DAT Massive Overview

Ways of respiration

1. Direct with environment (Through skin surface area - platyhelminthes) 2. Gills (Envaginated - Allows water to pass through creating countercurrent exchange) Gill cover = operculum 3. Tracheae (Chitin-lined tube allowing O2 to enter and CO2 to exit) 4. Lungs (Invaginated)

Origin of life

1. Earth and atmosphere 2. Seas formed 3. Complex molecules synthesized 4. Polymers made 5. Protobions (Precursor of cell) concentrated these molecules. 6. Heterotrophic prokaryotes formed. 7. Autotrophic prokaryotes formed. 8. Oxygen and ozone layter formed 9. Eukaryotes formed (Endosymbiotic Theory)

Portions of a seed

1. Embryo 2. Seed Coat 3. Storage Material Seeds will reach maturity then remain dormant until certain cues are encountered. (Water, Temperature, light...)

Portions of the embryo

1. Epicotyl (Shoot Tip) 2. Plumule is attached to epicotyl 3. Hypocotyl is attached below epicotyl 4. Radicle develops below hypocotyl 5. Coleoptile surrounds epicotyl (Sheath)

Ferilization

1. Exocytosis of enzymes to digest jelly cost 2. Enzymes put hole in jelly 3. Depolarization occurs to cause a "fast block to polyspermy". 4. Cortical reaction - *Ca2+* releases from the Endoplasmic reticulum, cortical granules in the egg fuse with plasma membrane, sperm-binding receptors are removed (Slow block to polyspermy).

Steps for Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts

1. H+ protons accumulate inside the lumen of the thylakoid. (From water being split and from the stroma by a cytochrome) 2. H+ protons create a pH and an electrical gradient. 3. ATP synthase allows H+ protons to pass through and create ATP from ADP. (3 H+ to 1 ATP) 4. Calvin Cycle uses H+ protons and electrons to combine NADP+ to create NADPH.

Antimarkovnikov hydrohalogenation

1. H-Br/ROOR Can be done on alkynes and alkenes.

Types of reproductive isolation

1. Habitat 2. Temporal 3. Behavorial 4. Mechanical 5. Gametic 6. Hybrid Inviability 7. Hybrid Sterility 8. Hybrid Breakdown (Reduced Viability/Fertility)

Ways of Foraging

1. Herd/Flock/School 2. Pack 3. Search Images

Inflammation Response

1. Histamine - Basophils Secrete 2. Vasodilation - Stimulated by histamine release. (Increases permeability) 3. Phagocytes - Attracted by chemicals 4. Complement - Lyse cells

Microarray

A chip that allows a scientist to measrue mRNA expression. - Uses reverse transcriptase to make cDNA from a particular mRNA and use fluorescence to visualize hybridized DNA probes.

Camouflage (Cryptic coloration)

A color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enables an animal to blend in with its surroundings.

Azeotrope

A constant boiling mixture that can not be separated by simple distillation.

ZnCl2

A dark granular solid

Coelomate

A fluid-filled layer that cushions interal organs (Serous Layer from mesoderm) - Echinodermata - Chordata

a path function (non-state function)

A function in which the process matters. - Depend on the transition or change of the state. Think about the trip from New York to California. The amount of work that trip takes certainly depends on the route taken. If you decide to fly from New York to Canada, before heading to California, you're going to require a lot more work than if you fly direct. - Heat and work are examples of path (non-state) functions.

State Function

A function that only depends on the initial and final states of the system, not how it got there Energy (E) Entropy (S) Enthalpy (H) NOT STATE FUNCTIONS - Work - Heat

Ethylene

A gas that promotes the ripening of fruit. (Enzymatic breakdown of cell walls) - Stimulates also the production of flowers

Proto-oncogene

A gene that is normal and does not code for cancer

Organ

A group of different kinds of tissues working together to perform a particular activity.

Cytokinins

A group of hormones that stimulate cykinesis. - Variations of adenine - Delay senescence (Aging)

Secretin

A hormone produced by cells lining the duodenum to stimulate the pancreas to produce bicarbonate to neutralize the acitidy of the chyme.

Gastrin

A hormone proeduced by stomach lining cells to produce gastric juices

Abscisic Acid

A hormone that is a growth inhibitor. - Dormant in seeds

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)

A hormone that maintains progesterone production in the corpus luteum

Gibberellins

A hormone that promotes cells growth - Synthesized in young leaves, roots, and seeds then transported elseware. - Important in fruit development and seed germination

Auxin (IAA - Indoleacetic Acid)

A hormone that promotes plant growth by facilitating elongation of developing cells. - Does this by increasing the concentration of H+ in primary cell walls. - Produced at tips of shoots and roots. - Responsible for *trophism*

Corpus luteum

A hormone-secreting (Progesterone and Estrogen) structure that develops in an ovary after an ovum has been discharged but degenerates after a few days unless pregnancy has begun. - Maintained by FSH and LH

Mycelium

A mass of hyphae

Clathrin

A molecule associated with receptor-mediated endocytosis

p53

A molecule that aids in preventing cancer (Cell Multiplication) The "Guardian of the cell"

Proteasome

A molecule that will break down proteins marked with ubiquitin

Food Web

A more expanisive view of the options of the food chain.

Silent Mutation

A mutation that changes the DNA sequence (Codon) but still contains the same amino acid sequence. - Usually caused by wobble.

Missense Mutation

A mutation that changes the DNA sequence (codon/codons) and changes also the amino acid.

Nonsense Mutation

A mutation that changes the DNA sequences and places a stop codon in the amino acid sequence.

F plasmid

A necessary bacterial component to have a pilius

Homologous Chromosomes

A pair of chromosomes that contain the same genes. (Not alleles)

Aposematic Coloration

A pattern that warns animals that they will sting, bite, or will taste bad.

State Function

A property whose value does not depend on how that state was achieved. An analogy is a trip from New York to California. The destination is a state function. It doesn't matter whether you drove through Canada, or flew direct, all that matters with the destination is that you arrive in California. Destination is a state function. Enthalpy, volume, mass and Gibbs free energy are all state functions.

Cytochrome c

A protein (100 amino acids) that is so common it is used to compare genetic relatedness of species.

Reflex Arc

A rapid involuntary response to a stimulus.

Negative feedback

A receptor (Sensing mechanism) detects a change, the integration center (Brain) exaluates the change, and the effector (second mechanism) corrects the condition. Ex) The original condition is negated.

Cortisol

A stress hormone. - Lowers immune reponse - Anti-inflammatory - Limits protein breakdown - Raises blood glucose

Vestigal Structures

A structure that once had function in an ancestor but no longer do. - These structures remain due to lack of selection pressure.

