COM 107 Exam 2

What does "flack" mean and how does it represent the tension between the press and PR professionals?

"Flack" is a derogatory term that reporters and editors developed referring to a PR agent. It symbolizes the protective barrier that PR agents insert between their clients and the press. Journalists have traditionally regarded PR as having emerged as a pseudo-profession creates to distort the facts that reporters work hard to gather. Journalists also dislike PR for blocking press access to key business leaders, political figures, and other newsworthy people. In reality, however, journalists rely heavily on PR agents to get story ideas with the huge amount of information available now.

What was the 'Progressive Magazine' case? What happened, what was the result, and what precedent was set as it pertains to the 1st Amendment?

'Progressive Magazine' was planning on releasing an article relating to the H-Bomb, when the Energy Department asked them not to publish it for fear that it would damage US efforts to control the worldwide spread of nuclear weapons. However, the magazine said they would publish it anyways so the government sued them and the court agreed that it was too risky to publish articles relating to nuclear warfare and prior restraint can be enforced in this situation. This set the precedent that prior restraint can be invalidated by a national security threat.

How do the origins of pre-1800s newspapers in the US compare with that of pre-1800s magazines?

-Both made for elites and by elites -Both had entrepreneurial and emergence stages at the same time -Both were started in England and sometimes imported and republished material from England -Only newspapers had subsidized partisan presses and mudslinging content -Magazines chronicled early American life in a non-partisan life (things about farming, general life, etc.) -Newspapers had essays/writings while magazines had more flowery, intellectual content -Magazines were more expensive than newspapers -Magazines had more images -Magazines had longer format and stories than newspapers -Magazines developed more slowly than newspapers in the US -Newspapers were more frequently published than magazines

Discuss the origins of advertising in the 1800s. Who were advertisements designed to appeal to? What effect did advertisements have on newspapers?

-National advertising began in the 1850s once railroads linking the East Coast and Mississippi River began carrying newspapers, handbills, and broadsides, as well as national consumer goods, across the country. -Patent medicines and department sales were the main focuses of early advertising and where most revenue came from. -Continuous process machinery allowed for inexpensive consumer good to be made in bulk. -The first ad agency was N.W. Ayer & Son. -Advertising allowed for companies to differentiate themselves by branding (ex. Quaker Oats, Campbell Soup) -Companies demanded newspaper advertising, causing newspapers to devote more space to ads. Because of this, the earliest ad agencies were Space Brokers who bought newspaper space and sold it to merchants. -These ads were designed to appeal to the elite and merchant class, all of whom were men

What are at least three forms of unprotected speech? (name and define)

-Speech that violates privacy rights (including publication of private facts, presenting someone in a false light, intrusion, and appropriation) -Speech that causes harm (including fighting words, true threats, and national threats that will incite likely and imminent danger) -Defamation (libel or slander)

What are the criteria used to determine newsworthiness? (explain what each means) (test will have an article in which these must be found and identified as well as Gans' subjective values)

-Timeliness (Written soon after the event?) -Proximity (Close by?) -Conflict (At-odds nature of the story? Opposing sides?) -Prominence (Prominent figure or idea? Many people affected) -Human-Interest (Interesting to people? Often crazy things happening to ordinary people) - Consequence (Does what is being reported have a consequence for readers?) -Usefulness (How is this story useful to people? (ex. vaping causes cancer)) -Novelty (Is the story new and uncommon?) -Deviance (Does it go against the norms? Is it bad? (ex. crime))

How did newspapers follow the model of the evolution of mass medium (four stages)?

