Congress Final Study Guide
20. What purposes do committees serve for members of Congress?
o Distributive Theory Committees are created to advance lawmakers' policy influence in areas critical to their re-election Seek committee assignments to claim credit back home for obtaining beneficial goods for their district and constituents o Informational Theory Committees provide lawmakers with the specialized expertise required to make informed judgements Enable legislators to utilize or develop expertise in areas that interest them o Partisan Theory Utilize committees to support party's programs or keep policies opposed by a majority of their party at bay o Additional Safety valves that are outlets for national debates and controversies Divides work amongst a number of little legislatures so the House and Senate are able to consider dozens of proposed laws at the same time
5. What kinds of activities does the reelection motivation give rise to among members of Congress? Are these activities consistent with providing good representation to constituents? Are they consistent with making Congress an effective policy-making institution?
• According to Mayhew, there are three categories of activities which Congress members participate in to secure reelection o Advertising: Franking privilege (mail sent out to constituents on the taxpayers dime); travel budget (members go home whenever they want to spend time with constituents); press staff (help get favorable press stories out) Messages have little or no issue content so they do not help provide representation nor do they make Congress an effective policy-making institution; all about name recognition o Credit Claiming: Particularized benefits (e.g. "pork" or pork barrel spending, but people do not really like it) Pork barrel is a metaphor for the appropriation of government spending for localized projects secured solely or primarily to bring money to a representative's district • People continue to re-elect them because congress as a whole is not doing a whole lot but their senator is benefitting us as a state Casework / constituent service • Staff to help with bureaucracy within institutions • Pure profit for a member of Congress - no matter what the constituent identifies as, they can assist them and give themselves a better name • These could be negative though, use specific situations of assistance to show you're helping individuals, but not in terms of the constituency as a whole • Help individuals deal with the bureaucracy, but not actually fixing the issues with the system and why it is so difficult... not fixing systematic problems Committee system can help with this • Byrd Senator: Famous for steering money to West Virginia (senate appropriations committee which signs bills for funding) o Position taking: One-minute speeches on House floor at start and end of the day Roll call votes Members rewarded for the position they take, but not for the outcome received Is not making pleasing things happen but just making pleasing statements
29. How does "Going Public" relate to the President's legislative role?
Appeal to American public to produce an outpouring of public support that encourages lawmakers to push his ideas through Presidents turn to this when they do not have the votes needed to pass their favored initiatives May alienate legislators who feel the president is going over their heads, cutting them out of the process, and disregarding their constitutional role Implicitly trying to threaten members' public standing or reelection if they block the president's legislative agenda Presidents do better when they champion issues that the public already favors
33. Has the War Powers Resolution of 1973 helped Congress regain its influence over foreign policy? Why or why not?
Assure that the collective judgement of both branches will apply to the introduction of US forces into hostilities o President must consult with Congress in every possible instance o President must report to Congress within 48 hours of introducing forces o Military action must terminate within 60 days (can be extended 30 if needed to protect and remove troops) after a report unless Congress declares war, extends the period, or unable to meet 60 - 90 day clock does not begin until president reports to Congress o Presidents have manipulated this to extend military forces However, Presidents have generally maintained short term operations as authorized by the resolution Allows Congress to limit the president by passing a concurrent resolution at any time to direct the president to remove forces engaged in hostilities However, the 60-90 day period concedes a measure of authority to the president that would have been astonished by the framers, widening presidential power
25. What is the difference between an "authorization" and an "appropriation"?
Authorization o "Hunting license" for an appropriation o Establish or continue federal agencies or programs o Define the purposes, functions, and operations for programs or agencies o Recommend the appropriation of funds for programs or agencies Appropriation o Law that actually supplies programs and agencies with public funds o The House initiates appropriations bills o Recommends how much money a program or agency should receive
27. What is a "budget resolution"? What is "reconciliation"?
Budget resolution o Estimates what the federal government will spend in a fiscal year and for at least the four following fiscal years o Total aggregate spending divided among categories o Stipulates the recommended levels of federal revenues needed to pay for spending o Identifies estimated deficits o Specifies total outstanding public debt permitted by law Reconciliation o Established by 1974 budget act o Special procedure which is an option process authorized when Congress adopts the budget resolution o Purpose is to bring revenue and direct spending legislation into conformity with the fiscal targets established in the concurrent budget resolution o Involves making changes in federal policies that result in budgetary savings o Can be used to circumvent the regular rules of Senate in order to advance partisan legislation (ex. Democrats passing health care overhaul in 2009-10) To prevent this, Byrd rule established measures cannot be included in reconciliation package if they are extraneous provisions that are not primarily budget related)