Biome

A subdivided portion of the biosphere. TTTTTSDFM Tropical Temperate G Temperate D Taiga Tundra Savanna Desert Fresh Marine

Amphiprotic

A substance that can act as a proton acceptor and donor (Arrhenius/Bronsted)

Amphoteric

A substance that can act as an acid and a base (Arrhenius/Bronsted/Lewis)

Metamorphosis

A transformation to a different (Adult) form. (Individuals that perform this are born different than an adult form)

Provirus

A virus that is dormantly hiding in a host cells DNA.

Age Structure

Abundance of individuals at each age (Age Structure Diagram)

Carboxcylic acid to ester

Acid Catylst and alcohol

Friedel Crafts Acylation

Acid Chlordie/AlCl3

Reactivity of carboxcylic acid derivatives

Acid Chloride > Acid Anhydride > C. Acid/Ester > Amide > Carboxylate In order of best leaving group (We need an acid catylst for anything weaker than acid anhydride)

Acidic/Basic Conditions

Acidic - Cat. P-TsOH and Weak Nuc 1. Protonate carbonyl O. 2. Attack with nucleophile 3. Can reprotonate to make H20 4. H20 leaves my OR electrons dropping down. 5. Another group attacks Basic - Strong Nuc 1. Nuc attacks and pushes electrons up to O 2. Eletrons drop down an pop off other group.

Benzene and Acidity

Acids are more acidic attached to benzene than not attached. (Even if there is a donating group)

Ortho/Para Directors

Activators Electron Donators (Win against meta)

Sapwood

Active Xylem used for water transfer

Primary growth of seedling

Actively dividing meristematic cells - Root cap protects apical meristem - Zone of cell division is the actively dividing portion of apical meristem - Zone of elongation is portion that absorbs water and elongates - Zone of maturation is the portion with xylem and phloem

Jones Reagent

Acts as a strong oxidizer

Cytotoxic T Cells

Adaptive immunity - Requires activation (Specificity) - Release Perforin (Lyses cells) - Release Granzymes (Protease to make cell apoptosis)

Acid Chloride to Carboxcylic Acid

Add OH - then H3O+

Acid Chloride to Acid Anhydride

Add a carboxylate or caboxcylic acid of the same type

Acid Chloride to an ester

Add an alcohol of an oxide

Acid Chloride to an amide

Add an amine

How to determine order of reaction from units

Add up exponents and take absolute value

How to calculate perimeter

Add up the length of all 4 sides

Insertion Mutation

Adding an extra nucleotide to the DNA sequence

Gene Flow

Addition or removal of alleles due to emigration or immigration.

Phosphorylase and Protein Kinase

Adds a phosphate to something

Secondary Oocyte

After Meiosis 1, this is the cell in female development that has the majority of the original cytoplasm.

Polar Body

After Meiosis 1, this is the daughter cells in females that has very little cytoplasm.

Dinoflagellates

- Algae-like - Have two flagella (One posterior and one transverse) - Look like vertebrae - Some are bioluminesent - Some produce nerve toxins (In shellfish)

Brown algae

- Algae-like - Multicellular - Have flagellated sperm cells - (Can be giant seaweed/kelps)

Forms of enzyme regulation

- Allosterics (Inhibition and activation) - Competitive Inhibition (Competing for active site) - Noncompetitve Inhibition (Substance binds to a different part of the protein to change conformation) - Cooperativity (In quaternary structure, when one subunit binds it gives greater affinity to other bining sites)

Phase Contrast Microscopy

- Allows imaging of live, unfixed (Stained or tagged), cells.

Rhizopoda

- Animal-like - Amoeba - Move by extensions of their cell body (Pseudopodia). - Pseudopodia encircle food and absorb by phagocytosis.

Ciliates

- Animal-like - Contain cilia (Form movement) - Contain mouths, anal pores, contractile vacuoles, and two nuclei. - Paramecium is the most common.

Foraminifera (Forams)

- Animal-like - Have tests made of CaCO3, Calcium Carbonate. - Good indicators of oil deposits

Apicomplexans

- Animal-like - Parasites of animals - Characterized by an apical complex (Complex of organelles at the apical end). - No means of motility - Form spores (Malaria)

Catalysts

- Are NOT consumed in reaction. - Increase rate of reaction by decreasing activation energy. - Does NOT changed energy in products or reactants. - Does NOT shift equilibrium, just makes reaction reach equilibrium quicker. - Provides an alternative pathway to reach product. (Different mechanism) - Changes rate constant

Octet Rule Exceptions

- Be: 4 Electrons - H: 2 Electrons - Al & B: 6 Electrons - Third row and lower can have more than 8 electrons if needed

Anaphase

- Begins when microtubules begin to pull the sister chromatids apart. (Attached microtubules to the kinetochores pull and overlapping microtubules push) - Sister chromatids go toward opposite poles of cell. (Each pole has same # of chromosomes as the original cell)

Peroxisomes

- Breakdown hydrogen peroxide, fatty acids, and amino acids. - Contain *catalase* - Common in liver and kidney - PLANT CELLS: Modify by-products of photorespiration (CO2 diverted from use in photosynthesis.) - Germinating Seeds: Called glyoxysomes, break down fatty acids for energy

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

- Building blocks of ribosomes - The nucleolus is the location of assemblage of these. - Contain three binding sites (A - Amino Acid, P - Polypeptide, E - Exit)

Pinocytosis

- Cell drinking (Dissolved material being ingested)

Phagocytosis

- Cell eating (Undissolved material being ingested [Bacterium])

Telophase I

- Chromosomes (Without homologues) are at opposite poles. - Nuclear envelope forms HAPLOID Cytokinesis occurs thereafter before prophase II

Increase in temperature effect on... - Collisions - Reaction Rate - k

- Collisions: Increases likelyhood of collisions and enough energy - Reaction Rate: ^ causes increased reaction rate. - k: Arrhenius equation demonstrates that increase ^ increases k.

Basophil/Mast Cell

- Contain histamine (vasodilation) and heparin (prevents blood clot)

Anchoring Junction (Desmosome)

- Contain proteins (Like keratin) to bind adjacent cells together. - Associate with interior protein filaments of cells.

