARITIES — Both agree simultaneous activities/tasks are likely to interfere w/ each other (divide attention) DIFFERENCES — Ascribe different causes for the interference that occurs during simultaneous tasks --> Bottleneck interference occurs b/c the same mechanism (e.g., speech recognition) is required to carry out two incompatible operations at the same time • i.e., interference of attention between tasks depends specifically on the degree to which the tasks rely on the same mechanisms only --> Capacity interference occurs b/c the demands of the two simultaneous activities exceed available capacity • i.e., interference of attention does not rely on the way in which the two tasks share the same mechanisms; it only depends on the TOTAL demands of each task
How are ENCODING SPECIFICITY and TRANSFER-APPROPRIATE PROCESSING similar? How are they different?
SIMILARITY: Both emphasize that good performance depends on maximizing the similarity between the coding and the retrieval of the material. DIFFERENCE: They differ in WHEN the encoding decision is made — --> In transfer-appropriate processing, the decision is made at the encoding stage. The retrieval conditions are fixed (e.g., multiple choice test vs. essay) and then you decide how you will encode the memory as it's learned based on that. (looks forward) --> In encoding specificity, the encoding has already occurred, and the decision requires finding effective retrieval cues to match the encoding. (looks backward)
serial position effect applies to both ___ (recency effect) & ___ (primacy effect)
STM & LTM
Cowan & Engle have distinguished between working memory and STM by proposing that _______ is a component of _______________ whose primary function is to ____________. The primary function of the central executive is to __________.
STM is a component of working memory; maintain the activated memory codes; control attention (thus, "controlled attention")
The Atkinson & Shiffrin model is all about transferring Information from ________ to _______ using _______.
STM to LTM; verbal rehearsal
Engle's Model of working memory says _____ is a component of working memory and that the ________ is responsible for "controlled attention" The specific role of STM in Engel's model is.... According to Engle, ________________ is necessary for actively maintaining task goals in working memory, scheduling actions, maintaining task info during distraction, and suppressing task-irrelevant info.
STM; Central Executive; ....to control active memory traces (usually phonological or visual codes); controlled attention
Accoding to Cowan (1995) and Engle, working memory consists of the contents of _____ plus ______________ as managed by the _____________.
STM; controlled attention central executive
What Baddelley argued is that ____ is limited when it comes to explaining more complex things like social interaction or how to make sense of this class for example as you're listening to it. It doesn't really account for how our memory is playing a role in those situations in any effective way. This is where the importance of _______ really comes into play.
STM; working memory
How does IMAGERY PAIRING work?
Say you're meeting someone for the first time, and you do NOT want to forget their name. Pair that individual with someone you're familiar with and something that ACTIVATES CERTAIN EMOTIONS a. Linking to familiar images = important b. Association with arousing emotions = important
Per the Levels of Processing Theory, which kind of encoding leads to "deep processing"?
Semantic encoding
_____ memory contains general knowledge of FACTS not associated w/ a particular time/context (memory of specific events, including when/where they occurred). ENCYLOPEDIA metaphor.
Semantic memory
Taken together, what implications about SENSORY MEMORY do the outcomes of the 2 conditions of George Sperling's experiment show?
Sensory Memory.... ¬ A) ...is fairly large —2nd condition tells us that sensory memory is indeed able to retain all 12 letters in our head...however ¬ B) ...doesn't require conscious processing to work — ¬ C) ...is VERY short if you do not attend to something immediately —Although sensory memory is initially able to retain a large swath of info, our ability to hold onto that large swath of info is SUPER SHORT - a fraction of a second (As the 1st condition shows) SUMMARY: The only things that stick with us in terms of sensory memory are the things we've deemed important enough to process and to PAY ATTENTION TO. Attention determines what you retain. (as demonstrated by the 2nd condition)
However, Deutsch/Deutsch did not think Treisman's tapping experiment disproved their theory —Why?
Shadowing/repeating out lout the words in the attended ear at same time as the tapping task makes words more salient of course in the attended ear than the words to be tapped in the unattended ear = They argued that the shadowed (spoken out loud) words of the attended message become more salient b/c of the very reason that they are being shadowed and attention is deliberately being asked to be called to them in the experiment —this added importance then increased the probability that a tapping response would also be elicited. And the fact people occasionally report hearing their name or an "expected" word (like "table") in the unattended ear, it suggests that at least some words are indeed getting through past that earlier selective filter
What big concept did Carpenter show with Remembering in Tongues (Carpenter, 2000)? And how?
Showed Language's relationship to encoding specificity How --> When bilingual people were given a list of words in one language and were then asked to recreate it in another language, they did significantly worse than if they were asked to recreate the list in the same language in which they were first read it. Even if they were completely fluent in both languages. Suggests that languages can cause you to construe info in slightly different ways b/c of the encoding process that is unique to each language.
SUBVOCALIZING
Silently speaking to oneself
Similarities between Cognitive Psychology & Clinical Psychology? Differences?
Similarities = Basic mental processes are examined in both. Differences = But Clinical Psych looks mostly at the exceptional — when something doesn't work in the way you would anticipate it to. The unusual. When cognitive processes DO NOT WORK.
Similarities between Cognitive Psychology & Social Psychology? Differences?
Similarities = Both look at basic processes of behavior — emotions, intentions, thinking and how they are impacted by the situation. Differences = But Social Psych studies the outward manifestations of behaviors by focusing on how the environment changes the way we think/feel and the way we interact with others. Cognitive Psych focuses on basic cognitive processes behind this and HOW the brain processes info or sorts it.
Similarities between Cognitive Psychology & Behaviorism? Differences?
Similarities = Both look at basic processes of behavior. Differences = But Behaviorists focus just on the surface behaviors. They don't look into HOW the brain processes info or sorts it.
Similarities between Cognitive Psychology & Neuroscience? Differences?
Similarities = Both study how the universal mental processes of the mind work Differences = But neuroscientists can go in a # of deeper directions that Cognitive Psych doesn't necessarily go (Neuroscientists can study the cellular level, the chemical level, all the different systems). Most cognitive psychologists stay at looking at the neurological components that link to the cognitive topics they're looking into - this usually means looking at structures of the brain and pathways w/in the nervous system that can be linked to the specific functions we're talking about. Less of the cellular stuff.
Similarities between Developmental Psychology & Social Psychology? Differences?
Similarities = Many people who study Cognitive Psych, start their research in Developmental Psych. Both look at how we acquire basic skills and insights to understand what it is that we are DOING with cognitive components. Differences = But Developmental Psychologists can study a whole litany of other areas besides Cognitive Psych (e.g., development of personality/identity/morality...they can look at physical development and how that impacts us...and none of these things have anything to do with Cognitive Psych).
Similarities between Cognitive Psychology & Personality Psychology? Differences?
Similarities = Some components of Cog Psych play into Personality Psych's investigation into how people interact w/ individuals and make sense of things (memory, attention, decision-making, planning) Differences = Personality Psych focuses on what makes people different (for memory, attention. etc.), whereas Cog Psych focuses on how these things function universally for everyone.
In psychology, the ______ is the finding that reaction times are usually faster, and reactions are usually more accurate, when the stimulus occurs in the same relative location as the response, even if the stimulus location is irrelevant to the task.
Simon effect
Skilled reader exceptions: • *Suppression skills: • *Working memory capacity: • *Error recovery heuristics:
Skilled reader exceptions: *Suppression skills: Ability to eliminate inappropriate meaning in a sentence —-> Skilled readers have great suppression skills. They can pick up quickly on the context of surrounding words and put other words that have similar meaning out of mind much faster than people who aren't great readers. In other words, they can quickly realize what the intended meaning of a word b/c they suppress the other possible meanings very quickly. *Working memory capacity: Ability to retain information in order to detect the context (semantics) of a sentence or word —-> Skilled readers have greater working memory capacity than poor readers, which helps them evaluate context from earlier in what's been presented. *Error recovery heuristics: Ability to incorporate strategies for correcting comprehension errors —-> Skilled readers are good at employing these, too. When a person misconstrues that a word means one thing when it was actually intended to mean another, skilled readers have the ability to course-correct very quickly. Vs. unskilled readers — or people who really struggle w/ language — who get bogged down when they start to misconstrue something. They have to almost reset their thinking entirely before they can move on to new information. And even when they do move on to new information, it's really hard for them to understand that new info b/c they're STILL dealing w/ being bogged down by misconstruing that initial info.
Bartlett never tried to challenge the ______. In fact, schemas do nothing but SUPPORT it! B/c it suggests that when we're trying to access a certain bit of information, a lot of other stuff follows along w/ it. --> Difference between Bartlett's Schema Theory & The Spreading Activation Theory?
Spreading Activation Theory; --> Difference between Bartlett's Schema Theory & The Spreading Activation Theory = Bartlett's theory suggests there's a whole litany of things that automatically all come together w/ the bits of information we're activating. It's not different paths we can take and pursue when accessing stored info/memories based on what's familiar and what's not (a la The Spreading Activation Theory), but rather it's the overarching entire schemas a given bit of information is a part of that becomes activated. And everything connected to the items of that schema become EQUALLY ACTIVATED. It's essentially an extra layer of spreading activation. An extra couple of branches that are extended w/ each and every experience.
Define RETRIEVAL STRATEGIES
Strategies for recalling info from and out of LTM by searching for the answer. One of the 3 (ARR) steps of learning.
The ____ is an example of something that indicates that tasks are performed more slowly because of competing responses.
Stroop effect
Cognitive interview technique
Successfully instructs eyewitnesses how to carefully search memory to recall details about a crime. Uses cognitively-based retrieval techniques to improve recall. Aka, "memory guidance techniques"
What researchers were known for their research on the limited capacity of STM and thus how to best design instructional material? What 3 "effects" did their studies underscore? What was their theory called?
Sweller & Chandler -split attention effect (ppl are worse at a task if they have to go back & forth between 2 instructions & items referred to in the instructions) -redundancy effect (people got worse at a task if they had too much info they didn't need) -expertise reversal effect (when instruction that reduces cognitive load for the novice increases cognitive load for the expert b/c the expert processes it as extra unnecessary info) -COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY
"The finding that it takes longer to name the color of the ink a word is printed in when the word is the name of a competing color (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink)"
THE STROOP EFFECT
According to Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, a PLAN consists of a hierarchy of ______ units as opposed to S-R units.
TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit)
ABSOUTE JUDGMENT TASK
Task that involves identifying stimuli that vary a long a single, sensory continuum (e.g., ranking the degree of how loud something is, how bright it is, etc.)
release from proactive interference
Technique for reducing practice interference by having info be dissimilar from earlier material
What does TOTE stand for? And who proposed it?
Test-Operate-Test-Exit — proposed by Miller, Galanter, & Programm
What did Sperling intend to show with the second condition of his experiment?
That maybe we remember everything we just forgot some of it very very quickly
The following is an experiment by whom? What's it called? What did it show? Participants came in w/ their parents and were interviewed for a long period of time. When they arrived, they'd split the participants from their parents and tell them they were about to interview their parents separately about something in their childhood. Researcher would then spend 30 min in the parents' room, followed by returning to the participants' room to tell him/her the purpose of the study — do childhood experiences have a big impact on someone's life & if so which experiences are the most impactful and how? The researcher told all participants in the study that their parents had mentioned in their interview that when the participant was 4 or 5 yr old they'd been at a mall or public place and the participant had gotten lost. The participant was the asked how that childhood experience getting lost at the mall affected them. ~1/3 of participants — " I don't remember that at all. It had no impact on me obviously." ~another 1/3 of participants — "I remember it vaguely, but I don't have a whole lot of details." ~last 1/3 of participants — "Oh yeah. I remember that vividly" — followed by a tirade of all the things that had changed w/in them in their life b/c of this event that didn't even happen!
The "Mall" experiment — Loftus' classic example of how far misleading questions could go in distorting memory of event
MEMORY SPAN
The # of correct items that people can immediately recall from a sequence of items.
Define ASSOCIATION VALUE
The # of verbal associations generated for a concept
What model of attention followed the Bottleneck Model of Attention?
The Capacity Model of Attention
A good everyday application of _______ Model that any student can relate to would be if you're studying for a quiz, ideally you should take the quiz in the same environment in which you studied for the quiz.
The Encoding Specificity Model
The below are implications of what model? ¬ 1 - If you want to recall specific info, if you try hard to consider what you were doing while you originally encoded that info, you will increase your likelihood of recall ¬ 2 - If you know it will be critical to recall info later, be sure to take note of how you encode it and try to replicate that encoding situation when you attempt to retrieve it later ¬ 3 - When you recall info, be aware that your current state (mood, environment, language) is STRONGLY impacting what you are currently able to recall
The Encoding Specificity Model
Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention is also known as what?
The FILTER MODEL
Define COGNITIVE SCIENCE
The INTERDISCIPLINARY attempt to study cognition through such fields as psychology, philosophy, AI, neuroscience, linguistics & anthropology
The ______ is a type of visual mnemonic device involves associating something you need to remember that is relatively abstract with something very familiar to you in your past that you can visualize. (e.g., your childhood home). Uses working memory, the value of familiarity, LTM - and uses it in an effective way.
The Method of Loci
The exercise illustrating the ____________ showed that it takes a LOT longer to read a list of colored words and say their color than it is to actually read the words. This shows a weakness of what kind of processing?
The Stroop Effect --> A weakness of automatic processing b/c it gets in the way sometimes when we are trying to direct our attention (when we are trying to also control process something)
Define DIVIDED ATTENTION
The ability to "divi up" your mental skills to different tasks/elements
Define DIRECTED ATTENTION
The ability to intentionally control what your mind is interacting with and what it is processing
Define STIMULUS-RESPONSE (S-R)
The approach that emphasizes the association between a stimulus and a response, without identifying the mental operations that produced the response.
The below all pertain to what? *THE ABILITY TO BLOCK OUTSIDE INFORMATION... *THE ABILITY TO QUICKLY ATTEND TO OUTSIDE INFORMATION... *THE LOSS OF LARGE AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION WHEN ATTEMPTING TO ATTEND TO MULTIPLE SOURCES OF INFORMATION
The cocktail effect
Explain the Importance of familiarity & organization when it comes to the reconstruction effect
The desire to make sense of things all play a role when the storage of information gets manipulated, thereby leading to the imperfection of LTM.
Define RETRIEVAL FLUENCY
The ease w/ which an item can be recalled.
Which component of Baddelley's model of working memory creates a MULTIMODAL CODE to form a model of the environment that can be manipulated to solve problems?
The episodic buffer (it's referred to as a "multimodal code" b/c the episodic buffer connects the visuospatial sketchpad & the phonological loop)
What was the 4th component Baddelley added to this theory of working memory?
The episodic buffer —Allows us to draw upon past info and ADD it to the reservoir that our mind is working w/ at any given time. Integrates visual and auditory memory codes. " (think of "episodic" connoting time and that is what the buffer does -- allows the integration from LTM)
Define CATEGORY SIZE EFFECT
The finding that members of smaller categories are classified more quickly than members of larger categories (this is reversed in the Feature Comparison Model b/c predictions are based on similarity and not level size)
TYPICALITY EFFECT
The finding that the more typical members of a category are classified more quickly than the less typical category members
INATTENTIONAL BLINDNESS
The inability to completely process an event unless our attention is focused on that event, creates encoding difficulty We just can't take in everything we're experiencing. It's just not perfect when we're bringing it in even if we'd love to have a detailed memory of it. There are gaps in our processing of info. We can miss both small details and big-picture stuff.
Define CONTEXTUAL EFFECT. What model of attention is it associated with?
The influence of the surrounding context on the recognition of patterns (associated w/ Treisman's Attenuation Model)
How would Deutsch & Deutsch explain the results or what happens to the task of listening to 2 different conversations (messages) in a shadowing experiment with the two ears?
The late-selection model assumes words in BOTH conversations are just as recognized at the moment they're heard but are then quickly forgotten unless they are important words, like a person's own name or the word "fire!"
Define "THRESHOLD" as it pertains to Treisman's Attenuation Model
The minimum intensity/loudness/activation needed to become consciously aware of a stimulus.
How does the feature comparison model account for typicality?
The more typical items get classified faster *unliek in the hierarchical network model)
When are algorithms really trumped by heuristics? What is the term for this?
The option size impact — This is when algorithms are really trumped by heuristics. o Revisiting the Rubik's cube example — e.g., it is likely more efficient to try out a few heuristics to solve a Rubik's cube than following each tedious step of the algorithm to finish it. o Letter scramble example — e.g., same option size impact applicability here, too. You could go through an algorithm to get there step by step or you could follow the heuristic below. ♣ Eptauk ♣ Does "p" usually follow "t," does it usually follow "k"?
Define SENSORY STORE
The part of memory that holds unanalyzed sensory information for a fraction of a second, providing an opportunity for additional analysis following the physical termination of a stimulus.
The ____ rule is more effective than the _____ rule (requires too much calculation, which is more effective than the ____ (too much room for error & miscategorization; penguin example).
The prototype rule is more effective than the average distance rule which is more effective than the nearest neighbor rule.
Define HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING
The psychological approach that attempts to identify what occurs during the various stages (attention, perception, STM) of processing information
____ is explained by words at the end of the list still being in STM when the person begins the recall.
The recency effect
Question f/ class: Imagine that you've performed an experiment and found that people could verify that a whale is an animal more quickly than they could verify that it is a mammal. You have demonstrated what?
The reversal of category size effect
Define METACOGNITION
The selection of strategies for processing information, such as the selection of study strategies to prepare for exams. (e.g., determining teacher's expectations, managing times, setting goals, deciding mnemonic devices, etc.)
Big limitation of Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention/Filter Model?
The sensory store would have to last a fairly long time to operate as Broadbent proposed; otherwise, the info would decay before it could be recognized.
Define PATTERN RECOGNITION
The stage of perception during which a stimulus is identified.
Define SELECTION STAGE
The stage that follows pattern recognition and determines which information a person will try to remember.
Define ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
The study of how to produce computer programs that can perform intellectually demanding tasks.
Define COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
The study of the relation between cognitive processes and brain activities
Define FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS
The tendency to use an object in a specific way and only that one way or to think of a concept only in one way (the two string problem) E.g., applying "functional fixedness" concept to the "matchstick problem" —someone w/ this issue would get stuck on only seeing a box of matches as a container in which to hold matches and not see other uses for it. This would inhibit that person from being able to solve the arrangement problem.
Define WORKING MEMORY
The use of STM as a temporary store for information needed to accomplish a particular task
Is all deep processing equal? What is the classic illustration of this we learned about in class?
There has been research that shows NOT ALL DEEP PROCESSING IS EQUAL: Precise elaboration is more effective when it comes to semantic coding! Get as vivid as you can in your connections! "the fat man read the sign that was 2 feet high" vs "the fat man read the sign warning about thin ice"
Both the Feature Comparison Model & the Hierarchical Network Model don't predict people's responses very well. WHY? --> What 3rd model improved upon these models for explaining how we access already categorized information?
There were always mishaps when people were trying to use yes/no responses or "time to respond" when using these models to explain how a person answers questions like "does a cat have 4 legs?" --> The Spreading Activation Model
Describe the 4 conditions and results of Paivio, Smythe, & Yuille's 1968 study on visual images associated w/ words... Implications?
They ran a study that had some words that could easily have visual images associated w/ them and some words that were very difficult to create a corresponding visual image for. *High and low imagery word pairs — --> Low imagery e.g, the words "constant" or "context" are difficult to create a visual approximation for --> High imagery e.g., the word "bird" or "rug" CONDITIONS: Participants were asked to recall a PAIR of words. 12 words. They were divided into 4 groups: 1) Group HH 11/12 -CONDITION: BOTH words had HIGH visual imagery potential -RESULT: 100% recall success 2) Group HL 9.5/12 -CONDITION: FIRST word had HIGH visual imagery, 2nd word had low -RESULT: still high level of retention 3) Group LH 7/12 -CONDITION: FIRST word had LOW visual imagery, 2nd word had high -RESULT: poor retention 4) Group LL 6/12 -CONDITION: BOTH words had LOW visual imagery potential -RESULT: poor retention RESULTS SUMMARY — Almost 100% recall success for Group HH 11/12 on recalling the 2nd word. And even when ppl were given a high-visual imagery word 1st and a low one second, their recall was still pretty good. This suggests that the process of closing your eyes and visualizing something (that first word) truly aids in letting the 2nd word - even if it didn't have great visual imagery potential itself — being much more easily accessible. IMPLICATIONS: Your ability to retain stuff (like the Method of Loci example also showed) can be aided if you access some visual approximation of the information.