1.) EMERGENCE/NOVELTY STAGE: -Papers in colonies were collections of essays and writings imported from Europe that took a week to get to US -Mudslinging and the Partisan Press emerged, publishing opinion pieces 2.) ENTREPRENEURIAL STAGE: -This change was made through charging for advertising space (Pennsylvania Gazette was the first to do it) 3.) MASS MEDIUM STAGE: -Penny Press makes this change happen -Penny Press makes it possible to print enough papers so that they can be sold for a cent (now affordable/available to all people) -Paper is mechanically pressed in bulk -Dailies become more common than weeklies -Partisan Press wears away as the niche becomes more general to appeal to a larger audience -Yellow Journalism (sensationalization) emerges -Objective Journalism emerges 4.) CONVERGENCE STAGE: -Newspapers moved digital, giving them some advantages but also getting them less revenue from print ads -Reporters have added responsibilities of tweeting breaking articles and posting articles online before in print

What are the four stages of mass media evolution?

1.) Emergence/novelty stage (prototype) 2.) Entrepreneurial stage (how to make money off of the product) 3.) Mass medium stage (accessible to all) 4.) Convergence stage (product merges with a new technology)

How did the visual design in advertising evolve from the 1950s to the 1990s? (must be able to describe some chief characteristics of advertising in the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s)

1950s: -women all look similar and are smiling -all products will make life better -straightforward with no deeper meaning -consumerism is targeted at women 1960s: -more variety and diversity -women advertise men's products -ads are slightly harder to know the meaning of immediately -Photos instead of drawings -Young people with a more natural, sexual look -Quick taglines on all ads -Car ads are a hallmark -Volkswagen revolutionized minimalistic ads by utilizing negative space 1970s: -Equal space for words and images (less copy) -Highly saturated backgrounds -Lots of skin showing -Ads are now harder to read and there are many mixed messages 1980s: -MTV becomes influencer for many ads -The product is in the ad -Video ads -There are very few words, the image is the focus -Many colors and bright images -More natural look 1990s: -Internet became a mass medium and ads mimicked websites -People are aware of what ad campaigns are and are fans of them (ex. absolut vodka campaign) -Themes remain throughout ad campaigns -Consumers become more savvy -Cartoons sell cigarettes 2000s+: -Minimalistic ads -Logos become brands (product is associated with the symbol) -Campaigns have familiar characters (ex. Geico gecko)

What are pundits and "talking heads"? Why is it problematic for cable news to rely them?

24/7 programming must rely on pundits or "talking heads" in order to fill the time at an inexpensive rate. A pundit is a person who offers to mass media his or her opinion or commentary on a particular subject area on which he or she appears to be an expert in. The main problem with this is that pundits may act like reporters, but they are not. All they are doing is talking and giving an opinion. However, viewers may mistake pundits' opinions for facts.

Option Time (DEFINITELY ON EXAM)

A business tactic, now illegal, that Paley and Bernays created whereby CBS radio paid an affiliate stations a set fee per hour for an option to control programming and advertising on that station. This made CBS money because they didn't have to make their own content and, in contrast to Sarnoff, they paid for content instead of receiving payment for it.

Radio Corporation of America (RCA)

A company developed during World War I that was designed, with government approval, to pool radio patents; the formation of RCA gave the United States almost total control over the emerging mass medium of broadcasting.

Gag Orders

A judge's order that lawyers, witnesses, or members of law enforcement not discuss the trial with outsiders. These are a prior restraint violation so they are no longer allowed.

Affiliate

A local station that pays for content to distribute to the public. They can then transmit this to the public surrounding the station.

Libertarian Model

A model for journalism and speech that encourages vigorous government criticism and supports the highest degree of freedom for individual speech and news operations. There are no restrictions on the mass media or individual speech. Porn can be published and anarchy advocated. Many alternative newspapers and magazines follow this model in North America.

Authoritarian Model of Expression

A model for journalism and speech that tolerates little public dissent or criticism of government; it holds that the general public (largely illiterate in 16th century England when this was created) needs guidance from an elite and educated ruling class. Censorship was frequent and the government primarily issued printing licenses to publishers who were sympathetic to government and ruling-class agendas. Essentially, the news is controlled by private enterprise. Today, many authoritarian systems operate in developing countries.

Objective Journalism

A modern style of journalism that distinguishes factual reports from opinion columns; reporters strive to remain neutral toward the issue or event they cover, searching out competing points of view among the sources for a story.