Tight Junction

- Create close seal between cells (No passage of materials between) - Digestive tract uses these type of junctions (Need to pass through cell instead of between cells)

Genetic Variation

- Crossing Over - Independent Assortment of Homologues (Which homologues went to which pole) - Random joining of gametes (That also went through previous two things)

Cnidaria

- Kingdom Animalia - Hydrozoans, jellyfish, anemones, and corals. - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - Radial symmetry - Cnidocytes (Stinging cells) Two body forms 1. Medusa - jellyfish-like 2. Polyp - Anenomes Cnidarians are diploblastic

Rotifera

- Kingdom Animalia - Microscopic - Organs enclosed in pseudocoelom - Have complete disgestive tract - Filter feeders - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - Bilateral symmetry - Pseudocoelomate

Nematoda

- Kingdom Animalia - Roundworms - Have pseudocoelomate bodies with digestive tract. - Free-living soil dwellers. - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - Bilateral Symmetry

Echinodermata

- Kingdom Animalia - Sea stars, sea urchins, and sand dollars. - Complete digestive tract - Radial symmetry - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - Radial symmetry - Coelomate - Deuterostome - Simple Diffusion for excretion

Annelida

- Kingdom Animalia - Segmented worms (Leeches, earthworms, and polychaete worms) - Leeches are predators or parasites. - Two "suckers" - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - Coelomate - Protostome - Bilateral symmetry

Mollusca

- Kingdom Animalia - Snails, bivalves, octopuses, and squids. - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - Bilateral Symmetry - Coelmate - Protosotome - Nephridia for waste (Simple Nephron) - *Radula*: Mini tooth

Arthropoda

- Kingdom Animalia - Spiders, Insects, and Crustaceans. - Jointed appendages - Well-developed nervous system - Open circulatory system - Spiral/Determinate Cleavages - Exoskeleton of chitin. - Protostome - Coelomate - Contain Malpighian tubules for excretion - Bilateral symmetry - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - HIGHEST # of diverse species Two life cycles. 1. Nymphs (Small adults to bigger ones) 2. Larvae (Born as maggot then grow into cocoon and undergo metamorphosis)

Porifera

- Kingdom Animalia - Sponges - Feed by filterings water with choanocytes - Water exits from osculum - Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes. Sponges contain *spicules* (Of CaCO3 or SiO2. - Parazoa (Tissue)

Chordata

- Kingdom Animalia Four main features 1. Notochord 2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord 3. Pharyngeal gill slits 4. Muscular Tail - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - Bilateral symmetry - Coelomate - Deuterostome (Development)

Platyhelminthes

- Kingdom Animalia Three kinds of flatworms - Free-Living: Carnivores/Scavengers in marine or freshwater. - Flukes: Internal/External parasites - Tapeworms: Internal parasites in digestive tract of vertebrates - Eumetazoa (Tissue) - Bilateral symmetry - Acoelomate - Flame cells for excretion

Dueteromycota

- Kingdom Fungus - "Imperfect fungi". - No sexual reproductive cycle observed - PENICILLIUM!

Ascomycota

- Kingdom Fungus - Have septa - Reproduce sexually (Eight haploid cells produced in a sac) - Yeasts, powdery mildews, and truffles.

Glomermycota

- Kingdom Fungus - Lack septa (Coenocytic) - Occur in mutualistic relationship with plant roots. (Mycorrhizae) - Plant roots provide carbs and fungus increases plants ability to absorb nutrients.

Zygomycota

- Kingdom Fungus - Lack septa (Coenocytic) - Reproduce sexually. (BREAD MOLD)

Lichens

- Kingdom Fungus - Mutualistic associations with algae (Chlorophyta or cyanobacteria produce sugar from photosynthesis) and fungus (Provides water and protection).

Anthophyta (Angiosperms)

- Kingdom Plantae - Flowering plants - Pistil (Female reproductive system. Contain Ovary, Style, and Stigma) - Stamen (Male reproductive system. Contain anther (produces microspores), stalk, and filament) - Petals (Attract pollinators) - Vascular - Sporophyte dominant generation (Use seeds) - Megaspore: egg - Microspore: sperm

Bryophyte

- Kingdom Plantae - Mosses, Liverwort, Hornwort - Gametes prouced in gametangia (Protective structures) - Flagellated sperm (Antheridium) - Egg (Archegonium) - Diploid structure - No vascular system - Diverse spores - Gametophytes are dominant generation - Contain rhizoids - Diverse spores

Coniferophyta (Gymnosperm)

- Kingdom Plantae - Produce seeds and spores (Microspores-male, macrospores-female) - Conifers (Pines, firs, spruces, junipers, redwoods, cedars...) - Pollen-bearing cones - Gymnosperms (Unprotected seeds) - Fertilization is 1-3 years - Vascular - Diverse spores (Sporophyte dominant)

Lycophyta

- Kingdom Plantae - Vascular system - Club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts - produce strobili (Spore clusters) - "Resurrection" plant.

Pterophyta

- Kingdom Plantae Three Groups 1. Ferns - Produce sori (Clusers of sporangia 2. Horsetails - Extinct woody trees. (Ribbed stems joined at nodes.) Contain silica 3. Whisk Ferns - Plants with branching stems with no roots.

Fungus-Like

- Kingdom Protista - Due to filaments or spore bearing bodies, they resemble fungi. Types are... 1. Cellular Slime Molds 2. Oomycota 3. Plasmodial Slime Molds COP

Animal-like protists

- Kingdom Protista - Either consume living cells or dead organic matter. 1. Foraminifera 2. Apicomplexans 3. Rhizopoda 4. Ciliates FARC

Algae-like

- Kingdom Protista - Obtain energy via photosynthesis - Have chorlophyll a (And others) Classified by... - Chlorophyll types/accessory pigments - Form of carbohydrate storage. - Number of flagella - Make-up of cell walls 1. Euglenoids 2. Dinoflagellates 3. Diatoms 4. Brown Algae 5. Rhodophyta 6. Chlorophyta EDD BRC-H

What is a crystalline solid?

- Long range order. - Consistent, crystal lattice network of atoms that is well defined, and repeated throughout the structure. - Have sharp, well defined, characteristic melting temperatures - Break with a cleavage along a very straight plane.

Alkali Metals

- Low ionization energies. - React explosively with water. - Form ionic compounds.

Alkaline Earth Metals

- Low ionization energies. - React with water but not as much as alkali.

Lysosomes

- Low pH functioning enzymes - Breakdown of debris, food, and invaders - Not present in plant cells

Microfilament

- Made of actin - Involved in cell motility - Found in muscle cell and phagocytes

Microtubule

- Made of tubulin - Aid in structure and motility (Flagella and Cilia) - Part of spindle apparatus (Cell Division)

Collision Theory

- Molecules must collide to react. - Molecules must collide sufflicient energy to react. - Molecules must collid with correct 3-D orientation to react.

7. Organogenesis (Chordates)

- Notochord: Cells from mesoderm on dorsal surface form notochord - Neural tube: Ectoderm above the notochord, forms neural plate, then neural groove, then neural tube. Develops into CNS. - Neural crest: forms into teeth bones and muscles of skull.

Prophase II

- Nuclear envelope disappears - Sindle apparatus forms - No chiasmata or crossing over occurs.