Why do mnemonic devices matter?
They serve a great purpose b/c they allow to retain a large amount of info for an extended period of time during that early STM memory stage, which then allows us to convert much more of that info into LTM.
What is the Point of the "Levels of Processing Model"?
This model was revolutionary and changed 100 years of how psychologists thought about retention (i.e., repetition is not the only way to make things stick in your head long-term). Instead, making something MORE MEANINGUL as you're taking it in from the environment is actually the key! [not simply repeating the info over and over in a rote way] In other words — THE LEVEL AT WHICH YOU PROCESS INFO as it comes in is what really matters in terms of what you retain!
_______ is a retrieval state that occurs after a slow search of LTM, when a person knows info is stored in LTM but cannot immediately retrieve it. Successful retrieval is often helped by using partial information, such as the length of the word or its initial letter, to limit the search needed of LTM.
Tip of the tongue phenomenon (TOT)
________'s model is able to explain why even though usually very little is heard on the unattended channel still some words are occasionally recognized.
Treisman's
Per _____ Model of Attention, we don't necessarily block out ALL peripheral info (or "unattended" material). We may just process it to a small extent and devote far less energy to it than the "important" info ("attended" info). It's just that the peripheral info NEVER gets the same amount of energy as the "attended" info — the stuff we've deemed "important" in a specific situation.
Treisman's Attenuation Model of Attention
What theory of attention does this describe? Poor attention and processing of non-critical material
Treisman's Attenuation Model of Attention
Who was the one of the very first to challenge Broadbent's Mechanical Model of Attention?
Treisman's Attenuation Model of Attention
Treisman is known for what experiment to identify where the bottleneck of attention occurs? -HOW IT WORKED: -HYPOTHESIS: -RESULTS:
Treisman's tapping experiment—She wanted to determine the location of the bottleneck. So she... -HOW IT WORKED: Asked participants to listen to a different list of words arriving in e/ ear o They then had to tap whenever they heard the SAME "target word" in both ears o They also had to shadow (repeat out loud) all the words that arrived in the ATTENDED ear -HYPOTHESIS: If the bottleneck occurs in response-selection stage (just before STM, like Deutsch model) — The tapping response is so simple & immediate that people should be able to do equally well tapping to target words from both the attended and unattended ear if the bottleneck occurs in perception stage — people should be MUCH better at tapping to the target words from the ATTENDED ear RESULTS: Hypothesis was supported target word was detected and "tapped to" by participants 87% of the time in ATTENDED ear & only 8% in unattended ear. Thus, Treisman concluded bottleneck occurs in PERCEPTION stage
______ is an estimate of how well an item represents the category that it belongs to (using only the general characteristics that something possesses to make that judgment). Thus, there are no specific LAWS or RULES that need to be followed to make a categorization. In essence, does this something possess a couple or so characteristics that would make it part of a given group?
Typicality
Treisman's Attenuation Model of Attention poses a "subtle" difference from Broadbent's model, but an important one. What was it?
Unlike Broadbent, Treisman suggested that the "unattended" material is not completely gone or unprocessed. We just don't put as many cognitive resources or energy into processing the unattended that we do the attended material.
Question f/ class: Which book had a negative influence on the study of imagery?
Watson's BEHAVIORISM
Psychologists ignored imagery for many years b/c of the influence of ________ (1924), which was dedicated to wiping out the study of mental events. _____ argued that only behavior could be objectively studied, which almost completely eliminated the study of mental processes such as visual imagery.
Watson's BEHAVIORISM; Watson
Researchers _____________ (1965) tested whether the loss of information from STM is caused mainly by decay or interference. They presented lists of 16 single digits. The last digit in every list (a probe digit) occurred exactly once earlier in the list. The task was to report the digit that had followed the probe digit. What did they ultimately find?
Waugh & Norman --> Ultimately found that interference affects STM recall much more than decay/time does
Define ALLOCATION OF CAPACITY:
When a limited amount of attention capacity is distributed to various tasks
What Swinney & Hakes found in their 1976 study?
When ambiguous words like "bugs" popped up in a sentence, if there was context around it so that ppl didn't have to search for the meaning of that word to figure out what version of that best fit into the sentence, then there was a very low delay in processing the rest of that sentence. ¬ B/c "bugs" in the first sentence in the slide above could have several meanings (insects, or spy devices), ppl take longer to raise their hands when they hear "kuh" — their processing speed for the latter half of the sentence is slowed ¬ But b/c the 2nd sentence is much more clear in the surrounding words ("spiders," "roaches,"), they much more quickly raise their hands when they hear "kuh" in that sentence — their processing speed for the latter half of the sentence is faster (in other words, your expectations are fulfilled. There's no extra need to process what that word is; you don't have to spend much time accessing your knowledge of what "bugs" means here)
Define SECONDARY DISTINCTIVENESS
When an item is distinct from other items stored in LTM.
Hemispatial neglect
When people lose the ability to memorize or be able to interact w/ specific info in their visual field b/c of damage to the brain. The area of the brain linked to this does relate to the visual cortex.
Why do psychologists use judgment tasks when trying to figure out what kind of memory code a person is using? The purpose of the judgment task (aka, "__________") is what?
When unimpaired people try to learn, they most likely form several kinds of memory codes, and psychologists have little control over which ones people use. "orienting task"; to try to control the kind of memory code formed by requesting that a person make decisions about a particular aspect of the word, such as its pronunciation or its meaning.
Who said this quote and in what publication? "Everyone knows what ATTENTION is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence."
William James (The Principles of Psychology, 1890)
Define PRIMARY ASSOCIATES Why are they used in psychology experiments?
Words that are strongly associated w/ each other, as typically measured by asking people to provide associations to words Purpose: To try to create different levels of processing (like in the Hyde-Jenkins incidental vs. intentional recall task judging pleasantness of words, counting Es, # of letters, etc.)
Per Sperling, if you come across a woman at a party but don't make an effort to look at her, what are the chances that you will be able to recall her face later if you want to?
^^#1 = When NO in-the moment conscious attention is paid --> It is probably impossible to recall who the person was who passed by you because you DID NOT CONSCIOUSLY process her in the moment when she was actually there in front of you (a la the difference between Sperling's 1st condition & 2nd condition) o Per Sperling, if 2-3 seconds pass without you making a conscious effort to make note of her face, you will NEVER be able to recall her face ^^#2 = When in-the-moment conscious attention is indeed paid --> IF something is important or critical enough to IMMEDIATELY grab your attention, you can start remembering that info even if you weren't attending to it for a super long period of time. All that's required is a fraction of a second of attention to make that impression (a la Sperling's 2nd condition) o Per Sperling and the initial example of the woman walking by -- If you took notice of her face within a fraction of a second, you will be able to recall her face later, but only if that happens.
Shepard & Metzler's original study had ppl look at a 3D image of a shape and also a second image of ________. People were asked to determine if the first shape was the same structure as the second one after _____. --> RESULTS: --> IMPLICATIONS: --> SPECIFIC IMPLICATIONS OF WHAT HAPPENED WHEN PEOPLE ANSWERED "NO," THIS IMAGE DOES NOT MATCH THE OTHER, EVEN IF ROTATED?:
a very similar shape that was in a different orientation; after they rotated the first one --> RESULTS: What they were able to show is that when people answered "yes, this is the exact same shape," the time it took them to answer "yes" was almost perfectly correlated to the degrees of rotation that they had put into the objects --> IMPLICATIONS: This was really significant and telling in terms of how we are able to match up the visual manipulation of something stored in our heads and a quantitative indicator that people were actually doing it. The correlation between TIME and rotation angle was HUGE. --> SPECIFIC IMPLICATIONS OF WHAT HAPPENED WHEN PEOPLE ANSWERED "NO," THIS IMAGE DOES NOT MATCH THE OTHER, EVEN IF ROTATED?: -When people did actually answer "NO" — (i.e., when the pairs of blocks were completely different) That challenge to say "no" took people considerably longer than an affirmative yes in the other 2 conditions. This suggested that people were actually interacting with the visual image they'd stored in their heads!
Question f/ class: Studies of LTM for material learned in cognitive psychology classes indicate that: a) 10 yrs from now you will remember about 25% of what you know now b) 10 yrs f/ now you will remember almost everything you know now c) 10 yrs from now you will remember about 50% of what you know now d) 10 yrs from now you will not remember anything you know now
a) 10 yrs from now you will remember about 25% of what you know now
Question f/ class: One consistent research finding concerning natural categorization is that... a) all of these b) natural categories are hierarchically organized c) people tend to emphasize features that provide causal explanations d) the relations among features are important
a) all of these
When it comes to these 2 types of memory, how do amnesiacs fare? a) episodic memory b) semantic memory c) procedural memory
a) amnesiacs suck at episodic memory b) amnesiacs are fine w/ semantic memory c) amnesiacs are fine w/ procedural memory
Question f/ class that TOTALLY STILL MAKES no sense: Students who encoded words in a semantic orienting task by rating their pleasantness believed that... a) both cues would be equally effective b) neither cue would be effective
a) both cues would be equally effective
Question f/ class: According to Rosch & Mervis, the most typical members of a category a) share attributes with other members of the same category b) have the SAME attributes as the least typical members c) share attributes w/ members of other categories d) belong to many other categories
a) share attributes with other members of the same category
Question f/ class: In the Craik & Tulving (1975) study where the time spent processing information was varies, the results indicate... a) time spent processing was less predictive of recall than level of processing b) time spent processing was just as important as level of processing in predicting subsequent recall
a) time spent processing was less predictive of recall than level of processing
Probably "the weirdest experiment ever done w/ respect to The Encoding Specificity Model" was Baddelley & Godden's Context Dependent Experiment (1975), which was about what and showed what?
about scuba divers and recall Showed the environment's relationship to encoding specificity
Psychologists' interest in __________ has been motivated by people's reliance on verbal rehearsal as a means of preserving info in STM.
acoustic codes
________ help us maintain info in STM for subsequently recalling or searching that info. Forming _____ f/ written words is particularly important in supporting reading. Maintaining these words in STM enables readers to integrate the meaning of individual words w/ other words in the sentence to understand its meaning.
acoustic codes; acoustic codes
Levy's research on speed-reading found that ______ was not necessary to understand big, broad ideas but IS necessary to remember the details.
acoustic coding
Laughery's simulation model accounts for ___________ by assuming that acoustic codes consist of __________, which can be independently forgotten.
acoustic confusions; phonemes
Define ORIENTING TASK (aka "_______)
aka "judgment task" Instructions to focus on a particular aspect (physical, phonemic, semantic) of a stimulus. In other words, to use a certain type of memory code.
*Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970) are known for studies on ______ showing differences between implicit and explicit memory abilities. They compared patients w/ amnesia with control patients similar in age and IQ who did NOT have ______.
amnesiacs; amnesia
Hierarchical organization influences both the _____ of information we can retrieve f/ LTM and the ______ .
amount; time required to retrieve the information
Shadowing is an experimental technique that is used to verify that people....
are attending to the correct message
Kahneman's model assumes that the amount of capacity available varies with the level of ______ — MORE capacity is available when ______ is moderately high vs. low --> HOWEVER, VERY HIGH levels of _____ can interfere with performance i.e., As _____ increases, capacity increases — BUT there is a point of diminishing returns! Thus, "performance is best at intermediate levels of _____!
arousal; arousal; arousal; arousal; arousal
____ has improved our ability to identify how schemas might be organized. And it's why the USA finally accepted Bartlett.
artificial intelligence (If schemas exist in computers, they must exist in people, too!)
Bower's 1st study showed that hierarchies help us recall info b/c the "random" group recalled far less than the "organized" group. --> Bower's 2nd experiment on the recall of _____ words proved semantic organization of material improves recall and doesn't always have to be _____. However, _____ organization is more effective for recall than association.
associated words; doesn't always have to be hierarchical; hierarchical
Per Spreading Activation Model, the more _________ the more false memories are possible.
associations/connections between words/concepts
"Solving a problem means finding a way out of a difficulty, a way around an obstacle, attaining an aim that was not immediately understandable. Solving problems is the specific gift of mankind: Solving problems can be regarded as the most characteristically human activity." — George Polya ^^^Note: Cognitive psychologists had operated on Polya's assumption for decades that _______. Until it was disproven. Many primates can solve complex problems, and cats, dogs, mice, rats, & other species can also problem-solve. Even though we may think of humans as special due to the
assumption that humans were the only ones who could problem-solve
Broadbent's filter model proposes that it's easier to report a message to one ear followed by the message to the other ear because.... a) people have more practice in using that procedure b) it is easier to organize memory according to where the information arrived c) attention does not have to be continuously switched d) reporting by ears requires less capacity
attention does not have to be continuously switched
Though intertwined, most psychologists link "_____" to where/what your mind is interacting with, and "_____" to the actual act of that interaction (In other words, although many psychologists will occasionally use "_____" and "_____" interchangeably, there is definitely a subtle difference between the two of them)
attention; processing
When we're talking about "_____," we're talking about the kind of the ability to dedicate our cognitive resources (our mind) to something With _____, talking about the actual ACT of engaging those activities
attention; processing
When you shift your focus from one thing to another, a tiny gap in attention called ______ is created. It only lasts for about half a second, so we barely notice it.
attentional blink
Psychologists believe that ______ processing is NOT impacted by mood or the situation or context.
automatic
b/c _____ processing occurs w/o intention, they may occur even when they are a nuisance.
automatic
Exemplar theories propose that people remember specific examples rather than abstract info. The _____ model & the ____ model are examples of exemplar models. --> Exemplar models have been most successful when people have sufficient practice to learn ____ categories.
average-distance model & nearest neighbor model --> small categories
The study of the relation between cognitive processes and brain activities is called _____. a) psychobiology b) cognitive neuroscience c) artificial intelligence d) cognitive science
b) cognitive neuroscience
Question f/ class: Subjects in the Craik & Watkins experiment were required to maintain a word in STM in order to report the last word on a list that began w/ a specified letter. The results indicated that the amount of rehearsal... a) did not influence retrieval f/ LTM, suggesting that semantic processing occurred b) did not influence retrieval f/ LTM, suggesting semantic processing did NOT occur
b) did not influence retrieval f/ LTM, suggesting semantic processing did NOT occur
In the information processing model, the role of the filter and the role of selection: a) are components of attention b) reflect aspects of attention c) reflect aspects of concept formation d) are components of the process supporting the transfer of information from short-term to LTM
b) reflect aspects of attention
Question f/ class: The encoding specificity principle states that... a) the deeper the level of encoding, the better the resultant memory performance b) the effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends upon the nature of the initial encoding c) the effectiveness of a cue depends on how distinctive it is
b) the effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends upon the nature of the initial encoding
Quiz question f/ class: Which of the following is NOT true of Laughery's model of STM? a) the model can account for acoustic confusions b) the model can account for visual confusions c) Items are represented in terms of their phonemes d) The phonemes decay at different rates
b) the model can account for visual confusions
Why are bottleneck theories called "bottleneck theories" of attention selection?
b/c they assume that selection is necessary whenever too much info reaches a bottleneck (a stage that cannot process ALL of it at once).
Regarding the importance of expertise when it comes to categorization — Experts/people who really know something super well (e.g., a dog expert, a plane expert, etc.) tend to leave the "______-level" categories and instead focus on _____ levels.
basic-level; subordinate
--> There is MUCH MORE OVERLAP in the _____ category level (e.g., dogs have many characteristics that are similar. All have tail, fur, nose, teeth, walk on all 4s, etc. that are almost universal for ALL dogs. There are only a few differences.) --> Rosch said most people tend to think of categories on the ______-level even if they can think of superordinate and subordinate levels that are out there for e/ of the categories that we're interested in b/c it's more efficient _____ are easy to identify at this level describes above —Research suggests (and Rosch really pushed) that b/c there's so much overlap between members in a _____-level category (e.g., f/ dog to dog), it is in the ____-level category where the prototype emerges. (E.g., a "general dog" can pop up in your mind, and if you encounter a new breathing thing you will be able to quickly assess if it matches up with the dog prototype very well and can thus call it a dog ASAP.)
basic; basic; Prototypes; basic; basic
The following describes what concept? We have a lot of information in our environment, but we can only attend to so much: Essentially, what the ________ says is that at any given moment in time you are bombarded with a ton of info from your environment (sounds, tastes, visual stimuli constantly hitting you f/ every angle). Your mind has the ability theoretically to process all of that at any given time, but you don't have the mental ability to process every single thing that's hitting you at once. So how you determine what to attend to - how you actually interact w/ that peripheral info you are NOT processing - is something that has really intrigued cognitive psychologists for many decades.
bottleneck issue
Theories that attempt to answer the filtering debate question are called what?
bottleneck theories
The description of the flow of information from the sensory store to the LTM is called _______.
bottom-up processing
Sensory processing is to _____ as meaning-based processing is to ____.
bottom-up processing; top-down processing
Question f/ class: Measures of cerebral blood flow and event related potentials show increased activity in the occipital lobes when people perform... a) neither a visual perception nor a visual imagery task b) visual imagery task c) Both a visual perception and a visual imagery task d) visual perception task
c) Both a visual perception and a visual imagery task
Question f/ class: Members of the same basic category... a) have no attributes in common b) have few attributes in common c) have many attributes in common d) have all attributes in common
c) have many attributes in common
Quiz question f/ class: Which of the following is not a control process w/ STM as proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin? a) decisions b) coding c) identification d) rehearsal
c) identification --> Although I am not sure how "decisions" is one of the control processes if we know these are the 3? 1 - Verbal rehearsal —-> repeating verbal info — either aloud or silently — over and over until it is learned (to keep it active in STM or to transfer it into LTM). 2 - Coding —-> Semantic elaboration of info to make it easier to remember. Attempts to place the info to be learned in the context of additional, easily retrievable info, like a mnemonic device (e.g., "Every good boy does fine" for E, G, B, D, F) 3 - Imaging —> Creating visual images to make verbal material easier to remember.
Quiz question f/ class: Subvocalization appears to be important a) in facilitating recall of complex orally presented material b) in facilitating recall of simple written material c) in facilitating recall of complex written material d) in facilitating recall of simple orally presented material
c) in facilitating recall of complex written material
Question f/ class: Research on person perception has found that ppl are fastest at recalling specific instances that are... a) inconsistent w/ tested personality traits b) consistent w/ tested personality traits c) inconsistent w/ self-described personality traits d) consistent w/ self-described personality traits
c) inconsistent w/ self-described personality traits
Question f/ class: Which of the following is a characteristic of episodic memory rather than autobiographical memory? a) it tells a story b) it consists of many modalities c) it typically lasts for a short time d) it often has emotional involvement
c) it typically lasts for a short time
Which term was NOT included in Neisser's definition of cognitive psychology? a) elaboration b) storage c) passive registration d) transformation
c) passive registration
Question f/ class: What is an example of episodic memory? a) learning definitions b) tying your shoe c) recalling your 5th birthday
c) recalling your 5th birthday
Question f/ class: The primacy effect in a serial position curve can be eliminated if a) subjects perform another task for 30 seconds, suggesting the primacy effect is caused by retrieval f/ STM b) subjects perform another task for 30 seconds, suggesting the primacy effect is caused by retrieval f/ LTM c) subjects rehearse all words equally often, suggesting that the primacy effect is caused by retrieval from LTM d) subjects rehearse all words equally often, suggesting that the primacy effect is caused by retrieval from STM
c) subjects rehearse all words equally often, suggesting that the primacy effect is caused by retrieval from LTM
Question f/ class: Application of Baddelley's working memory model to logical reasoning tasks, indicate that these tasks require use of: a) the visual-spatial sketchpad b) the filter c) the central executive d) the articulatory loop
c) the central executive
With respect to models of attention, which of the following does not belong? a) attenuation model b) capacity model c) selection model d) filter model
capacity model
The less _______ required to make sense of each letter, the greater the reading comprehension. Reading relies on _____ processing.
capacity; automatic processing
"Rosch tested her claim that categorization is fastest at the _____ level, by asking people to verify the identity of an object at e/ of the 3 levels in the hierarchy."
categorization is fastest at the BASIC level
Define GOAL-DERIVED CATEGORIZATION --> Give an example --> If you were to RANK items in goal-derived categorization, you would not be looking for what is most typical. Instead, what you'd put at the top of your list for "clothes you want to wear to a party," you'd be looking for the most ____ — whatever is going to help you achieve your goals in a specific situation. --> Goal-derived categorization is less about _____. More about trying to achieve a specific goal.
category whose members are selected to satisfy a specific goal. --> E.g., looking for the right clothes to wear to a party (although the clothes may be wildly different f/ each other, they are all contributing to the same purpose or goal). --> MOST IDEAL --> less about overlap
Question f/ test: The study of scripts and autobiographical memories indicates that the ____ of events determines speed of access and the ____ of events facilitates the organization of detailed recall.
centrality; temporal organization
B/c ______ are more salient than features, children learn features later, hence they are more likely to be able to define who a robber is later in life and mistaken other things for a robber when they are young until they've learned how to discern what defining features really are. This illustrates a weakness in the _____ Model.
characteristics; Feature Comparison Model
Regarding Baddelley's experiment on selectively impaired audio-memory span: They found that if we are allowed to _____ the type of code you can use to encode a memory, then you can improve performance. But overall, the opportunity to use what type of code produced way better performance than opportunity to use visual codes.
choose; semantic codes
E.E. Smith's (1974) Feature Comparison Model tried to account for _________ weaknesses in the hierarchical network model by putting an emphasis on _____. --> What are the 2 stages of the Feature Comparison Model?
classification-time; defining features --> #1 = compare all the features of the 2 concepts to determine how similar one concept is to another. If extreme enough to make a judgment you can stop there. #2 = 2nd stage is only necessary when the degree of similarity between the 2 extremes is nebulous. Thus, now it's time to examine only the defining features to determine whether the example has the necessary features of the category.