Interpretive Journalism

A type of journalism that involves analyzing and explaining key issues or events and placing them in a broader historical or social context. (more than just stating the facts)

Public Journalism

A type of journalism, driven by citizen forums, community conversations, and even talk shows, that goes beyond telling the news to embrace a broader mission of improving the quality of public life. Some criticisms of this are that it has made newspapers only publish what the readers want (not what the editor wants), it makes reporters participants rather than observers, and it makes newspapers publish less balances (both-sides-of-a-story) and diverse articles. (JOURNALISM driven by the PUBLIC)

Yellow Journalism

A type of sensationalized, biased, and often false reporting for the sake of attracting readers. This was most prominent in the 1800s. Papers carried exciting human-interest stories, crime news, large headlines, and more readable copy. Emphases were on sensational and overdramatic stories and early in-depth "detective reports."

Libel

A written or broadcasted defamation of a person's character. Examples of this include falsely accusing someone of professional dishonesty or incompetence, of a crime, of having mental illness, etc.

What are the two specific categories that magazines are typically grouped into? (know specific examples)

ADVERTISER TYPE (products that fall into certain places): -Consumer Magazines (general consumer product ads) -Business or Trade Magazines (ads for products or services for various occupational groups) -Farm Magazines (ads for agricultural products and farming lifestyle) TARGET DEMOGRAPHICS (content appeals to that audience): -Gender, age, or ethnic group -Audience interest area (sports, fashion, etc.)

Radio Act of 1912

Addressed the problem of amateur radio operators increasingly cramming the airwaves by requiring radio operators to obtain a license (the Commerce Department can deny licenses). This was when the SOS signal was adopted as a result of the Titanic. Stations were also now identified by call letters.

Right to Privacy

Addresses a person's right to be left alone, without his or her name, image, or daily activities becoming public property.

Can journalism and journalists ever be truly neutral?

Although the goal of journalism is objectivity, it is accepted now that this is impossible. Journalists try their best to strive towards objectivity while diminishing personal subjectivity. Sociologists Herbert Gans listed the subjective values that skew the neutral process and shape US reporters and editors as: Ethnocentrism, Responsible Capitalism, Small-Town Pastoralism, Individualism

Plain-Folks Pitch

An advertising strategy that associates a product with simplicity and stresses how new technologies fit into the lives of ordinary people.

Famous-Person Testimonial

An advertising strategy that associates a product with the endorsement of a well-known person

Snob-Appeal Approach

An advertising strategy that attempts to convince consumers that using a product will enable them to maintain or elevate their social status.

Bandwagon Effect

An advertising strategy that incorporates exaggerated claims that everyone is using a particular product, so you should, too (ex. "America's favorite").

Hidden-Fear Appeal

An advertising strategy that plays on a sense of insecurity, trying to persuade consumers that only a specific product can relieve embarrassment and restore a person to social acceptability. The products advertised are usually personal hygiene related, such as deodorant or mouthwash.

Irritation Advertising

An advertising strategy that tries to create product-name recognition by being annoying or obnoxious.

Buffalo Bill Cody

An early "press agent" who publicized his show using a variety of media channels (newspaper stories, magazine articles and ads, dime novels, theatre marquees, poster art, and early films).

Partisan Press

An early dominant style of American journalism distinguished by opinion newspapers, which generally argued one political point of view or pushed the plan of the particular party that subsidized the paper.

Wire Service

An electronic delivery of news gathered by the news service's correspondents and sent to all member news media organizations. Originally, wire services began as commercial organizations that relayed new stories and services around the US using telegraph lines and, later, radio waves and digital transmissions.

Conflict of Interest (journalism)

Any situation in which journalists may stand to benefit personally from stories they produce (ex. from gifts, free travel, etc.)...this is an ethical dilemma that journalists face commonly and can skew how they report

How has the shift to digital platforms benefitted newspapers? How has it hurt them?