Telophase II

- Nuclear envelope forms around haploid set of chromosomes on each side of cell. - Cytokinesis then occurs and four haploid cells result.

Prophase I

- Nuclelous disappears - Nuclear envelope disappears and chromosomes condense. - Spindle apparatus develops. *** - Homologous chromosomes pair (Synapsis) - When paired they are called Tetrad/Bivalent. - Chiasmata forms (Location of close association between nonsister chromatids) - Crossing Over occurs - Everything together is called the synaptonemal complex.

Prophase

- Nucleoli disappear and chromatin condenses into chromosomes. - Nuclear envelope disappears - Mitotic Spindle is assembled. (MTOCs from go to opposite ends and microtubules develop and attach to the kinetochore of the centromere. Also come microtubules overlap with microtubules from the opposite pole.)

Radial Symmetry

- Only one orientation. - Front and Back (Or top and bottom) - Circular body pattern

What is an amorphous solid?

- Only short range order - No consistent structure of atoms throughout the solid - This leads to a broad range of melting temperatures - Irregular breakage patterns.

Thylakoid

- Pancake like membrane - Contain photosystem I/II, cyctochromes, and other electron carriers.

Macroevolution Theories

- Phyletic Gradualism - Gradual accumulation of small changes evolving an organism. - Punctuacted Equilibrium - Long stasis then short periods of rapid evolution.

Half-Equivalence Point

- Point on titration graph where [A-]=[HA] - pKa/pKb

Lymph

- Propelled by smooth muscle and skeletal muscle - Contains valves for unidirectional motion - Controls interstitial fluid - Connects to blood circulatory system

Ranking leaving groups

- Rank in order of stability detached from the structure

Ezymes

- Reacts with specific substrate - Unchanged by reaction - Increases reaction rate - Can denature in intense temp/pH - Ends with -ase

Trend of Acidity Strength

- Right (More Electronegative - Electrons are loosely bonded to H) - Down (Larger Shell/Bond Length)

Rate Law

- Shows rate of reaction - Does not contain products - k is the rate constant - m and n exponents are determined experimentally - k[A][B] (Slow Step)

Chloroplast Structure

- Single circular DNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

- Single strand of RNA - Contains codons that match anticodons on a tRNA containing a specific amino acid (Used for translation)

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLP)

- Slight differences in DNA length due to short tandem repeats (STRs). - Used in DNA fingerprinting.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

- Specific molecules (LDL/Hormones) bind and enter cells

Frog Development (Amphibian)

- Sperm penetrates egg making a GRAY CRESCENT. GASTRULATION occurs as cells migrate over the top edge of the blastopore (DORSAL TIP). Yolk material form near dorsal tip. - Uneven distribution of yolk (More at vegetal than animal - more cleavages at the animal pole)

Metaphase

- Starts with the chromosomes being aligned on the metaphase plate. - Ends when microtubules begin to pull

Regulations of cell cycle

- Surface Area to Volume Ratio (If this ratio is low, it will divide to increase it) - Genome to Volume Ratio - Cell Checkpoints (G1, G2, M) - Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (Cdk) - Growth Factors - Stimulate cell to divide or not to divide - Density-Dependent Inhibition - Anchorage Dependence

Down Syndrome

- Type of aneuploidy - Egg/Sperm containing 1 extra chromosomes 21. - Causing Trisomy 21.

Turner Syndrome

- Type of aneypolidy - Caused by nondisjuction of sex chromosomes. - Genotype of XO

Gap Junction

- Type of communicating junction - In animal cells - Create tunnel between cells with proteins (*Connexins* that prevent cytoplasmic mixing) - Can communicate material or electrical impulse - Create gap between plasma membranes

Plasmodesmata

- Type of communicating junction - In plant cells - Part of ER (Desmotubule) passes through channel to communicate material.

Frog Embryo Facts

- Uneven distribution of yolk (More concentrated at vegetal pole[Light], less concentrated at animal pole[Dark] = less cleavage at animal pole) - Forms Gray Crescent - No primitive streak during gastrulation

Real Gas Equation Corrections

- an2/V2 Corrects for Intermolecular forces - nb corrects for repulsions (volume)

Decrease in Ea effect on... - k - Reaction Rate

- k: Increases k - Reaction Rate: Increases Reaction Rate

Calculate the work done by an ideal gas on its surroundings when the gas is heated at constant pressure of 1 atm from volume 50L to 100L at 298K. Use W = -P(Delta[V])

-50 L*atm

Cardiac Muscle

-Striated and has many branching with the muscle. (Gap junctions) - Self-Stimulated

pKa =

-log[Ka]

pKb =

-log[Kb]

0.50M HCl is added to a solution of PbCl2. What is the new molar solubility? (Ksp = 2.5x10^-4)

0.001

Gas Constant

0.08206 Lxatm/molxK

Theoretical yield of ATP from FADH2

1 FADH2 = 2 ATP

Theoretical ATP yield from NADH

1 NADH = 3 ATP

Propagation Halogenation Step

1 Radical and 1 non-radical on both sides

# of atoms for a simple cubic unit cell

1 atom per unit cell - 1/8 of 8 atoms at each corner

Important Ratios

1) AA x AA = 1/1 AA Or similarly, aa x aa = 1/1 aa Or similarly, AA x aa = 1/1 Aa 2) AA x Aa = 1/2 AA, 1/2 Aa Or similarly, aa x Aa = 1/2 Aa, 1/2 aa 3) Aa x Aa = 1/4 AA, 2/4 Aa, 1/4 aa

1. Standard State 2. Standard Temperature and Pressure

1. 298K (25 C), 1 atm, and 1 M 2. 273K (0 C), 1 atm

Steps of mRNA processing

1. 5' cap is added. (Guanine nucleotide with two phosphates - Providing stability and an attachment point to the small subunit. 2. Poly-A Tail is attached to the 3' end of the mRNA. (200 adenine nucleotides). Controls the movement of mRNA across nuclear envelope and gives stability. 3. RNA splicing. Introns are taken out and exons and spliced together by snRNP's. 4. Alternative splicing allows different mRNA molecules to be generated from the same RNA transcript.