According to Sweller's ________ theory, our efforts to combine information can result in _______ — too much information for our STM to manage.
cognitive load theory; cognitive load
When it comes to ________, ____ learning occurs when people know the relevant attributes and therefore only have to learn the rule. ______ learning occurs when people know the rule but have to learn the relevant attributes.
concept identification; rule learning Attribute learning
When we mention "THE FILTERING DEBATE" in Psychology, what are we referring to?
concerned w/ theories/models looking to "locate the stage at which" the "selection" of attention occurs. Do we block off the sensory input before it reaches the pattern recognition stage, or do we make the selection after recognition?
It is much more complex and difficult to categorize items into groups using the _____ rule vs. the disjunctive rule b/c the former categorization strategy creates a ton of "extra" groups that get created "when you pair multiple things together" and consider them on multiple dimensions.
conjunctive (harder to categorize) vs. disjunctive (easier to categorize)
Miller, Galanter, & Programm proposed the TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit) unit to explain how people...
construct plans
Question f/ class: The best retention of high school algebra is what?
continued study of advanced mathematics
Your mood or environment can severely impact how quickly and effectively you are able to ______-process tasks
control
Question f/ class: Orienting tasks are important to...
control the kinds of memory codes formed
The War of the Ghosts example (Bartlett - 1932) = Best type of test to show that what?
creating a narrative in order to recall info from LTM distorts that info
Question f/ class: Paivio's dual coding theory depends on which of the following assumptions? a) A visual code is less affected by interference than a verbal code b) A visual code decays more slowly than a verbal code c) All of these d) A visual code (image) is independent of a verbal code.
d) A visual code (image) is independent of a verbal code.
Question f/ class: Which research topic has the least amount of reliable evidence according to experts? a) Hypnotic suggestibility b) Mugshot induced bias c) Wording of questions d) Long-term repression of memories
d) Long-term repression of memories
Question f/ class: Natural categories differ f/ concept-identification tasks b/c.... a) they may be defined along continuous dimensions b) their members are not equally good reps of the category c) they are often hierarchically organized) d) all of these
d) all of these
Question f/ class: Which model was a good predictor for classifying people when attributes, such as marital status, do not differ along continuous dimensions? a) nearest neighbor b) average distance c) prototype d) feature frequency
d) feature frequency
Question f/ class: Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin proposed that people solve concept identification tasks by: a) all of these b) memorizing all the positive instances of the category c) creating category prototypes d) forming and evaluating hypotheses
d) forming and evaluating hypotheses --> e.g., you might initially hypothesize that a pattern has to be "small and square" (conjunctive rule) to belong to a category. Then, both attributes have to be present to satisfy that rule, so the only member would be a small square.
Question f/ class: People w/ superior memories a) rely extensively on verbal rehearsal b) are genetically endowed c) all of these d) have learned efficient encoding and retrieval strategies
d) have learned efficient encoding and retrieval strategies
Where do higher-order cognitive processes, such as solving problems, happen in the information model described in Chapter 1? a) LTM b) selection c) STM d) higher-order processes, such as solving problems, do not have a separate stage in this model.
d) higher-order processes, such as solving problems, do not have a separate stage in this model.
Question f/ class: One of the primary problems w/ the use of hypnosis to help eyewitnesses recall crimes is a) no one can tell whether or not a person is actually hypnotized or just faking it b) hypnotism doesn't really work. It is just a sham c) hypnotism is only effective w/in the first 24 hrs after the incident d) hypnotists can induce witnesses to report things they never saw, or to report incorrectly
d) hypnotists can induce witnesses to report things they never saw, or to report incorrectly
Question f/ class: Which of the following is not an assumption of the spreading activation model? ' a) reaches more typical category members before less typical members b) causes semantic priming c) decreases in strength as it travels outward d) increases in strength over time
d) increases in strength over time
Question f/ class: One disadvantage of showing people mug shots is that it... a) increases the probability of not recognizing a subject b) produces retroactive interference c) produces proactive interference d) increases the probability of a false identification
d) increases the probability of a false identification
Question f/ class: Which theories propose that ppl use abstracted information to classify patterns? a) average distance & nearest neighbor rules b) feature frequency & nearest neighbor rules c) prototype & average distance theories d) prototype & feature frequency theories
d) prototype & feature frequency theories (the other options are exemplar rules)
Question f/ class: People are unable to reinterpret their image of the duck/rabbit figure b/c their image lacks details about a) neither the front nor back of the initially perceived face b) both the front & the back of the initially perceived face c) the front of the initially perceived face d) the back of the initially perceived face
d) the back of the initially perceived face (they had only focused on the front of the face so could not remember the back)
Question f/ class: As processing (such as updating response selection) becomes more demanding in working memory, memory span _____.
decreases
Question f/ class: During the 2nd stage of the Feature Comparison Model, people evaluate what?
defining features
Jacoby & Dallas (1981) & their study on changing the modality of how tests were given ultimately showed that direct memory tests and indirect memory tests require different ________.
different kinds of processing
Question f/ class: When ppl have ample time to study they focus on _____, while when they are under time constraints they focus on ____.
difficult concepts; easy concepts
Multimemory theories propose that ______ evaluate episodic memories and _____ evaluate semantic and procedural memories.
direct tests; indirect tests
Collins & Quillian's hierarchical network model assumed that category information is stored _____. It was originally developed for _____. Another interesting prediction of this model is that _____ occurs when the retrieval of info is made easier b/c the previous question required retrie; val of similar info. --> E.E. Smith's __________ assumes that instances are classified by matching the item's features to category features.
directly in memory by means of associations; for computers; facilitation -->feature comparison model
Memory codes can differ in ______ as well as in the extent of elaboration. To remember something, we should make it a _________ item, one that really stands out from other items that could interfere w/ our memory.
distinctiveness; distinctive item
What's important to remember about Treisman's filter is that it _______; it merely further _____.
does NOT completely block out the unattended message; attenuates it, making it less likely to be heard
Piavio's explanation for why visual elaboration is effective is known as ________ b/c it literally gives you dual recall coverage. If you forget one code, that won't affect your ability to recall another code from a different mode. --> A criticism of Paivio's theory is that it works only in situations in which people focus on ___________, such as associations between items in a paired-associated task. This was illustrated by Marschark & Hunt's (1989) study that found that people who were told to ignore pair presentation did not recall any more concrete (visual) words than abstract, which showed that they weren't dual-coding anything if they weren't asked to judge pairs of items as well. --> Thus, Marschark & Hunt said that _______ is necessary to achieve the benefits of ______.
dual-coding theory --> relational information; --> relational processing is necessary for benefits of concreteness
One indication that visual imagery might provide an effective memory code is that people usually find it _____ to recognize ____ than to recognize ____. ____ (1967) was one of the first to show that recognition in accuracy for visual material is very high. He did so by having subjects in his experiment view 612 pictures, and nearly everyone was able to recognize if they had seen a picture before or not.
easier to recognize PICTURES than to recognize WORDS; Shepherd
The below are all examples of ___________. strategies to IMPROVE memory like: o mneumonic devices o visual imagery o elaboration o organization o verbal rehearsal, etc.
effortful processes
Coding & imaging are controlled processes that rely more on ______ than verbal rehearsal.
elaboration
The use of visual imagery to learn material is a form of _____.
elaboration
The ____ hypothesis claims that it's easier to retrieve more elaborate codes and easier to provide associations at the semantic level. The ____ hypothesis claims it's easier to retrieve distinctive codes and that semantic codes are more distinctive than _____ codes. Studies of elaborateness & distinctiveness have shown that which improves recall?
elaboration hypothesis; distinctiveness hypothesis; phonemic; both elaborateness & distinctiveness improve recall!