BENEFITS: -Unlimited space allows for longer articles -Articles can include linked videos and audio -Articles can have hyperlinks to other resources -News can be updates constantly and quickly -No printing cost -Statements can be corrected/redacted -News can be distributed more widely -Articles can be shared online DETRIMENTS: -Online ads make much less revenue than printed ads -Newspapers who didn't originally establish an online paywall struggle to now charge for online content -Fast publishing can lead to misinformation -People are laid off in newsrooms -Competition from wide variety of online news sources

Muckrakers

Big in 1902, journalists who attempted to find corruption or wrongdoing in government and big businesses and expose it to the public. They were willing to crawl through society's much to uncover a story.

What is the speech pyramid?

Describes the hierarchy of speech, which is (from top to bottom): POLITICAL SPEECH (ideology, political messages, speech criticizing the government, etc.) NON-POLITICAL PROTECTED SPEECH (arts and literature, etc. (speech is valued but not political)) SEMI-PROTECTED SPEECH (advertising, symbolic speech, etc. (some 1st Amendment protection but with many regulations) UNPROTECTED SPEECH (defamation, obscenity, true threats, copyright violations, perjury, blackmail, child pornography, privacy violations, etc.)

What was the Pentagon Papers case? What happened, what was the result, and what precedent was set as it pertains to the 1st Amendment?

During the Vietnam War, a former Defense Department employee, Ellsberg, stole a copy of the report 'History of US Decision-Making Progress on Vietnam Policy,' a thorough study of US involvement in Vietnam since WWI. Ellsberg leaked the report, which he called "the Pentagon Papers," to the New York Times and The Washington Post. The New York Times began to publish articles based on the report and the Nixon administration tried to halt further publication, claiming a threat to public security (prior restraint). However, the Supreme Court sided with the newspaper, attacking the government for trying to suppress publication. This set the precedent the public has the right to know important information and newspapers can publish things without censorship or prior restraint.

What are the five freedoms protected under the 1st Amendment?

Freedom of Speech Freedom of the Press Freedom of Assembly Freedom of Religion Freedom to Protest the Government

Prior Restraint

Government censorship of information before it is published or broadcast. This is not allowed on the principle that a law has not been broken until an illegal act has been committed. However, the news media can be ordered to halt publication in exceptional cases such as threats to national security. The Brandenberg Test now tests whether prior restraint can be enforced by asking "is there a likelihood that this event will happen and be significant? Is it imminent? In the 1970s, the 'Pentagon Papers Case' and the ''Progressive Magazine' Case' tested prior restraint.

William Paley

He was the general manager of the CBS Radio and Television Networks and ran them for more than half a century, he was Sarnoff's only competition. Created the Option Time concept. The first advertiser because he charged for advertising over radio throughout the US.

The Association Principle

In advertising, a persuasive technique that associates a product with some cultural value or image that has a positive connotation but may have little connection to the actual product (ex. car commercials of cars driving through nature).

Obscenity

Indecent or offensive speech or expression. To qualify as obscene, a material must meet three criteria: 1.) The average person would find that the material as a whole appeals to prurient interests 2.) The material depicts or describes sexual conduct in a particularly offensive way 3.) The material, as a whole, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value

Space Brokers

Individuals who purchased space in newspapers and sold it to various merchants in the 1800s (essentially early advertisers).

Edward Bernays

Known sometimes as the "father of PR," Bernays, Freud's nephew, used psychology to make PR into a formal practice. Bernay strongly believed that PR can control and shape public opinion, calling it the "engineering of consent." Bernays called himself a "public relations counselor" as opposed to a publicity agent.

Ivy Ledbetter Lee

Known sometimes as the "grandfather of modern PR," Lee was the first to understand that public perception of companies is incredibly important; people must like the companies, not just know about them. He advised that businesses (which had a bad reputation at the time) use honesty and directness instead of deception in order to gain public trust. A favorable public image, he thought, would result from an open relationship between businesses and the press. Lee is known well for his role in the PR for Rockefeller after the Ludlow Massacre.

Shield Laws

Laws that protect reporters from being forced to reveal their sources for controversial information used in news stories.