Steps of Muscle Contraction

1. ATP binds to myosin 2. Ca2+ binds to troponin to move tropomyosin (Opens binding site for myosin) 3. Cross bridge forms between actin and myosin 4. Release ATP to brings myosin toward center 5. ATP causes cross brides to unbind

Steps to make lewis dot structure

1. Add up valences 2. Put least electronegative in center. (Connect all atoms with a single bond) 3. Use remaining electrons to fulfil octets. 4. Leftover electrons go to central atom 5. If there are not enough electrons add double/triple bonds

Classification of Kingdom Protista

1. Algae-like 2. Animal-like 3. Fungus-like (Can be uni/multicellular)

Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium)

1. All traits are selectively neutral. 2. No Mutations. 3. Population isolated from other populations. 4. Population is large. 5. Mating is random. NNPLR (nonpolar)

Water Transport through roots

1. Apoplast: Non-living - Through cell walls (not in the cell). 2. Symplast: Living - From cell to cell by the plasmodesmata

1. Set up ICE table and put molar solubility in for x. 2. Then calculate Ksp. How to figure out molar solubility of PbCl2 (Ksp is 2.5 x 10^-4)

1. Assume there is 1M 2. Use ice table to find x. - Remember that solids are not included in Ksp equation. 3. x=molar solubility - 0.00791 Figure out Ksp!

A + B → B2 (slow step) B2 + C → D (fast step) 1. What is the intermediate? 2. What is the overall rate law? 3. What is the overall reaction

1. B2 2. k[A][B] 3. A + B + C --> D

Plant adaptations

1. Became diploid 2. Posses cuticle (Waxy covering) 3. Vascular system development (Tracheophytes) - Xylem: Water Transport - Phloem: Sugar Transport 4. Pollen packaged gametes 5. Seasonal adaptations

Neurotransmitter transmission

1. Ca2+ gates open 2. Neurotransmitter is released 3. Receptors of adjacent cell bind to neurotransmitter 4. Causes excitation or inhibition - EPSP: Causes Depolarization - IPSP: Causes Hyperpolarization 5. Neurotransmitter is degraded/recycled

Steps of Calvin Cycle

1. Carboxylation: 6 CO2 and 6 RuBP come together to for 12 PGA using rubisco (Fixing CO2). 2. Reduction: 12 NADPH and 12 ATP are used to covert 12 PGA to 12 G3P. 3. Regeneration: 6 ATP react with 10 G3P to recreate 6 RuBP. 4. Carbohydrate Synthesis: The leftover 2 G3P go to create sugars.

Domain Bacteria (Eubacteria)

1. Cell wall is made of peptidoglycan. 2. No histone proteins on DNA. 3. Ribosomes are inhibited by strepotomyocin and chlorampenicol (70S, 50S & 30S)

Domain Archaea

1. Cell walls are made of polysaccharides (NOT PEPTIDO), cellulose, or chitin. 2. Contain different phospholipids than bacteria and eukaryotes. (Glycerol is an isomer of bacterial glycerol. Contain ETHER linkages). 3. Contain histones. Ribsomes are not inhibited by streptomycin and chloramphenicol. (80S, 60S & 40S)

System vs Surroundings

1. Chemical Reaction we are examining. 2. Everything else around it.

Processes of genetic variation in bacteria

1. Conjugation: Use of pili to take genetic information form neighboring cell. - F plasmid: Contains genes allowing recombination with recipients chromosome. - R plasmid: Contains resistance genes. 2. Tranduction: Virus inserting genetic information into bacteria. 3. Transformation: DNA in a bacterium's environment in uptaken.

Temperature regulation

1. Cooling by evaporation (sweat) 2. Warming by metabolism (muscle contraction) 3. Adjusting surface area (Increase blood flow to areas to change overall temperature)

Ester to an aldehyde

1. DIBAL-H, -78C 2. H2O

Ways that viruses reproduce in host cells

1. DNA viruses will use host enzymes to undergo transcription and translation to produce more viruses and burst the cell. 2. RNA virsues will use their RNA as mRNA and be translated to create new viruses.] 3. Retroviruses will put their ssRNA inside the cell and use a reverse transcriptase to change their information into DNA. This can then become part of the lysogenic cycle or be transcribed and translated to create viruses and burst the cells.

Amino acid excretion

1. Direct excretion of NH3 - Fish 2. NH3 --> Urea then out - Mammals 3. Urea --> Uric Acid (Solid) - Birds

2. Cleavage

After fertilization.. 1. Zygotes undergoes "cleavage divisions" (Rapid cell divisions without cell growth - *Blastomeres" have less cytoplam as divisions occur) 2. Animal (Upper) and Vegetal (Lower) poles form. Vegetal contains more yolk (Stored food - dense) 3. Polar cleavages occur 4. Dueterostome (Indeterminate) - radial cleavages Protostome (Determinate) - spiral cleavages 5. Indeterminate cleavage (Can complete normal development), Determinate cleavage (Needs other blasomeres for development)

Oxaloacetate

After pyruvate is changed to acetyl CoA, acetyl CoA reacts with this.

Allantois

Aids in gas exchange for the embryo and metabolic waste

Can AlCl3 exist as a dimer?

AlCl3 can form a dimer Al2Cl6

Benzene Halogenation

AlCl3/Cl2 FeBr3/Br2

Williamson Ether Synthesis

Alcohol + Na/NaH/K --> Alkoxide + Alkyl Halide (Close to primary)--> Ether

Two types of anaerobic respiration

Alcohol Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation

Aldol Condensation

Aldehyde (Or Ketone) with a B-hydroxy group = Aldol 1. OH - / H2O Gives Product 2. Acid/Base - Gives En and Ketone

Friedel Crafts Alkylation

Alkyl Halide/AlCl3

Fishes

All have gills. Greatest diversity in any vertebrate.

What is true about the kinetic energy of gasses in a system at constant temperature?

All molecules in the same conditions do not have the same kinetic energy.

Which eletron geometries are non-polar with all of the same atoms attached to the central atom?

All of them - Linear - Trigonal Planar - Tetrahedral - Trigonal Bipyrimidal - Octahedral

Diamagnetic

All paired electrons (Apparently slightly repelled but not considered to react with magnetic field on the DAT)

Biosphere

All regions of the earth that contain living things

Niche

All the living and nonliving resources used by an organism in their environment.

Law of Segregation

Alleles segregate to different gametes. Making each gamete contain only 1 of each chromosome

Microarray Technology

Allows a researcher to examine many genes and determine if they are expressed in a cell.

Chorion

Allows gases to diffuse in and out and the eggs

Islets of Langerhans

Alpha cells: Glucagon Beta cells: Insulin Delta cells: Inhibit glucagon and insulin

+ΔH and -ΔS

Always +ΔG (Nonspontaneous)

-ΔH and +ΔS

Always - ΔG (Spontaneous)

Protein Components

Amino Group, Carboxyl Group, H, and R (20 Different ones)

6. Extraembryonic Membrane Development

Amniotes (Bird/reptile/human) have these formed by trophoblasts.. - Chorion: Outer membrane for gas exchange. In mammals, it implants intot endometrium and become the placenta. - Allantois: A sac that buds off from the archenteron and encircles the embryo making a layer below the chorion. Birds and reptile, it stores waste products then fuses with chorion. - Amnion: Encloses the amniotic cavity - Yolk Sac: Digests the enclosed yolk (Placental mammals obtain nutrients from placenta)

Lattice Energy

Amount of energy required to separate ionic compounds to cations and anions. [cation charge x anion charge]/[Bond Distance]

Colchicine

An alkaloid that inhibits the polymerization of microtubules

Grazer

An animal that eats grasses

Browsers

An animal that eats leaves of plants

Herbivore

An animal that eats plants

Granivore

An animal that eats seeds

Primary Producer

An autotroph that converts sun energy into chemical energy. (Plants/Chemosyntheic Bacteria)

Fetus

An embryo that resemble the infant form.