26. What is "backdoor spending"? Why is it difficult to control?
Bypass front door of two-step authorization-appropriation sequence by using authorization laws that mandate, rather than simply recommend, the expenditure of federal funds o Reported solely by authorizing committees Fastest growing is entitlements, which establish legally enforceable rights for eligible beneficiaries such as Medicare or Social Security
24. According to Aldrich and Rohde, in what ways have committees become more responsive to parties in Congress? Why did this transformation occur?
Committees became largely independent from party influence - had not particular incentive to be responsive to the wishes of their party or its leaders in producing legislation While Democrats were usually in the majority, southern Democrats were more likely to accumulate seniority and become committee leaders, often allied with Republicans to block or alter Democratic legislation Independence of Rule Committee allowed southern Democrats and Republicans to refuse to permit liberal legislation to reach the House floor How have they become more responsive? o End automatic nature of the seniority system so that chairs must rely on parties for votes, chairs put on notice they could not buck party's wishes o Restriction of chairs' powers o Give more powers to the party leadership so they could control the flow of legislation and strategically shape the terms of floor consideration and reduce the ability of committees to act as roadblocks
35. According to Congress and Its Members, what are some reasons that Congress at times passes vague laws that leave considerable discretion in the hands of bureaucrats?
Congress delegates authority to federal agencies largely because lawmakers lack the time and technical expertise to devise the detailed language required to implement the goals of complex statutes o Imperfect information o Changing conditions o Avoid blame Congress retains broad legislative power to amend, modify, or repeal legislations
43. According to Hibbing and Larimer, why is it so difficult for Congress to retain the public's approval? Is low congressional approval the members' fault or the public's?
Congress may be viewed unfavorably in part for performing the job assigned to it by the Constitution: representing and reconciling diverse interests from across the country People do not like disputes over policy interests, deliberative procedures, "special" interests, or ambitious decision makers which are at the core of Congress The more Congress is doing its job, the more unpopular it is with the public The blame is on both Congress and the public o Congress has scandals, shrill and churlish behavior, and blind partisanship o However, it can be difficult for any large, collegial, transparent, lawmaking body in a diverse country facing challenges to be positive for the public o People live in clusters of like-minded individuals, making it seem "everyone agrees with me" and that controversy in Congress is unnecessary and selfish Congress must take steps to solve public dilemmas to ensure they are reconciling diverse interests and show that policy disagreements are not a sign of job failure
46. What are some indicators of congressional decline highlighted in the Kane and Willis article in the Washington Post?
Debate is curtailed, party leaders dictate the agenda, most elected representatives do not get a say, shutdowns are a regular threat Political polarization in a divided nation - focus on claiming the majority by driving up turnout from loyal partisans, compromise legislation does not excite either partisan base, members wait for leadership to tell them how to vote leading to drop in rank-and-file participation Political center has evaporated, and party leaders adhere to demands from bases, subsequently leading to partisan gridlock rather than deliberative deal making Legislative branch now operates as a junior partner to the executive or doesn't function at all when it comes to pressing priorities like immigration or healthcare More and more legislative authority is being delegated to the executive
39. What are some strategies that lobbyists adopt to try to gain influence in Congress?
Direct Lobbying o Lobbyists present their clients' cases directly to members and congressional staff o Many firms enlist the services of former members of Congress as member-to-member lobbying can be extremely effective o Lobbyists monitor committees, testify at hearings, interpret Hill decisions for clients, articulate clients' interests to legislators, draft legislation, speeches, and give campaign assistance Social Lobbying o Lobbying occurs in social settings, such as dinner parties, receptions, sporting and entertainment events, or on the golf course or tennis courts o Social events can help lobbyists convince lawmakers that lobbyists are credible and knowledgeable so lawmakers will listen or accept advice from them o Social events are useful for fostering and developing the personal relationships that lobbyists need to be effective Coalition Lobbying o Lobbyists construct coalitions in support of their legislative initiatives to enhance their chances of success o Coalitions bring more resources, contacts, and money to efforts Grassroots Lobbying o Mobilize masses of citizens in districts and states across the country to pressure their senators and representatives o Interest groups use tools such as email, phone banks, and social media to stir up public opinion on issues and generate communication to members' offices Electronic Lobbying o Lobbyists can instantly send out alerts on legislative developments to clients, partners, and offices o Utilize text messaging, email, and social networks to galvanize supporters and sympathizers o Result in millions of petition signatures, emails, and phone calls to lawmakers