Copyright

Legally protects the rights of authors and producers to their published or unpublished writing, music, lyrics, TV programs, movies, or graphic art designs. Originally copyright lasted for 14 years before it was released to the PUBLIC DOMAIN, but now copyright lasts the creator's lifetime plus twenty more years.

Slander vs. Libel

Libel is written defamation, slander is verbal defamation

Why are logos so significant today?

Logos become brands because the product is associated with the symbol. Logos are good because they can make a brand recognizable worldwide without language barriers. They are also easily identifiable and give quick impressions even when fast forwarding through ads on TV.

NBC Red and NBC Blue

NBC Red (developed from the original telephone groups) and NBC Blue (developed from the original radio group) were two networks that Sarnoff split NBC into. These were the only two listening options at the time and the two had different types of content. NBC Red and Blue made the birth of Affiliates by connecting all cities.

Describe the differences between NBC' affiliate model and CBS' affiliate model?

NBC's affiliates, though independently owned, signed contracts to be part of the network and paid NBC to carry their programs. In exchange NBC reserved time slots, which it sold to national advertisers. CBS changed the game by paying affiliates, instead of demanding a payment. Their strategy 'Option Time' paid affiliate stations to broadcast their content. The incentive of being paid brought NBC affiliates over to CBS, making the company grow exponentially. With more affiliates and a greater listening base, more advertising money went to CBS and celebrities wanted to appear on CBS instead of NBC, further increasing CBS' popularity.

Human-Interest Stories

News accounts that focus on the trials and tribulations of the human condition, often featuring ordinary individuals facing extraordinary challenges.

Literary Journalism

News reports that adapt fictional storytelling techniques (like descriptive details and settings and extensive character dialogue) to nonfictional material and in-depth reporting; sometimes called "new journalism."

Investigative Journalism

News reports that hunt out and expose corruption, particularly in business and government.

Penny Press

Newspapers that, because of technological innovations in printing, were able to drop their price to one cent, therefore making papers affordable to working and middle classes and enabled newspapers to become a MASS MEDIUM.

Responsible Capitalism

ONE OF GANS' SUBJECTIVE VALUES: Journalists sometimes naively assume that companies compete with one another not primarily to maximize profits but "to create increased prosperity for all" and they report from this point of view. (Idea that CAPITALISM is good (US idea))

Individualism

ONE OF GANS' SUBJECTIVE VALUES: Reporters focus on individuals who overcome personal adversity and neglect addressing how large institutions or organizations work or fail. The subject is often someone who beats all odds and is now a success story. (INDIVIDUAL focus)

Ethnocentrism

ONE OF GANS' SUBJECTIVE VALUES: Reporters judge other countries or cultures based on how they live up to or imitate American practices and values, belief that US is best too. (CENTERED on US ETHNicity)

Small-Town Pastoralism

ONE OF GANS' SUBJECTIVE VALUES: The idea that the city is where everything bad happens and rural life is ideal (ex. headline of "horrorcore rap killings shock sleepy Va. town").

Herd Journalism

Occurs when reporters stake out a house, chase celebrities in packs, or follow a story in such herds that the entire profession comes under attack for invading people's privacy, exploiting their personal problems, or just plain getting the story wrong. (HERD of JOURNALISTS)

Radio is defined by constant technological evolution. Discuss one innovation and how it changed the medium.

One example is the emergence of Transistors, small electrical devices that could receive and amplify radio signals. Transistors began to be what small, portable radios were called. Radios could now go where TV could not, outside the home. By the 1960s, most radio listening took place outside the home.

P.T. Barnum

One of the earliest "press agents." Created publicity for his show using gross exaggeration, fraudulent stories, and staged events to secure newspaper coverage.

David Sarnoff

One of the first people to envision wireless technology as a mass medium. He played a major part in developing RCA and was the general manager of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) as a subsidiary of RCA. He also started the NBC TV station.

Compare P.T. Barnum's work as a "press agent" with what the PR profession looks like today. How has it evolved?