What is the intermediate when glucose tautomerizes to fructose

An enediol

Follicle

An envelope of encirciling cells to protect and nourish the developing oocyte. - Later is called the corpus luteum

Parasitoid

An insect that lays eggs in a host. The offspring then eat the tissues of the host.

Frameshift Mutation

An insertion or deletion mutation that moves all subsequent codons up one.

Saprobe

An orangism that obtains energy from dead decaying matter

Parasite

An organism that obtains energy from living tissues of a host.

equation to find the angle of a tangent and a secant #27 exam 2

Angle = (1/2)*(Angle A - Angle B)

Pseudocoelomate

Animals with organs not completely lined with mesoderm layer. - Nematoda - Rotifera

Gymnosperms

Another name for a conifer

Angiosperms

Another name for a flowering plant Divided into two groups 1. Dicotyledons (Dicots) 2. Monocotyledons (Monocots)

Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin

Antagonistic hormones that control calcium levels in the blood.

Artificial Body Defenses

Antibiotics Vaccines Passive Immunity - Passing antibodies from one to another. (Babies)

Mutation

Any sequences of nucleotides that do not match the original DNA molecule.

Transition Metals that emit color

Any transition metal with unpaired eletrons (Ex: Not Zn)

Appendicular Skeleton

Appendage bones, pectoral and pelvic girdles.

What are central chemoreceptors?

Are in the brain, and as such are protected by the blood brain barrier. CO2 can diffuse across the blood brain barrier, but H+ cannot.

What are peripheral chemoreceptors?

Are located in 'bodies' that surround the arch of the aorta and the carotid arteries (carotids are arteries that branch off the aorta).

Lumen of the thylakoid

Area where H+ accumulate

Right Atrium

Area where deoxygenated blood enters from superior and inferior vena cava.

Breakdown of vessels

Arteries --> Arterioles --> Capillaries (Exchange area) --> Venules --> Veins

Limiting Factors

Density Dependent - Factors that are more limiting as population density increases. Density Independent - Factors that are independent of population dentisty. (Natural disasters)

Haldane Effect

Deoxygenated blood increases its ability to carry CO2

Survivorship Curve Type 3

Describes a species that dies young.

Survivorship Curve Type 1

Describes a species where most live to middle age (Humans)

Survivorship Curve Type 2

Describes a species where the length of suvival is random. (Hydra)

Overall Reaction Order

Determined by adding all the individual concentration orders.

Thermodynamics

Determines IF a reaction will happen

Primary Muscles of Respiration

Diaphragm and Intercostals

What is an allotrope?

Different structural forms of the same element Ex) Graphite, Diamond, Charcoal, Buckministerfullerene

Facilitated Diffusion

Diffusion of water(aquaporin)/solutes through channel protein

Taxis

Directed movement in response to stimulus.

Somatic nervous system

Directs contraction of skeletal muscle

Calculating Rf

Distance travelled by the substance / Distance travelled by the solvent

Steam Distillation

Distilling at a temperature below the boiling point of the lower boiling component. (Usually used for perfume or flavor oils)

Diversity of Kingdom Animalia

Diversity due to... 1. Tissue complexity (Diplobastic/Triplobastic germ layers) 2. Body Symmetry (Radial/Bilateral) 3. Cephalization (Neural complexity) 4. Gastrovascualr cavity 5. Coelom (Mesoderm layer) 6. Segmentation (Body Parts) 7. Protostomes/Deuterostomes - Cleavages in orderly fashion.

Cytokinesis

Divides cytoplasm to form two cells (Breaks off plasma membrane) In plants, cell plate forms by vesicles fusing from golgi body. Cell wall then develops between membrane. In animals, microfilaments form a ring inside the plasma membrane between the two new nuclei. (Act like purse strings) Forms a "Cleavage Furrow".

Order of classification

Domain (Dumb) Kingdom (Kings) Phylum (Play) Class (Chess) Order (On) Family (Fine) Genus (Green) Species (Sand)

Types of chromosomal abberation

Duplication - Repeated segment on the same chromosome Inversion - Reverse chromosome orientation Translocation - part of 21 --> 14

Achondroplasia

Dwarfism caused by a thyroid gland disorder (Dominant)

Why DNA replication is a Semiconservative Replication?

Each strand acts as a template to create another strand. Yielding each new DNA molecule with one new DNA strand and one old DNA strand.

Heterotroph

Eat organic molecules created by autotrophs. Parasites - Obtain energy from living tissues. Saprobes - Obtain energy from decaying matter. Decomposers - Contribute to the decay of matter

Secondary Consumers (Primary Carnivores)

Eat primary consumers

Primary Consumer

Eat primary producers (Herbivores)

Tertiary Consumer (Secondary Carnivores)

Eat secondary consumers

Lewis Acid/Base

Electron acceptor - Acid Electron donor - Base

Electron Capture

Electron in an atom's inner shell is drawn into the nucleus where it combines with a proton, forming a neutron and a neutrino

Cryo-electron microscopy

Electron microscopy that the sample is frozen in liquid nitrogen. (Kills cells)

Steps of cyclic photophosphorylation

Electrons instead of being passed down to NADP+ and H+, go through en electron transport chain ending up again with photosystem I.

Stabilizing Selection

Eliminates extreme traits. (Most common become more common

Collecting Duct

Empties into renal pelvis and drains into ureter

Electron Affinity

Energy given off when an atom gains eletrons. (Exothermic reaction putting off heat) CHLORINE has highest.

Ionization Energy

Energy required to remove an eletron from an atom. (Helium has highest)

Goiter

Enlargment of thyroid gland caused by hyper/hypothyroidism.

Enolate vs Enol

Enolate - Much more reactive - No proton on O Enol - Less Reaction - Protonated O Both give same products

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Entropy Increase - The combined change in entropy of a system and its surroudings (Universe) must be positive.