36. What tools does Congress have available that allow for effective oversight of the bureaucracy?
Hearings and investigations - legislative probes into administrative or business misconduct Congressional vetoes - retains second chance to examine decisions of bureaucracy, agencies must pay attention to wishes of members of Congress Mandatory reports - Congress can require the president, federal agencies, or departments to assess programs and report their findings Nonstatuatory controls - informal means to review and influence administrative decisions, such as phone calls, letters, personal contacts, etc. Inspectors general - can conduct audits and investigations of agency programs and operations, prevent and detect fraud and abuse, and keep Congress informed Appropriations process - Congress can cut off or reduce funds, thereby abolishing policies, curtailing programs, or obtaining info Impeachment - Congress can remove individuals from office
31. According to Zelizer, what is the "myth" of Lyndon Johnson? How does this myth contrast with the president's actual power with respect to Congress? What does the Johnson case us about what it really takes to accomplish change in Washington?
Johnson is seen as the model of a president who knows how to make Congress work, a magician of Washington who could do what everyone else found to be impossible The truth is that all the political savvy in the world has rarely been enough to move a Congress when the legislators who controlled it fundamentally opposed the White House's proposals The myth over-emphasizes the capacity of great men to affect legislation by force of personality and undervalues the centrality of the political system in which a president must operate Johnson relied on various conditions of his liberal movement to take place, when those were gone he couldn't do much; applies to future presidents o Social movements - grass roots activists, interest groups, intellectuals, especially the civil rights movement which created pressure in congressional districts o Large congressional majorities - Democrats had huge liberal majorities in both chambers to pass Johnson's proposals o Cooperative opponents - Republicans were vital to the passage of many key bills after secret negotiations o Corrupt bargain - Escalation of Vietnam war gave Johnson wiggle room to move domestic policies
44. According to David Mayhew, what do members of Congress do that is "important," beyond their roll call votes? What have social scientists missed due to their focus on roll call votes and legislating?
Legislate o Can tip off an alert sector of the public about the issue content, prospects, and coalition underpinnings of lawmaking drives Investigate o Personal initiative is used to spark and carry investigations o Dramatic exposure tactics draw attention and shape opinion o Transparency in the conduct of executive branches and illumination of problems in society o High publicity investigating can be an avenue for members' entrepreneurialism Taking stands o Register a position on some matter before an audience, which can shape public opinion o Members of Congress, validated by their elections and formal powers, are in a privileged position to make contributions that can shape a national conversation o Have access to an avenue to a national audience through taking a stand against or for issues like the Iraq War or Watergate Foreign Policy o Congress is not just a domestic, lawmaking body o Non-lawmaking role such as probes or taking a stand help to crystallize opinion constituency and shape foreign policy on White House-led wars Ideological impulses o Can take the form of other actions o Accommodate major political impulses that can embody passionately expressed belief systems like Progressivism o Emanations of public sentiment or accommodations to moves by the White House o Congressional moves spurred by these helps to shape public opinion Opposition o Efforts by members of Congress to thwart the aims or impair the standing of a presidential administration o Can cause a change of policy without a change of government o Offered the regime a kind of flexibility to push presidents to the wall not just during elections or by members of the non-White House party Social scientists have missed that members of Congress actually have to do things in order to advance their various aims, relations between the public and government are interactive rather than one-way, the realm of public affairs can supersede the registering of preferences, and members of Congress can work to shape political opinion as well as to react to it