Press agents like PT Barnum try to get something covered by the media, as a modern-day publicist does. However, modern PR agents have a wide-scale communication strategy that involved much more than just getting covered by the press.

What are some critical issues around advertising?

THE EFFECT OF ADS ON KIDS/TEENS -Sugary cereals and junk promoted for kids with characters -Shows like My Little Pony are made just to advertise toys -Cradle to Grave Advertising: Advertising to kids to keep them brand-loyal forever (ex. Happy Meals) ADS IN SCHOOLS -Channel One (mostly in the 90s) showed kids McDonalds ads every day - indoctrinating them at school -Coca Cold vending machines ADS AND HEALTH: -Show an unattainable standard of beauty -Encourages obesity -Makes things like alcohol and tobacco look cool

How have the 1st Amendment and the 6th Amendment come into conflict? What laws are in place to ensure that they don't?

The 6th Amendment guarantees a speedy trial by an impartial trial. However, the 1st Amendment protections of speech and the press may play a role in publicity of the case biasing jury members. The Supreme Court has introduced safeguards that judges can employ to ensure fair trials in heavily publicized cases. These include sequestering juries, limiting the number of reporters, moving cases to other jurisdictions, and placing GAG ORDERS on lawyers and witnesses.

What is the PESO model? Be able to define it and why it is important

The PESO (Paid, Earned, Shared, Owned) is a modern PR model that shows that PR is no longer comprised of simply earned media. Now it is more like advertising due to social media and paid posting. In modern society, PR should be in the intersection of: -PAID MEDIA (social media advertising, sponsored content, and email marketing) -EARNED MEDIA (publicity, unsponsored mentions on news or in press) -SHARED MEDIA (publicity through social media) -OWNED MEDIA (content, substance, campaign, etc. that is created for the brand) In the PESO Model, these sectors overlap, allowing for influencer engagement, partnerships, and incentive programs that extend beyond the company's internal walls.

What was the moment that propelled newspapers from the Entrepreneurial Stage to the Mass Medium Stage?

The Penny Press Era. The Industrial Revolution made possible the replacement of expensive handmade paper with cheaper machine-made paper and mass printing. The one cent price made papers accessible to all and spurred growth of literacy.

What impact did the Postal Act of 1879 have on the distribution of magazines?

The Postal Act of 1879 assigned magazines lower postal rates and put them on an equal footing with newspapers delivered by mail, reducing distribution costs. Ad revenue went up as there was a wider distribution and more people saw the ads.

How did magazines become a mass medium?

The Postal Act of 1879 is what made magazines a mass medium because magazines were able to be delivered at a lower production cost. This along with the industrial advances at the time such as mass-production printing, conveyor systems, and assembly lines reduced production costs and allowed for prices to be slashed. Magazines became accessible to the working class.

What is the Ludlow Land Mine Incident and why is it significant to PR?

The Rockefeller-owned Colorado Fuel and Iron Company workers had to work in dangerous conditions with minimal pay, which could barely support their families. These miners became angry in 1913 and went on strike, demanding more money and safer working conditions. They were kicked out of their company-owned houses after being on strike for several months. So the miners decided to live in tents, which the company's guards shot down and lit on fire, killing 19 people. This was known as the Ludlow Massacre and it fostered a lot of hate for Rockefeller. This was a very important event in PR because it was one of the first crisis management examples. Ivy Ledbetter Lee, who advocated that public perception was the most important thing for a company, helped Rockefeller and organized a well-publicized visit to Ludlow for Rockefeller. The boss ate dinner with the miners and their families while wearing overalls and a miner's helmet for photo ops with the families. This greatly helped his image.

Press Agent

The earliest type of public relations practitioner, those who sought to advance a client's image through media exposure, primarily via stunts staged for newspapers (early PR).