Cyclin-Depedent Kinase

Enzyme that activates proteins to regulate the cell cycle by phosphorylation. (Attach to cyclin)

Pepsin

Enzyme that breaks down proteins

Isomerase

Enzyme that creates isomers

Come from ectoderm

Epidermis Brain Nervous System Adrenal medulla Mammary glands/sweat glands Eyes (sensory) Ears (sensory) Teeth enamel

Leaf structure

Epidermis (Cuticle made of cutin) Palisade Mesophyll (Parenchyml Cells for photosynthesis) Spongy Mesophyll (Parenchymal Cells to provide CO2) Guard Cells (Epidermal Cells used to open and close the stomata) Vascular Bundles (Xylem and phloem)

Stem Structure

Epidermis (Made of cutin - cuticle) Cortex (Ground tissues between vascular cylinder) Vascular Cylinder (Xylem, Pullen, and Pith)

Primary Structure of Roots

Epidermis (Produce Root Hairs) Cortex (Most of the root - Starch Storage) Endodermis (Tightly packed cells on the inner portion of the cortex) Vascular Cylinder (Makes tissues of the endodermis - Had xylem and phloem)

Dermal Tissue

Epidermis cells that cover the outside of plant parts.

Types of tissues

Epithelial (Outer skin layers) Connective (Bone, Cartilage, Blood) Nervous Muscle

Marine Biome

Estatuaries (Oceans meeting rivers) Intertidal zones (Oceans meeting land) Coral Reefs (Masses of corals that reach ocean surface) Pelagic Ocean (Deep Ocean)

Addition of HX to ethers

Ether + Acid Halide --> Ether with H (Lysis) --> Alkyl halide and alcohol - R/R' are secondary or tertiary = Sn1. - R/R' are primary = Sn2. - Excess HX gives both products - No Sn on Sp2 though

RNA polymerase types

Eukaryotes: 5 types of RNA polymerase - RNA polymerase 1: Makes rRNA to form ribosome - RNA polymerase 2: Makes - RNA polymerase 3: Synthesises rRNA and tRNA. - RNA polymerase 4: Synthesizes siRNA in plants - RNA polymerase 5: Synthesizes other siRNAs mRNA, snRNA, and miRNA Prokaryotes: 1 types

Fungi

Eukaryotic heterotrophs Contain hyphae (Collectively mycelium) Can reproduce sexually or asexually Predominately haploid. Alternate between haploid and diploid. Saphrophytic: Break down remains of dead organisms More similar to human cells Can attack human cells (Athlete's foot)

Substances that are solid at standard state

Everything except... at standard state Br2 (l) Hg2 (l) H2 (g) He (g) N2 (g) O2 (g) F2 (g) Cl2 (g) Noble Gases

Coevolution

Evolution that occurs in a predator/prey relationship creating the most fit prey and predators.

Molecular Biology

Examines nucleotide and amino acid sequence of DNA and proteins to compare to other species.

Saponification (Hydrolysis)

Excess H2O in presence of ester to change to a caboxcylic acid Basic Condition: OH- Strong base attacks Acidic Conditioh

Resting Potential

Excess Na+ Outside Cell Excess K+ Inside Cell Excess Protein (-) Inside Cell -70mV

Fischer Esterification (C. Acid to ester)

Excess alcohol in the presence of a caboxcylic acid

Seminal Vesicles

Excrete mucus, fructose, and prostaglandins during ejaculation

Flame Cells

Excretory mechanism in Platyhelminthes, these cells are along branched tube systems. They cause filtering of body fluids.

Malpighian tubules

Excretory mechanism in arthropods. Tubes attached to midgut that collect body fluids. Wastes can pass and be excreted through anus.

Nephridia

Excretory mechanism of annelid.

Monohybrid Cross

Experiment where one trait is investigated.

Dihybrid Cross

Experiment where two traits are investigated.

Incomplete Dominance

Expression of gene varies with degrees according to if it is homo/heterozygous RR = Red Rr = Pink rr = White

What pressures are equal at boiling point?

External Pressure = Vapor Pressure

Purpose of oxidative phosphorylation

Extract ATP from NADH and FADH2.

Halogen reactivity to UV light

F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

Nondisjunction

Failure of chromosomes pairs or chromatids of a single chromosome type to properly separate during meiosis/mitosis.

Meiotic Nondisjunction

Failure of two homologues (Anaphase I) or two sister chromatids (Anaphase II) to separate. - Cauing gametes to have too many/not enough chromosomes.

Nerves

Feeling - Afferent - Dorsal Root Action - Efferent - Ventral Root SAME DAVE Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent Dorsal Afferent Ventral Efferent

Hund's Rule

Fill all orbitals in subshell then you can pair electrons.

Aufbau Principle

Fill lower energy electron levels first

Processes of nephron

Filtration - Small substances pass through with RBCs and Proteins remaining in capillaries Secretion - More material passes from vessels to tubules Reabsorption - Down loop of Henle = Water Leaves, Up loop of Henle = salts leave.

Imprinting

Flexible:

Population Cycle

Fluctuations in population size in response to varying effects of limiting factors.

Mitochondrial Matrix

Fluid filled space inside inner membrane. Site of pyruvate to acetyl CoA and krebs cycle.

Enolate

Formed in alpha carbon reactions with acidic alpha hydrogen

Si-O Bond

Forms a network solid that is very strong.

Archenteron

Forms the digestive tract in the primitive gut

Products at the end of Meiosis II

Four cells with haploid chromosomes (Sister chromatids were separated from eachother like in mitosis but homologous are not present).

What are the equations for colligative properties?

Freezing point depression Tf = -(i)(Kf)(m) Boiling point elevation Tb = (i)(Kb)(m)

Fraternal

From the same father

Golgi Apparatus

Functions to package and transport vesicles

Fertilization (Syngamy)

Fusing of egg and sperm to form zygote.

Sum of quality points divided by sum of credits

GPA calculation

Ways to recognize reduction

Gaining electrons Gain bonds to hydrogen Losing bonds to oxygen Losing double/triple bonds

Phase changes that are exothermic (-H, create order)

Gas --> Liquid (Condensation) Liquid --> Solid (Crystallization) Gas --> Solid (Deposition)

Action Potential

Gated ion channels open allowing Na+ to enter cell and be depolarized. If it reaches threshold level more Na+ gates open. This causes (Blank) at about +30mV

Linked Genes

Gene that are on the same chromosome - Increases the liklihood that they will be in the same gamete. - The further the distance on the chromosome, the more likely they will be segregated. 18% crossing over = 18 Map units (Linkage Map)

Light Dependent Reactions

Generate ATP and NADPH - Take part along the thylakoid membrane.

Endotherm (Homeotherm): Warm-Blooded

Generate their own body heat

Aneuploidy

Genome with extra/missing chromosomes.

Allopatric Speciation

Geographic barrier separataing a population in two or more. Then allele frequencies change due to natural selection.

Ectoderm

Germ layer that produces all teeth

Make oxides

Germanium, sulfur, and boron react with oxygen to make oxides.