45. What forces are undermining the realm of "significant member actions" in the early 21st Century? Why should we care?
Media connections o Most aids agreed that reduced coverage of public affairs in the news media has made it harder for members of Congress to get media attention for their politically important activities o Media coverage has grown more and more negative o Today's young people are more withdrawn from public affairs than other generations Academic culture o Country's long tradition of writing American public affairs history has fallen on hard times o History has given up on the idea of the US has a self-governing republic that needs to be investigated and recorded Congressional membership diversity o The legitimacy of, regard for, and attention accorded to Congress is suffering due to lack of diversity o Peak in voter diversity but Congress has changed less, with only a fraction of female members and no Hispanics or African Americans in the beginning of the 21st Century Second-order institutions o Institutions and procedures that are important yet fall short of constitutional standing o Exceptionally strong political parties are not good news for member action as members cannot perform as individuals and their constituency cannot witness this o Getting rid of the Senate filibuster would be bad for US public sphere because legislative delays can assist the formation of public opinion
37. What incentives do members of Congress have to engage in oversight of the bureaucracy?
Opportunity to claim credit for assisting constituents and to receive favorable publicity back home Prodding by interest groups and the media o Committee and subcommittee chairs seek a high pay off in attention from press and other agencies when selecting federal programs to be their oversight targets Members on relevant committees of jurisdiction are also motivated to induce favorable agency and departmental action on pet policies and programs Divided government encourages vigorous congressional oversight as a way to undermine the administration's policy goals or reputation Delegation can create problems for Congress o Run the risk that the president/bureaucracy will pursue their own agenda
38. What expectations does Mancur Olson's approach to the study of collective action lead us to have about the types of groups that will lobby Congress?
Organizing requires time, energy, and money, and individuals know that the small contributions they can make usually will not be decisive or even important, leading to a preference of free riding Organizing is easier for small groups with a strong material stake in policy outcomes o In small groups, social pressure can be effectively applied to discourage free riding Pressure group system should be tilted toward narrow economic interests that are easier to organize, and it should underrepresent broad public interests Survey found that business interests make up 72 percent of all groups having Washington representation o Groups representing the well-off are more likely to emerge and survive because money is needed to create and sustain organized interests
34. According to Howell and Pevehouse, under what conditions does Congress effectively check presidential war powers? What tools does Congress have to limit presidential war powers?
Partisan composition of Congress - when the opposition party holds a large number of seats or controls one or more chambers of Congress, members will routinely check presidential war powers o When the president's party dominates the legislature, it generally goes along with the White House After assuming control of Congress, House and Senate Democrats began to condemn and take action against Bush's military action in Iraq Opposition in charge of one or more chambers increases the political costs of pursuing new wars and prosecuting ongoing ones Tools to limit war powers o Launch hearings and investigations into mishaps, scandals, and tactical errors o Push for binding legislation that restricts president's ability to sustain operations o Public appeals against war o Control the purse strings
40. When we observe that members tend to vote for the policies favored by the groups that give them a lot of campaign money, why is it wrong to conclude that this is evidence that the groups are "buying" votes?
Patterns in campaign contributions do not conform to crude vote-buying theories Simply correlating the campaign contributions legislators receive with their voting behavior ignores the possibility that members might just as well have voted as they did without any influence or contributions The influence of money must be weighed along with other considerations influencing votes, such as constituency pressures, party ties, friendships, and personal conscience Research fails to find any causal connection between group contributions and votes Research has found that lobbyists tend to donate to members who are already friendly to their objectives Groups do not regard donating to legislative opponents as good investment of their money With the proliferation of interest groups, no single group is likely to exert overwhelming financial leverage over any given member of Congress
28. Why do some observers refer to the President as the "Chief Legislator"?
President's capacity for leadership is powerfully driven by expectations - they are expected to take the lead in proposing legislative initiatives Congress has delegated increasingly more agenda-setting power by requiring the president to submit annual budgets and other reports Legislative role was established in institutional arrangements and standard operating procedures
30. What formal and informal tools do presidents have as they attempt to lead Congress?
Presidential veto & veto bargaining, makes president the third branch of the legislature o Veto threats - can protect administrative priorities, encourage negotiations o Pocket veto - does not sign or reject bill and returns it to Congress o Post veto action - Presidential pressure can help dissuade Congress from a veto override Administrative President can unilaterally establish new policies and agencies and pressure Congress into acceptance o Announce executive orders o Issue proclamations stating administration policy to groups outside government o Signing statements to accompany bills they have signed into law o Patronage - can grant or withhold resources to cultivate support and goodwill in Congress Power to persuade o Persuade Congress to enact a bill o More persuasive when they advance a clear, focused, achievable agenda Congress can get behind o Develop relationships with lawmakers Going public o Appeal to American public to produce an outpouring of public support that encourages lawmakers to push his ideas through