The concept of _______ suggests that your success at retrieving memories from LTM will be higher if, during retrieval, you try to recreate the emotions/context with which the encoding originally took place, as you were initially taking the info in the first place. Your ability to recreate the environment that was in effect during encoding really aids in your ability to be able to recall that info.
encoding specificity
The purpose of the _________ is to act as a limited capacity store that can integrate both the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. It creates a multimodal code (an integration of memory codes such as combining visual and verbal codes) to form a model of the environment that can be manipulated to solve problems.
episodic buffer
Question f/ class: Evidence supporting the hypothesis that people use mental animation in some scientific reasoning problems includes...
evaluation of statements about the end of the causal chain was slower than evaluation of statements about the beginning of a causal chain
The most ambitious work on the development of ________ has been carried out by Nosofsky, whose goal it is to explain all categorization effects by ____. Looked into how we classify faces. (think of NOSE for Nosofky)
exemplar models; exemplar models
If you encounter a new animal and are judging whether or not it's a dog, you'd compare it to a very specific dog you already know — perhaps your own dog, Woody! Does this new animal you're looking at overlap or not overlap w/ your own specific pet, Woody? That is how you'd judge. In this case, you'd be using the "______" to determine categorization. --> A nice plus w/ the _______ is that you can quickly come to a decision as to whether or not a new item is a member of a group just based on how well it matches up with the ____ that you've created
exemplar rule --> exemplar rule; exemplar
Theorist, George Sperling, is known for his work on what?
experiments exploring whether or not sensory memory even existed
The "magic number 7" kept appearing in what 2 different kinds of studies?
experiments on the absolute judgment task and on memory span.
magicians are super good at controlling our _____ attention by making sure we are distracted enough by many things in our environment so we don't focus enough to notice the sleight of hand
external
Jacoby & Dallas (1981) first tested _____& its impact on testing. Proposed that changing the _____ of items should influence performance on both recognition-memory (direct memory tests) & perceptual-identification tests (indirect memory tests).
familiarity; familiarity
Murphy and Media found that ______ scores are only useful for typicality assessment in hierarchical organization -- not ______.
family resemblance scores; goal-derived categorization
One of the first studies to explore that we can INTERACT with visual memory in our minds is known as the _______ study by Kosslyn, Ball, & Reister (1978). --> HOW'D IT WORK?: --> RESULTS: --> IMPLICATIONS: --> They found that _______ in our heads corresponds to actual distance in a real world, fictional map.
fictional map --> HOW'D IT WORK?: Had ppl look at a picture of an island and memorize all the locations on the island (huts, bushes, tree, etc.). They then "took away the island" & asked ppl to imagine themselves tracing w/ a line the different parts of the island and when they had gotten f/ one place to another, they had to raise their hand/click a button. --> RESULTS: The distance f/ point to point greatly determined how long ppl visualized the time it took to travel f/ one point to the other on the island. i.e., it wasn't that ppl were "imagining" what the distance would be or going f/ one spot to another — they were actually interacting with the visual information they had in their mind. No one was guessing about time. --> IMPLICATIONS: We are trying to interact w/ the visual info stored in our heads — even if it is kind of blurry. i.e., We do indeed have some type of visual memory, and we can interact w/ it. --> VISUAL SCANNING
2 most important stages of Treisman's model
filter & pattern recognition [things make it through the filter, they just don't get recognized as often if they are on the unattended channel -- Treisman's "selective filter" attenuates the unattended message (i.e., de-prioritizes it and gives it less attention). This causes very few words to be RECOGNIZED on the unattended channel.]
2 most important stage's in Broadbent's model
filter & sensory store
The ______ limits the amount of information that can be recognized at one time, and the ________ stage limits the amount of material that can be entered into memory.
filter; selection
Which of the following 2 characteristics of attention discussed in William James' famous Principles of Psychology are still studied today? a) shadowing & memory selection b) focalization and concentration c) intensity and pitch d) shadowing and attenuation
focalization and concentration
The _______ receives sensations f/ all the sensory systems and contributes to planning motor movements. Damage to this area can also interfere with memory.
frontal lobe
The following are members of a _____ category: tent, backpack, hiking boots.
goal-derived
Another way in which we use categorization is not by grouping things together but in order to achieve something. This version of categorization is called "_______."
goal-derived categorization
Chase & Ericsson found that _________ helps w/ numerical info recall from STM (70 digits could be recalled!)
hierarchical organization
The levels-of-processing theory proposed that ___ an item is encoded determines _____ it can be remembered.
how; how long
The _________ of words is usually measured by asking people to rate on a scale how easy it is to form an image for a given word. ______ words are rated high on imagery.
imagery potential; concrete
The ________ of a word is usually measured by asking people to give as many associations as they can over a 1-minute interval. Piavio et al found that the __________ of words is a more reliable predictor of learning than the ______ potential of words. --> High-________ words are easier to learn than low-______ words, but high-______ words are not necessarily easier to learn than low-______ words.
imagery potential; imagery potential; association value --> imagery/imagery = easier to learn association/association = not necessarily easier
Although, both Broadbent & Treisman models say that bottlenecking of attention occurs at the perception/pattern recognition stage, Treisman was unlike Broadbent b/c Treisman's model allows for occasional recognition of _____ or _____ words on the unattended channel
important or unexpected
As far as the inaccuracy of LTM goes, both _____ & ______ show that as we're encoding information: A) we're not catching everything B) some of the things we are catching are being distorted the moment we're taking it in b/c of our expectations of what we should be experiencing & what we should remember from a particular event
inattention blindness & selective perception
Klein, Cosmides, Tooby, & Chance (2002) found that judging personality traits helped people more quickly retrieve instances that were ______ w/ a self-described trait, such as recalling when they were rude if they judged themselves to be polite. The authors proposed we place boundary conditions on self-described traits by thinking of examples when trait does not apply. This leads to 2 different kinds of memory -- abstract semantic consisting of generalizations ("I am polite) & specific episodic memory that constrains those generalizations ("I once lied about a grade in my math class).
inconsistent
When Sternberg (1966) varies the size of the memory set f/ 1 to 6 digits, he discovered that the time required to make the decision about whether an item had been stored in STM ______ as a linear function of the # of digits already stored in STM. In Sternberg's study, whenever the size of the memory set was increased by 1 additional digit, the response time was lengthen by ______. Sternberg believed that all humans perform an ____________ search of STM when trying to compare a test digit to what's stored in STM.
increased; 38msec; exhaustive search
Question f/ class: When people store info in STM from 2 different modalities, memory span ____. a) fluctuates randomly b) increases c) remains the same d) decreases
increases
In contrast to the stimulus-response approach, the ___________ approach seeks to identify how a person transforms info between the stimulus and the response.
information-processing approach
Waugh & Norman (1965) found that the # of _____ items has a dramatic effect on STM retention. That is the probability of recall declines rapidly as the # of ____ items increases.
intefering; interfering
Both "attention" and "processing" can occur either _____ or _____ (as a result of the situation)
intentionally or unintentionally
Question f/ class: Recall of brand names is best when the picture combining the name and product is _____.
interactive
Waugh & Norman's (1965) findings support the contention that ______, rather than _____, is the primary cause of forgetting.
interference rather than decay
B/c selection of what stimuli will be attended to occurs later, Deutsch/Deutsch and Norman's models are often called "______"
late-selection models
Chambers & Reisberg (1992) examined why people had difficulty reinterpreting their image of the dog/rabbit. They hypothesized that people maintain only the more important aspects of the image. People who perceive the pattern as a duck should therefore have a detailed image of the left-side of the pattern and only be able to manipulate or modify the ______ of the pattern later. They have a hard time reinterpreting the pattern b/c they are missing those details that are important for a new interpretation. --> The fact that we lose some of the details in our images is partly the result of our failing to maintain a detailed image once we have a __________. People are more successful in reinterpreting the duck/rabbit ambiguous figure if they are discouraged from forming a _____ during the initial encoding of the figure.
left-side --> verbal code; verbal code
Evidence for "unionization" in perception includes Healy's finding that it is difficult to detect what?
letters in frequently occurring words
The Nickerson & Adams penny experiment showed the ______ of visual imagery by showing that it isn't as _____ as real life or ______ itself.
limitations; not as detailed; perception
Which 2 fields had the greatest impact on how cognitive psychologists thought about higher cognitive processes in the late 1950s?
linguistics and artificial intelligence
The Spreading Activation Model accounts for typicality through ______.
link length
What happened in the Enlisted men in England's Royal Navy experiment? [The one that Broadbent answered w/ his "Mechanical Model of Attention"]?
listened to 3 pairs of digits. Each pair of e/ digit arrived in opposing ears at exact same time. (e.g., subject would simultaneously hear "3" and "7" in different ears) --> Subjects were asked to report the digits received in whatever order they chose --> They could report 65% of the lists correctly --> Almost all correct reports involved recalling all the #s received in one of the ears, following by all the digits received in the other (If, "741" had been transmitted iteratively to the left ear and "325" iteratively to the right ear, then subjects would have recalled this "741-325" or "325-741") --> However, when asked to recall the digits in the exact chronological order, regardless of which ear, subjects had a much harder time w/ accuracy --> To account for these findings above, Broadbent came up w/ his Mechanical Model of Attention (aka "Filter Model") — the subject automatically filtered for paying attention to ONE EAR first; thus all the digits from that ONE EAR make it through the filter and into the limited-capacity perceptual channel/stem.
Question f/ class: What word was used to illustrate orthographic distinctiveness?
lower-case "afghan" (but not upper-case!)
Question f/ class: The finding that people rate some even #s as better examples than other even #s indicates that....
members of rule-defined categories can differ in representativeness
Per The Encoding Specificity Model, the way in which material is processed determines the _______ used. The _______ then determines how well the material is remembered.
memory code; memory code
Sternberg is known for his research on how we search STM. He first showed a sequence of digits (aka, the __________), which the subject stored in STM. Then he presented a test digit, and the subject had to quickly decide whether the test digit was a member of the ______.
memory set; memory set
When processing is less automatic, more _____is required to complete it.
mental effort
more ______ (CAPACITY) is required for late selection after perception/pattern recognition (a la Deutsch) than for early selection/pre-pattern recognition (Broadbent)
mental effort
Shepard & Metzler's mental transformation research (1971) & Cooper & Shepherd's 1973 follow up are two studies that show how our ability to interact w/ visual information when it's presented to us greatly influences our ability to answer questions about it. They ran a classic "_______."
mental rotation study
When it comes to mental transformations, Hagerty (1992) hypothesized that people _______________ pulleys in the order of the causal chain to understand how the system works. If this is happening, then response times should _____ as the length of the causal chain increases.
mentally animate; increase
The control processes (verbal rehearsal, coding, imaging) discussed by Atkinson & Shiffrin are part of a general area of research called _____.
metacognition
_____ are encoding/storage techniques that aid in the process of information retrieval. They can come in a variety of forms, but all do the same thing, allow us to retain more information than usual for longer than usual
mnemonic devices
Using pauses as a measure of chunk boundaries, Chase & Simon concluded that master chess players have both ____ chunks & _____ chunks stored in LTM than less experienced players.
more & larger
According to the Spreading Activation Model, more highly related items have stronger relationships b/c they have both _____ AND the ____ between them is smaller in their clusters. --> What this suggests it that when we're thinking of words, we're thinking of _____. It's not that we're thinking of or matching pairs or going through hierarchies to make sense of whether or not we can answer a question about something. Instead, when we're categorizing stuff, asking questions about stuff w/in a category, or even just talking about an item itself, what we're doing is activating different clusters of information so we can more readily answer questions about that information and also more easily pair stuff up.
more connections; distance --> concepts
Question f/ class: Un, ly, and s are all examples of _____.
morphemes
When people are unexpectedly asked to recall words, they recall the most words following ____ processing and the fewest words following ____ processing.
most = semantic least = structural
What are the general usual results of the Postman & Philip (1965) test?
most people wrote down the first 2 words on the list (the primacy effect worked) but most people are NOT able to recall any of the last few (the recency effect did not work after playing the "game of 7s")
Johnston & Heinz call their theory "_________" b/c of its flexibility
multimode theory
Question f/ class: Concept is to relation as ____ is to ____.
node; link
Weaver (1993) found that memory for emotional events is _______ than memory for unemotional events. Why is this sometimes mistaken for otherwise?
not better B/c confidence for emotional events is better, but that doesn't make the recall more accurate.