N.W. Ayer & Son

The first full-time ad agency

Newsworthiness

The information most worthy of transformation into news stories. Newsworthiness is determined by these criteria: Timeliness, Proximity, Conflict, Prominence, Human-Interest, Consequence, Usefulness, Novelty, Deviance (story must fit some, not necessarily all)

Patent Medicine

The main user of advertising in the 1800s. Medicines were usually mostly made of water and made outrageous claims about what they could do that caused consumers to be cynical (ex. Dr. Lin's Chinese Blood Pills). They could be dangerous (ex. Coke had cocaine).

General-Interest Magazines

The most prominent publications after WWII and through the 1950s. They offered occasional investigative articles, but also covered a wide variety of topics aimed at a broad national audience.

Fourth Estate

The notion that the press operates as an unofficial branch of government, monitoring the legislative, judicial, and executive branches for abuses of power. Part of the Social Responsibility Model of Expression.

Sound Bite

The part of a broadcast news report in which an expert, a celebrity, a victim, or a person-in-the-street responds to some aspect of an event or issue.

Communist/State Model of Expression

The press is controlled by the government because state leaders believe the press should serve government goals. Ideas that challenge the basic premises of state authority are not tolerated (communist states still use this).

News

The process of gathering information and making narrative reports - edited by individuals in a news organization - that create selected frames of reference and help the public make sense of prominent people, important events, and unusual happenings in everyday life.

Explain this statement: "Mass communicators are the guardians of free speech." What does it mean and why is it relevant to you as you move on in your studies at Newhouse?

The public expects the people in the media industry to be vigilant regarding intrusions into the freedom of expression and to protect these freedoms for all people. They must understand the rules of defamation, privacy, indecency, access, copyright protection, and prior restraint and inform the public about the law.

Product Placement

The purchase of spaces for particular goods to appear in a TV show, movie, or music video.

CBS

The radio station that competed with NBC and, eventually, won. Headed by Paley.

Radio Act of 1927

The second radio legislation passed by Congress; in an attempt to restore order to the airwaves (too many overlapping frequencies), the act stated that licensees did not own their channels but could license them if they operated to serve the "public interest, convenience, or necessity." This created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), which oversaw licenses and negotiated channel problems.

Public Domain

The state of belonging or being available to the public as a whole, and therefore not subject to copyright. This can be not copyrighted work or work that becomes available 20 years after the creator's death.

Inverted-Pyramid Model (FOR SURE ON TEST)

The story form for the packaging and presenting of newspaper articles that starts with the most dramatic and newsworthy information (who, what, where, when questions) at the top of the story and then narrows down to presumably less significant details.

Why does it matter that the 1st Amendment is first?

These are the most important freedoms and the cornerstones of democracy.

Social Responsibility Model of Expression

US MODEL, A model for journalism and speech, influenced by the libertarian model, that encourages the free flow of information to citizens so they can make wise decisions about political and often more social issues. A socially responsible press is often privately owned. In this model, the press functions as a FOURTH ESTATE.

What is "format radio" and why is it important? Provide at least two examples of format radio.

Under the system of Format Radio, management rather than DJs control programming each hour. Management coordinates each hour, dictating what the DJ will do at various intervals throughout each hour of the day. Management creates a program log that DJs must follow. DJs must talk over the beginning and end of the songs to avoid dead air. Even ads, news, and weather must maintain the station's feel so that listeners can tell what they're listening to. Managers further section off programming into day parts consisting of time blocks programmed through ratings research according to who was listening (Top 40 plays songs primarily in the morning and night when audiences are in cars). Some examples of Format Radio are the Top 40 Format (40 most popular hits a week), The News/Talk Information Format (appeals to middle and working class adults), and more music formats such as the Country Format. Formats give a plethora of options and popularize new music. They are important because they established radio as separate from TV. Format popularized radio and made production and listening more hands off.

What are Gans' subjective values? (4) (test will have an article in which these must be found and identified as well as elements of newsworthiness)

What prevents US journalists from being objective: -Ethnocentrism -Responsible Capitalism -Small-Town Pastoralism -Individualism

When did radio become a mass medium?

When Sarnoff charged for advertising on radio throughout the nation.