41. What were the main obstacles facing Republicans seeking to repeal Obamacare in 2017?
Secretive manner in which the repeal bill was crafted o Members, such as John McCain, were uncomfortable with the fast track process meant for budget matters The President did not help o Did not show fluency in the basics of health policy o Could not persuade Republicans on complicated issues like the growth rate of Medicaid payments o Changed demands on what he wanted the Senate to do Bullying isn't effective o Trump used his presence on Twitter to bully Lisa Murkowski to vote for the repeal and used his Interior Secretary to pressure her about Alaska o She ultimately voted no as she had jurisdiction over Interior Department Abortion debate complicated things o Bill would have cut off federal funds to Planned Parenthood for a year o However, needed votes opposed that provision Diverging views of health care in slim Republican majority made it hard for everyone to agree on the same repeal
42. According to Binder and Spindel, what role did party polarization play in explaining the limited legislative accomplishments early in President Trump's term? What role did internal GOP divisions play?
The 2017 House is nearly the most polarized in more than a century Among the years under unified Republican control, 2017 stands out as the most polarized Republicans will have a hard time bringing Democrats on board, therefore, they relied on procedures to eliminate the need for Democratic votes o However, this does not work as it highlights internal disagreements on issues like health care or taxes In addition, today's GOP house is far more polarized than the Democrats, showing significant fractures o Results in stalemates between GOP factions, such as the far-right Freedom Caucus rejecting anything but a repeal of Obamacare while the moderate Tuesday Group sought improvements o As Trump attracts so much popular opposition, divided GOP can't come together to make the compromises needed to legislate
32. According to Fisher, what role did Congress play in the decision to fight in Korea? Did this represent a break with past practice?
Truman never asked Congress for authority to send air and sea forces to South Korea Special agreements for supplying forces to the UN must be approved by both houses of Congress Legislative history of the UN Participation Act of 1945 makes it clear that congressional approval was an essential principle o Congress was assured to have total control in approving or disapproving special agreements Despite legislative history, Truman broke with practice to act under UN without congressional approval o Did not enter into special agreement with Security Council o Safeguards to protect power of Congress were nullified under Truman and future presidents
4. Why does Mayhew assume that members of Congress are "single-minded seekers of reelection"? Does the assumption make sense to you?
• All members of Congress have a primary interest in getting re-elected, some have no other interest • Electoral goal is the proximate goal of everyone, must be achieved over and over if other ends are to be entertained o Reelection underlies everything else o If members of Congress want to pursue goals such as influence within Congress or good public policy, they need the votes to support it • It does make sense to me - in order to accomplish anything in Congress, whether it is policy or money, you need to be elected
6. What evidence do McCarty, Poole, and Rosenthal offer in support of the idea that Congress has become more polarized? To what extent is this polarization due to constituents' views / district characteristics?
• Almost all political conflict in Congress is expressed in the liberal-conservative terms of the first dimension; most roll call votes can be interpreted as splits on this dimension • Dispersion of positions of members on the liberal-conservative dimension has increased - extreme positions more likely to be represented • Ideological composition of two political parties has become more homogenous and the positions of the average Democrat/Republican have become more widely separated • Less overlap in the positions of the parties and moderates are vanishing • Is this due to constituents' views or district characteristics? o No - studies of roll call voting in the House have shown that the behavior of representatives deviates in large and systematic ways from the preferences of the average constituent Senators from the same state do not vote identically o Representatives have a leeway in either building a coalition of supporters or in expressing his or her personal ideology o Most voters are ill-informed about constituents voting record, so they vote on the basis of partisan cues and reputations o While the constituency does play a small role, scholars must also take into account personal and partisan ideology
3. What assumptions are necessary for the median voter result to hold in Congress? Are these assumptions plausible? Why or why not?
• Assumptions o Two candidates; each has goal of maximizing vote share o Proposed policies can be arrayed along single policy dimension o Each voter will vote for the candidate that proposes a policy closest to their ideal point o No abstentions o Candidates know voter positions and vice versa • Primary elections o Do not locate in the median of the electorate, focus on primary constituency • Complications o Need to attract activists/donors o Uncertainty about what the median voter wants o More than one dimension of voting (depends on policy issue) o Threat of abstentions by voters • Need to assess when those forces are stronger/weaker than pull of the median
8. In what ways do recent Speakers of the House (Newt Gingrich, Dennis Hastert, Nancy Pelosi, John Boehner, Paul Ryan) differ from the Speakers of the mid-twentieth century (e.g. Sam Rayburn)? How do they compare to Joe Cannon in the early 20th century?