Describe Rundus test
o list of 20 nouns o 5 sec delay btwn nouns (person running experiment would read a word, pause for 5 sec, read another word, and so on) o participant is to repeat the words being read over and over starting at beginning each time o Then after the end of the 20 words being read, participants would try to see how many words they could remember of the 20 --> results: U-shaped curve. ppl recalled words at beginning a lot b/c they were rehearsed the most. And words at the end b/c of recency effect.
Primary visual cortex is located in the _____.
occipital lobe (think "ocular")
Disjunctive rule is to ____; as conjunctive rule is to ____. --> Define DISJUNCTIVE RULE --> Define CONJUNCTIVE RULE
or; and --> A rule that uses the logical relation "OR" to relate stimulus attributes, such as small or square --> A rule that uses the logical relation "AND" to relate stimulus attributes, such as small or square
Explain Atkinson's work (1972) on the overconfidence of retention
our retention at the end of lists is no better than our retention of items in the middle of lists and items at the end of our studying sessions are probably the VERY first things we forget! B/c we overestimate how much we'll remember the more recent items in a set, we also tend to give it less attention than it needs so that it is deposited into LTM.
The _____ part of the brain is specialized for dealing w/ body information, including touch.
parietal lobe
The information in the sensory store is lost at the end unless it can be identified during the ________ stage.
pattern recognition
2 most important stages of Deutsch & Deutsch model
pattern recognition & selection [Both the attended and unattended messages are equally "recognized" (i.e., make it through the filter with equal rights, if you will)]
Quiz question f/ class: One reason psychologists believe there is a phonological rehearsal loop in STM is Sperling's (1963) finding that....
people sometimes recall incorrect letters that sound like the correct ones (aka, acoustic confusions)
An advantage of the lack of detailed sensory info in images is that it helps us distinguish between....
perceived and imagined events (i.e., helps w/ REALITY MONITORING)
Regarding location of the bottleneck in attention models: "Broadbent's and Treisman's models both placed the bottleneck at the ______ stage while Deutsch/Deutsch & Norman said the bottleneck occurs instead _______. Thus, "the problem is not one of _______ with Deutsch/Deutsch but one of _____ AFTER perception occurs."
perception/pattern recognition; AFTER perception/pattern recognition already takes place - & right before short term memory bank deposit is made ; perception; SELECTION into memory
The filter (Broadbent) model implies that a _____ limitation prevents people from comprehending two messages spoken at the same time.
perceptual
According to Baddelley, the most important role of the __________ is in learning how to pronounce new words b/c it stores unfamiliar words in STM until they are permanently learned and stored in LTM.
phonological loop
The usefulness of visual images in learning is supported by research showing that people usually remember ____ better than ____ words and _____ words better than _____ ones. --> These results correspond to the fact that images are easiest to form from _____ and hardest to form from _____ words.
pictures; concrete; abstract --> pictures; abstract
What was researcher "Chun" known for?
portioning research into external vs. internal attention
Creation of an average pattern -- or prototype -- to represent a category is possible at the _____ & ____ levels, but not at the _____.
possible at the basic and subordinate levels, but not at the superordinate level (too broad)
Hyde & Jenkins' study compared recall of _________________ — words that are highly associated -- between 4 conditions. Hyde & Jenkins defined the percentage of ______ as the # of associated pairs recalled together, divided by the total # of words recalled. In other words, the more someone is thinking about the meaning of words, the higher percentage of _____. Describe the conditions. Describe the results. Describe the implications.
primary associates clustering; clustering --> CONDITIONS: --> #1: INTENTIONAL LEARNERS - told they were being asked to listen to a list of words and then recall as many as they could --> #2: INCIDENTAL LEARNERS/Pleasant (Semantic encoding; did not know they would be tested later) --> #3: INCIDENTAL LEARNERS/"does word contain letter "E"? (not semantic; did not know they would be tested later) --> #4: INCIDENTAL LEARNERS/"estimate the # of letters in e/ word (not semantic; did not know they would be tested later) --RESULTS: B/c rating the "pleasantness" of a word involved semantic processing, this condition performed the best of the last 3 conditions — basically the same as the INTENTIONAL LEARNERS who knew they would be tested! --> IMPLICATIONS: Incidental learning is just as effective as intentional learning when students consider the meaning of words. Semantic processing is the most effective for recall!
Keppel & Underwood (1962) demonstrated the effect of ___________ by adjusting the Peterson & Peterson STM task to find that ppl initially performed very well in recalling 2 consonants after a short retention interval, but their performance deteriorated over subsequent trials. The reason is that the consonants they had tried to remember during initial trials began to interfere w/ their memory of consonants during later trials.
proactive interference
The ______ model proposes that people create patterns by comparing them with category prototypes. The prototype is usually the ________ of the category, formed how? --> Prototype theories have been most successful in predicting how people will classify perceptual patterns consisting of feature values that_________ along a dimension.
prototype model; central tendency; formed by calculating the average of all patterns in the category --> vary continuously
The prototype rule for categorizing new items is used most often in _____ classifications, whereas the feature frequency rule is used most often in _____ classifications.
prototype rule = CONTINUOUS classifications --> the prototype rule is used in situations to pair up items with a group where groups don't have super clear-cut distinctions among the members (e.g., there are varying heights, different characterstics, etc.) feature frequency rule = DISTINCT classifications (you usually know very specifically what you are looking for b/c you know all the features required to count/qualify)
Smith & Minda (1998) found that early learning results are more consistent w/ a _____ model, but later learning relies more on _____ model.
prototype; exemplar
Tragic breakdowns of ______ occur in the hallucinations of psychiatric patients. Hallucinations result from an impairment of skills in discrimination between real and imaginary events caused by ________ imagery. --> Schizophrenics have significantly higher ______ ratings for all sensory images in comparison to a control group.
reality monitoring; visual --> vividness
The reduction of interference illustrated by the study by Wickens and his colleagues was the first of many studies to show that the recall of later items can be improved by making them distinctive f/ early items is called ________.
release from proactive interference
Rundus' test supports proves that ______ when trying to remember items results in the serial position effect — which can further be explained by both primacy effect AND recency effect
repetition
"That's the big plus of the Levels of Processing Model" - ______ is NOT the only way to ensure info is retained. Finding ways to ______ to the material can be a great aid to understanding what's going on. If we attach our own personal histories and sense of meaning to new info as it comes in, then we can maximize retention of that material!
repetition; connect
The "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon is an example of a failure of _____.
retrieval
The Waugh & Norman (1965) study demonstrated the effect of ___________ — the # of digits that followed the probe digit influenced how well it could be recalled.
retroactive interference
Question f/ class: Which of the following requires a TRANSFORMATION RULE?
rewriting and active sentence as a passive sentence
Verbal rehearsal is considered a form of ________ (learning by repetition rather than through understanding) b/c it simply involves repeating info over and over until we think we've learned it.
rote learning
Schank and Abelson (1977) used the term _____ to refer to what we know about the sequence of events that make up routine activities. --> B/c the sequence of events is quite standard, a natural way of organizing scripts is according to the ________. This way is useful for retrieving ALL the vents that are in the script. --> Another way of organizing scripts is through the _____ or importance of the events; this way helps determine how quickly a script can be accessed.
scripts; --> temporal order in which they occur --> centrality
"The ______ nature of perception is necessary to keep us from becoming overloaded with too much information."
selective
So what is VISUAL MEMORY? --> 1) Most theorists propose visual memory is a very detailed ______ summary of critical pieces of information that we combine into a somewhat blurry image in our mind. --> 2) Visual memory is something we can _____in a visual manner — There have been studies to show that even if we're looking at a blurry image, we have a way to navigate w/in those images.
semantic; interact with
we sometimes call sensory memory the "______" - the storage area between attention and memory.
sensory store
Question f/ class: Students who trained on constructing semantic networks did significantly better than a control group on what kind of tests?
short-answer and essay tests
As Reitman and many others have shown, the extent of forgetting is determined not only by the # of interfering items but also the degree of ________ between the interfering items and test items. Increasing the _____ makes it harder to recall the test items.
similarity; similarity
What did the results of the 2nd condition in Sperling's experiment indicate?
since the TONE played always FOLLOWED the image - did not occur at the same time - then....If they were able to recall 3 or 4 of the #s of the associated row, then that meant they had to be holding ALL of those items in their head for at least a fraction of time
The ______ occurs when people have to divide their attention between 2 sources, such as the instructions for assembling a table and the physical objects that are to be put together. The key to avoiding the ________ is to physically integrate the information into the instructions.
split attention effect; split attention effect
Question f/ class: A difference between naturalistic & laboratory studies of the tip-of-the tongue effect is that ppl are more likely in naturalistic studies to.... spontaneously recall the name/item without thinking Question f/ class:
spontaneously recall the name/item without thinking
The _____ model suggests that when we store things in our heads we DO NOT store it in some hierarchical network. We also don't store ideas in some "weird pattern of overlap model," like the feature-comparison model. Instead, the _____ model suggests that each piece of info we have in our head is its own entity — its own cluster inside of our mind, and also theoretically within our brain. These clusters are also interconnected w/ lots of things around us.
spreading activation; spreading activation
Watson's Behaviorist argument lent support to a ________ approach, in which experimenters records how people respond to stimuli without attempting to discover the thought processes that cause the response.
stimulus-response (S-R_
Things get most complex at this _______ category level b/c members have a ton of overlaps but differentiating between members is difficult (E.g., differentiating between the different types of terriers can be exceptionally difficult if you DO NOT have expertise in the area) Thus, it's really tough to come up w/ _____ for subordinate levels
subordinate; prototypes; subordinate
Although _____ can help us remember what we read, it limits how fast we can read.