• Early 20th Century o Dominated the House o Assigned members to committees, appointed and removed chairs, referred bills to committee, regulating flow of bills to floor as chair of Rules Committee o 1910 revolt forced Cannon to step down from Rules Committee and required House to elect committee's members o Speakership went into eclipse power went to party caucuses and then to committee chairs Small group of chairs controlled House rather than Speaker, mostly long-serving conservative southern Democrats that were out of step with leadership • Mid-20th Century o Functioned as a broker or mediator who negotiated with committee chairs to report out legislation supported by Democratic majority o Rayburn used personal prestige and political experience to lend coherence to a decentralized chamber o Reformers made changes to curb the power of committee chairs Committee chairs elected by secret ballot of Democratic Caucus Strengthened Speakership (ex. Gained right to name all majority party members of Rules Committee) o Powers gradually centralized in majority party leadership • 21st Century - overall trend of centralization of power in the Speaker's office o Gingrich Adopted wide array of institutional changes that centralized power in the leadership Required members must sign pledge to heed leadership's directives on spending, only appointed members and chairs who supported him Ensured committee chairs could not accumulate enough influence to challenge o Dennis Hastert Top-down command of the House and followed partisan strategy on party-preferred measures o Nancy Pelosi Top-down centralized model, even tighter control o John Boehner More inclusive, committee centered manner but did not allow for power to shift back to chairs Worked with Democratic leaders to pass bipartisan deals which lead to opposition that forced him to retirement o Paul Ryan Has a unique challenge of fighting with a president from his own party • However, it is the two leaders' mutual interest to work together to turn Republican priorities into law
13. What reforms have strengthened the hand of party leaders in the House?
• Empowerment of the Speaker to appoint the party's membership and the chair of the House Rules Committee • Shift of committee-assignment power to the new Steering and Policy Committee, which was dominated by members of the leadership and Speaker appointees • Gingrich asserted the right to choose the chairs of a number of the most important committees • House GOP adopted a new committee-assignment system that increased leader's influence over members' initial committee assignments
22. What makes a particular committee assignment a good one for an individual member of Congress? What role do party leaders play in making these assignments?
• Fenno found that three basic goals - reelection, influence within the House, and good public policy - affect committee assignments members seek • Linkage between winning desirable committee assignments and winning elections • Good committee assignments allow lawmakers to provide benefits to their constituency or district, such as additional federal funds, or help them in their reelection bids by giving them access to interest groups who can contribute to campaign funds • Party leaders' role o Oversee the selection of committee assignments and chairmanships o Newly elected representatives and senators quickly make their preferences known to party leaders o Promise committee assignments to candidates to help them win reelection o Promise coveted assignments to members who are able to effectively fundraise
9. What is meant by "conditional party government"?
• If partisans share common policy views and confront an opposition party with sharply different policy preferences, then these dual conditions favor strong, centralized leadership • Rank and file partisans will empower their party leaders to advance an agenda that nearly all of them support • When diversity grows within parties, or the differences between parties are reduced, members will be reluctant to grant greater powers to leaders
7. According to Congress and Its Members, in what ways do party leaders in the House help to solve collective action problems?
• Leaders need to mobilize majorities to legislate for the public good even when it is in the self-interest of rank-and-file members to focus solely on their own individual electoral needs; these members prefer to free ride on the efforts of their colleagues and avoid trade-offs of successful legislation • Has to take inside and outside roles o Formulate policy agendas and use their procedural and organizational authority to advance them o Articulate and publicize issue positions designed to galvanize partisan support and swing voters • Try to generate public momentum to either force legislative action on party priorities or create issues to take to the voters in the next election • Speaker enjoys unique powers in scheduling floor business • Controls top leadership posts and chairs/majorities on committees and subcommittees
12. Does the rise of party government in Congress mean that members care less about reelection than Mayhew thought when he wrote Congress: The Electoral Connection in 1974? What does Rohde have to say about this question?
• Mayhew focuses on independent members within committees and weak parties., which helped their electoral ends • Aldrich disagrees that members of Congress care more about position taking on policy and do not want parties to be able to influence their choices about position or be empowered to produce results • If the seniority system was a cornerstone of the legislative independence of members and of their ability to use committees to their electoral advantage, then what electoral motive explains members' willingness to destroy that protection? • Democrats believed institutional arrangements were preventing them from securing favored policy proposals • Members saw that institutional rules affected what policy would be successful • During his time in Washington, a large number of members talked passionately about policy outcomes; throughout his time drafting reforms for committees, he never heard about concern of the consequences for individual members' electoral successes
15. What strategies did Nancy Pelosi use in order to secure her election as Speaker following the 2018 elections?
• Phones VoteVets' Chairman to help woo incoming freshman who were revolting against Pelosi o Told the candidates that to be an effective legislator, you will have to work with the next speaker who would most likely be Pelosi o Candidates refused to sign the rebels' document, when lobbied for signatures they refused even more • Ramped up pressure tactics by getting allies such as governors, labor leaders, and executive members to lobby lawmakers to get behind Pelosi • Offered subcommittee chairmanship to Fudge, a key member in the rebellion who was seen as a potential candidate for speaker - led to her leaving the speakership and backing Pelosi • Pelosi promised to help get Higgins' Medicare bill to the House floor, leading him to leave the rebellion and support Pelosi • Expressed a willingness to accept an end-date on her power
16. What do Brady and Volden mean by "gridlock"? What are the main sources of gridlock in the U.S. system?
• Policy gridlock is when personal preferences and congressional institutions put constraints on policy formation o Personal preferences are based on their partisan slant on the issues, on the degree they wish to be representative of their constituents' desires, on their responsiveness to organized interests, and on their personal views about politics and good government • Constraints caused by legislators' positions and supermajority institutions are the reason why gridlock is prevalent today o Filibuster - allows the minority to have significant power over an issue, leading to the majority unable to enact their policy changes o Presidential veto - extension of a region of inaction, policy action is severely limited due to the gridlock region
11. Has the return of strong parties been good for Congress as an institution and for the public?
• Positives o Enables voters to better comprehend the divergent views, values, and principles of the two parties; can also encourage voter turnout o Public's awareness and understanding of differences between the parties has increased as a result of party polarization o Parties well assisted by professional staff o Strong parties have given rise to more communication staff which can help serve the public but mostly serves re-election interests of members • Negatives o Raises questions about the body's ability to engage in meaningful bipartisan deliberation and mutual accommodation o Compromise is a traditional hallmark of legislative decision making - seen as a weakness due to strong parties
14. According to Lee, what impact has the reemergence of party competition for control of Congress had on how political parties operate inside Congress?
• Rather than focusing on individual re-election prospects, members now have strong reasons to create and empower party organizations in hopes of affecting their party's overall fate • Political parties now seek to win and hold party majorities • Party leaders began employing large numbers of communication staff when competition intensified • Use these infrastructures to wage partisan public relations battles against each other • Role and scale of congressional party leadership operations has grown dramatically o Elaborate infrastructure for the creation and dissemination of partisan communications o In the 70s, none of the top leadership offices had press or public relations staff - today, there were more than 70, constituting almost half of all staff working for leadership o Management of their party's public image is an integral aspect of leaders' jobs o Both parties dramatically increased funding towards communications in order to churn out rapid responses to other party's claims, place party friendly content in media, and coordinate a partisan message
2. What features of today's Congress would the Framers recognize? What features would they find most surprising?
• Recognizable o Powers of Congress are still the same Power of the purse Power to collect taxes, duties, etc. o Separation of branches Congress is still clearly separated from the others - while many have moved on to serve in different branches, thy cannot hold other federal posts o Legislative-Executive Interdependence While more intense than before, Congress is still dependent on the president and executive branch President is still a key figure in lawmaking State of the Union still works to shape national agenda o Bicameralism Congress is still starkly divided into two chambers • Surprising o Workload In Framers' time, it was limited in scope, small in volume, and simple in content Today, five to seven thousand bills and joint resolutions are introduced in the span of each two-year Congress Average public bill is around 15 pages o Size of Congress In Framers' time, only 26 Senate members - 2 from each of the 13 original states, only 65 representatives Today, 100 senators and 435 representatives o Partisan Interests Framers did not intend for political parties to have a significant role in government Today, party politics heavily shapes floor procedure, members' rights, leaders' prerogatives, and agenda control o Elections Senators no longer chosen by the state legislators, subject to the popular vote o Congressional Career In early years, Congress was an institution composed of transients who only stayed a few months Today, average senator has served nearly ten years and representative has served nine o Professionalism Today, they are full time professional politicians o Constituency demands Early on, demands were simple tasks like pensions, mail routes, free seed Today, members receive millions of pieces of mail with all different requests and questions o Majority Status Today, being in the majority is an essential goal of members of Congress
19. What led to move toward majority rule on nominations? (e.g. the use of the "nuclear option"). What forces might be leading to a similar outcome on legislation? What are the obstacles to such an outcome?