subvocalizing
--> Rosch argued that _____ categories might be a way of chunking a lot of stuff together, but the problem is that all the items on the superordinate level have very little in common. (e.g., there are a TON of different animals that are out there! Thus, there's a large vast array of members of superordinate categories. At best, they have a few things in common.) --> It's really tough to come up w/ _____ for superordinate levels.
superordinate; prototypes
A possible limitation of Hasher and Zack's theory of automatic encoding is that it ignores the effect of what?
task complexity
The _______ part of the brain is essential for understanding language.
temporal lobe (needed to hear the "TEMPO" of language
Quiz question f/ class: Waugh & Norman used a probe memory scan task in which subjects recalled a test digit following a probe. They found that the probability of recalling the test digit was determined by what? Which thus supports what kind of theory?
the # of interfering items, supporting an interference theory
What experiment famously answers this question? Is the recency effect just a result of STM storage? Unlike the primacy effect, which is believed to be an indication of LTM?
the Postman & Philip test (1965)
Which experiment is essentially Rundus' 20-word list test + the game of 7s?
the Postman & Philip test (1965)
Cognition can be simply defined as _____.
the acquisition of knowledge
A general implication of the _______________________ is the use of transfer appropriate processing, which emphasizes that the value of a particular learning strategy is relative to a particular goal.
the encoding specificity principle
Encoding specificity also works in reverse. That is, it can be hard to generate info if the info requires a shift in the way info is being processed — in other words, the converse also happens. Your mood or frame of thinking can also PREVENT info f/ being accessed. This is called "______."
the fan effect
The below describes what concept? It's the converse of what? say you've been at home watching sports all day w/o AC, and then you go to Home Depot to get a fan to circulate air better at home. But when you get to Home Depot, you can't for the life of you remember the name for the word "fan" so you can buy one — b/c all day your frame of thinking had been steeped in a scenario that supports one definition of the word "fan" (someone who cheers for a sports team) you suddenly could no longer produce that very common homonym of the word when you needed it b/c the contexts were so wildly different
the fan effect, which is the converse of encoding specificity
Which component of the information processing system plays an important role according to both Broadbent's "filter" theory and Treisman's Attenuation theory of attention?
the filter
In one brief sentence, describe difference between EXTERNAL vs. INTERNAL attention
the focus on perceptual objects (external rather than on trains of thought (internal)
The dominant theoretical approach to cognitive psychology today is _____.
the information processing approach
Question f/ class: Baddelley revised his working memory model by adding an Episodic Buffer to account for....
the integration of visual and verbal codes
According to Anderson, as it pertain to Spreading Activation, the more we........, the longer it will take to verify items associated.
the more we know about something (the more details we've stored)
Question f/ class: Encoding specificity & transfer appropriate processing both emphasize the similarity between ____ and _____.
the similarity between ENCODING and RETRIEVAL
Question f/ class: When presented w/ a memory set & then given a probe in Sternberg's (1966) study, the length of time it took subjects to respond whether the probe was in the memory set was linearly related to what?
the size of the memory set
The flow of information from LTM toward the sensory store is called ______.
top-down processing
Focusing on phonemic encoding when studying for an oral exam is an example of _______.
transfer-appropriate processing
Missionaries & cannibals is an example of a ___________ problem.
transformational problem
Healy (1980) B/c seeing a word as a "_____" causes us to attend less to the individual letters in the word, many people have trouble counting all the "Fs" in the sentence
unit
LaBerge & Samuels (1974): Words require less capacity to recognize if we can recognize the word as a UNIT ("______") rather than a string of separate letters.
unitization
When it comes to sequential vs. parallel processing, verbal codes have to be _______ processed whereas visual codes can be processed in ____ (in other words, a lot of information details can be processed simultaneously).
verbal codes = sequentially processed visual codes = parallel processed
Although acoustic confusions occasionally occur, it is usually advantageous to use __________ when we want to maintain information in STM.
verbal rehearsal
Which control process is best for remembering abstract things? Whose study showed this?
verbal rehearsal is better than coding & imaging for remembering abstract things -Atkinson & Shiffrin
Kosslyn's key assumption in the visual map study was that visual mental imagery shares the same processing subsystems as ______. --> He proposed that an image is activated in the occipital lobe in a _______, which typically contains more info than can be processed. Thus, the ______ selects a region within the _______ for further detailed processing. That is, participants in Kosslym et al's experiment could maintain the image of an island in the ________ and use the ________ to focus on a particular object on the island.
visual perception. --> visual buffer; attention window visual buffer; visual buffer; attention window
Most mnemonic devices rely on _____ thinking, and thus the _____ and the _____ (to connect the visual imagery in your mind with the verbal stuff you're trying to remember.)
visual; visuospatial sketchpad; episodic buffer
Research on release from proactive interference has shown that interference can be reduced by shifting semantic categories. Interference can also be reduced by shifting between _____ and _____ material, as shown in a study by Brooks (1968) using the "F" block diagram letter. --> Brooks' study found that giving a verbal response interfered more with memory for _____ material (a sentence) than with a memory for ____ material (a block diagram) and vice versa.
visual; verbal --> verbal; visual
Nielsen & Smith's (1973) study on memory of faces showed that memorized patterns can be matched to a pattern perceived in the real world more quickly if the pattern is stored _______ as opposed to _____ b/c of ________ allowing for the processing of multiple features at a time. When the features are described _____, a match requires sequentially retrieving information from the description, such as large ears, small eyebrows, small eyes, medium nose, and large mouth.
visually; verbally; parallel representation; verbally
Not all stimuli automatically capture our attention — involuntary capture can depend on how we are _____ also directing are attention at the same time!
voluntarily
With respect to involuntary and voluntary capture of attention.... a) involuntary & voluntary attention have proven to be the same thing through research b) involuntary attention can influence voluntary attention c) involuntary and voluntary attention never interact d) voluntary attention can influence involuntary attention
voluntary attention can influence involuntary attention
The Levels of Processing Model assumes it is easier to retain information when....
when you are studying it in a particular way
To understand how our day to day memory works, understanding ______ is critical.
working memory
What concept in Psychology is Baddelley associated with?
working memory
Piaget said schemas are generated starting at a _____ & can be used for a # of things — Piaget's general concepts incorporated what 3 kinds of knowledge?
young age; 1 *Default knowledge: Knowledge of "most likely values" for the attributes of an object (aka, stereotypes) 2 *Scripts: Knowledge about what occurs during activities (aka, step-by-step processes involved in specific situations) 3 *Connections: Knowledge of associations between the attributes of (an) object(s)
Just as the "game of 7s" can disrupt the recency effect, name 3 ways the PRIMACY EFFECT can be disrupted.
¬ 1 - Distraction tasks prior to being presented w/ items to be recalled —-> If you are distracted just before watching a movie or just before reading a chapter, you are less likely to remember the beginning of the movie or the beginning of the chapter ¬ 2 - Prevention of repetition while being presented w/ items to be recalled —-> If you are prevented from being able to repeat the items over and over while they are being presented to you — i.e., if you are prevented from really being able to process what's being presented, then you will be less likely to be able to recall information at the beginning of any given sequence. ¬ 3 - Stress for equal repetition while being presented w/ items to be recalled —-> If you are forced to pay careful equal attention to other items later in a list, or you get fixated on one item in the list, that shift of attention "obliterates" the primacy effect.
What were the implications of the results of the Postman & Philip (1965) test?
¬ 1 - Recency effect is a byproduct of STM — not LTM ¬ 2 - Thus, this suggests that people easily overestimate how much of an event they'll retain in the long term (overconfidence of retention) —-> they may not realize it b/c the ability to recall is so easy in the immediate, but they are going to forget that more recent stuff that is so easy to remember right after an event occurred (you're more likely to forget what happened at the end of a movie or the end of a given night over the long term than you are likely to forget what happened at the beginning) ¬ 3 - Also suggests waiting for a period of time will result in a better estimate of how much we've retained from an experience ¬ 4 - Also suggests the primacy effect might be the real path for keeping stuff in our head for the long-run
Advantages to AUTO-PROCESSING?
¬ Can allow us to do multiple tasks ¬ Not taxing on cognitive resources—The energy expended by your mind is very minimal. ¬ Can allow us to respond more quickly ¬ Can make us consistent in our performance ¬ Allows us to perform complex skills on the fly that would otherwise overload our limited capacity — Two of these skills are encoding information into memory and reading
How do we solve transformation problems?
• *Means-end analysis: A strategy that can be used by eliminating differences between the initial and goal states. Research suggests that for someone to be able to solve a transformation problem, a means-end analysis has to be done. Involves asking "what is it that I am aiming to do? And how am I going to find a way to get there? ¬ *Sub-goals: Steps that are known to be required to achieve/pass along the way to get to the end-goal. ♣ Rubik's Cube example e.g., if someone gives you the sub-goal of solving a Rubik's Cube by telling you that first aiming just to get only one whole side the same color then for some people that can really help. ♣ Note on the issues w/ sub-goals in some transformation problems However, other research shows that having a sub-goal can actually slow you down rather than expedite someone's ability to solve a transformation problem. • Revisiting the missionaries and cannibals example e.g., if someone gives you this sub-goal — ("there should be at least 3 cannibals alone on one side without a boat") — that actually SLOWS people down. The sub-goal causes people to do worse when they're given that bit of info b/c it distracts them from the transition and the means-end analysis.
*Transformational grammar: *Impossible sentences: Ambiguous sentences:
• *Transformational grammar: A set of rules for transforming a sentence into a related sentence. o "The dog bit the boy." vs. "The boy was bit by the dog." • *Impossible sentences: Sentences that obey grammatical rules, but don't make sense o "The horseshoe slept before the sky." • *Ambiguous sentences: A sentence that can have multiple meanings. People have to deal w/ this one all the time. Most people are able to discern, however, which is the intended meaning of the multiple possible meanings of an ambiguous sentence like the one below. This begs the question of HOW are people able to discern that? (see next slide) o "The They are flying planes"
According to Craik & Lockhart's Levels of Processing Theory, semantic processing is more effective for retention due to what 2 factors?
• 1 - ELABORATION — More time & energy spent on info. • 2 - DISTINCTIVENESS — Uniqueness of the info.