• Rise in partisanship has led to the Senate only requiring a majority rule to overcome a minority filibuster on nominations, rather than bipartisan quorums o Without this change, many of Trump's cabinet nominees would have been blocked • Without a filibuster on legislation, parties could achieve partisan objectives and pass legislation that would be blocked by the other party o Democrats could seek an increase in the minimum wage, pass Medicare for all and only need a simple majority o Republicans could pass large permanent tax cuts or a national concealed-carry gun law o Both parties are complicit depending on majority status • Obstacles o Worry that there will be an abuse of the 60-vote rule o Legislation would fall prey to the extreme instincts of the base of both parties
10. How do the challenges facing the Senate majority leader differ from those facing the Speaker of the House of Representatives?
• Senate majority leader does not have the authority to preside over the Senate • While serving as party leader in the House is a full-time position, Senate leaders must balance their duties with sitting on one or more committees • Unlike House counterparts, Senate leaders must lead an institution largely devoid of institutional prerogatives and procedures designed to facilitate majority rule • Unlike in the House, having a strong and cohesive party does not necessarily enable a Senate majority leader to govern o Senate rules do not permit the majority party leadership to set the agenda without input from the minority party o Senate leaders must achieve considerably more cross-party consensus than is necessary in the House
21. What are the differences between select, standing, and conference committees?
• Standing Committees o Permanent entity created by public law or House/Senate rules, continue from Congress to Congress o Process the bulk of Congress' daily and annual agenda o Sizes and ratios decided by the majority leadership o Majority party usually assigns a higher percentage of their members on important committees, others have proportional/disproportionate partisan ratios • Select Committees o Temporary panels that typically go out of business after the two-year life of the Congress in which they are created Some take on the attributes of permanent committees o Membership is the prerogative of the Speaker - they usually name the majority members and the minority appoints lawmakers from their party o Can accommodate the concerns of individual members, can be an access point for interest groups, and can supplement standing committees by overseeing and investigating issues that permanent panels do not have time for o Can be set up to coordinate consideration of issues that overlap the jurisdictions of several standing committees • Conference committees o Bicameral panels that reconcile differences between similar measures passed by both chambers o Composed of members from each house o Top party leaders take a direct and active role in determining those who should or shouldn't be conferees o Recent Congresses have seen a decline in the convening of conference committees Why create them for politically inspired measures that do not have a chance to become law in polarized Congress
23. Why is it so difficult to reform committee jurisdictions (e.g. to eliminate overlap)?
• Strong opposition from members who stood to surrender favored jurisdictions, shown by the fight for a new committee on Homeland Security o To create it, 10 standing committees needed to give up some of their jurisdiction to the new panel o Committee chairs continued to offer amendments to reclaim jurisdiction or negotiate with party leaders to preserve their jurisdiction o Jurisdictional conflicts among panels with authority over the Department of Homeland Security o Speaker Ryan had to create a memo of understanding due to complaints over turf fights
1. Madison argues that elected legislatures tend to gain dominance over the other branches of government. Why does he think such a phenomenon exists? What precautions did the Founders take to prevent this from occurring in the United States?
• Where the whole power of one department is exercised by the same hands which possess the whole power of another, the fundamental principles of a free constitution are subverted (47) • Powers properly belonging to one of the departments ought not to be directly and completely administered by either of the other departments • The separate branches of government check one another - the Senate is also a judicial tribunal for impeachments, the President is the presiding member of the Senate, the judiciary are appointed by the executive, etc. (47) • Legislative department derives a superiority in our governments for several reasons (48) o Its constitutional powers are more extensive and less susceptible of precise limits o Alone has access to the pockets of the people and influence over the people • Legislative, executive, and judiciary departments should be separate and distinct, so that no person should exercise the powers of more than one of them at the same time (48)