Human Impact on Biosphere

Global Climate Change Ozone Depletion Acid Rain Desertification Deforestation Pollution Reduction in species diversity

Hormones from the adrenal cortex

Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids - Role in producing androgens

G3P

Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate (Used to create sugars and regenerate RuBP)

Second-Order Graph

Graph of 1/[concentration]

Zero-Order Graph

Graph of [concentration]

First-Order Graph

Graph of ln[concentration]

Savanna

Grasslands with scattered trees High temperature with less water

Connective Tissue

Ground Substance: Collagen Proteins: Osteocytes

Community

Group of populations in an area

Population

Group of the SAME SPECIES living in the same area.

Tropism

Growth pattern in response to an environmental stimulus

Gravitropism

Growth pattern in response to gravity by stem and roots. - Starch-stored plastids called statoliths.

Phototrophism

Growth pattern in response to light. - Acheived by the action of auxin.

Thigmotropism

Growth pattern in response to touch

Logistic Growth

Growth that occurs when limiting factors restrict the size of the population. (S-Shaped curve)

Exponential Growth

Growth that occurs when the reproductive rate is greater than zero. (J-Shaped Curve)

Bronsted-Lowry Acid/Base

H+ donor - Acid H+ acceptor - Base

Arrhenius Acid/Base

H+ donor in water - Acid OH- donor in water - Base

Substances that are gases at standard state

H2 He N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Noble Gases

Catalytic Hydrogenation

H2/Pd Can reduce double bonds and can break open cyclobutane and cyclopropane rings

H2C=O (g) + HCl (g) ⇌ H3C-O-Cl (g) ∆H = +256 kJ Remove H2C=O Remove HCl Remove Heat Add H3C-O-Cl Decrease Pressure Increase Volume

H2C=O (g) + HCl (g) ⇌ H3C-O-Cl (g) ∆H = +256 kJ Shift Left

H2C=O (g) + HCl (g) ⇌ H3C-O-Cl (g) ∆H = +256 kJ Add H2C=O Add HCl Add Heat Remove H3C-O-Cl Increase Pressure Decrease Volume

H2C=O (g) + HCl (g) ⇌ H3C-O-Cl (g) ∆H = +256 kJ Shift Right

Dehydration of alcohols

H2SO4/H3PO4 Concentrated - Carbocation rearrangement

Amide to carboxcylic acid

H3O+ and Heat

Ester to carboxcylic acid

H3O+ and heat

Diazonium salt to phenol

H3O+ or EtOH

Diazonium salt to hydrogen

H3PO2

Diazonium salt to fluorine

HBF4

Diazonium salt from aniline

HCl/NaNO2

Strong Acids (7)

HI - Binary Acid - Monoprotic HCl - Binary Acid - Monoprotic HBr - Binary Acid - Monoprotic HNO3 - Monoprotic H2SO4 - Polyprotic HClO3 - Monoprotic HClO4 - Monoprotic

Benzene Nitration

HNO3, H2SO4

Gametophye

Haploid multicellular plant structure

Dikaryon

Haploid nucleus of a fungus

Properties of a covalent network

Hard High melting point Non-Conductive

Properties of Metallic Bonding

Hardness High melting point Conductive of electricity

Paramagnetic

Has unpaired electrons Attracted to magnetic field Odd number of electrons (Even can also be true but odd is for sure)

Oxyacid Trends

Have at least one oxygen and another element 1. The more oxygens, the more acidic (Resonance). (HClO4 > HClO3) 2. If # of oxygen atoms is the same. The more electronegative heteroatom wins (HClO4 > HBrO4)

Collenchyma Cells

Have thick but flexible cell walls (Mechanical Support)

Isoelectronic

Having the same number of electrons as another element. O-2 F-1 Ne Na+1 Mg+2

Cerebellum

Helps coordinate/refine movement

Part of bile production

Heme --> Bilirubin --> Liver --> Bile --> Gallbladder --> Duodenum

Markovnikov ketone addition to alkyne

HgSO4, H2SO4, H2O

Frontal Lobe

High order functions like planning, reasoning, motor cortex, and judgement occur in this part of the cerebrum

Tropical Rain Forest

High temperature Heavy Rainfall Trees for vegetation

Tropic Hormones

Hormones released that stimulate other glands to release a hormone.

Deserts

Hot and Dry Growth of plants annually for short periods Thick skinned animals

Entropy

How disordered something is.

Population Dispersion

How individuals in a population are distributed.

Fatty Acid

Hydrocarbon chain attached to a carboxcylic acid (-COOH)

Secondary Messengers

IP3 (inositol triphosphate) Diacylglyerol (DAG) Cyclic AMP (cAMP) Cyclic GMP (cGMP) Ca++

Carbonyl Reactions

If H or C are on the sides of the ketone they can not be taken off by dropping down the electrons Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones

Anchorage Dependence

If a cell isn't properly anchored to a surface, it won't divide.

Aromatic effects on acidity

If it creates an aromatic ring it increases acidity

Aromatic effects on Sn1

If the halogen leaving produces an aromatic compound, it increases the rate.

Complete Dominance

If the one allele is present in the genotype, it expresses dominace fully.

Osteoid

Immature bone that has unmineralized collagen fibers.

Common Ion Effect

In an ICE table problem, adding a common ion Cl- for PbCl2 can reduce solubility.

Location of mitosis

In an adult, somatic cells (Except sperm/Egg, muslce, and nerve cells)

Protostome

In development, blastopore forms the mouth, and where embryonic cleavage is spiral and determinate. - Porifera - Cnidarian - Platyheminthes - Nematoda - Annelida - Mollusca - Arthropoda

Deuterostome

In development, the blastopore forms the anus, and where embryonic cleavage is radial and indeterminate.

Contractile Vacuoles

In excretory mechanism in cytoplasm of protists, these accumulate water, merge with plasma membrane, and release water into the environment.

X-Inactivation

In females, when one of the X chromosomes does not uncoil into chromatin (Barr body). Causes X linked diseases to more easily effect women. - Sometimes is splotchy throughout their bodies. - Sometimes is general

Kingdom Plantae

In order of increasing land adaptation 1. Bryophytes 2. Lycophyta 3. Pterophyta 4. Coniferophyta 5. Anthophyta BLP CA

Storage Vacuole

In plants, store pigment, starch, and toxins

Sertoli cells

In seminiferous tubules, these provide nourishment to the spermatids until they become mature sperm.

Contractile Vacuole

In single celled organisms, these pump and collect excess water.

Higher Intermolecular forces toward bp, Hvap, Viscosity, Surface Tension, and Vapor pressure.

Increase Boiling Point Increase Heat of Vaporization Increase Viscosity Increase Surface Tension Decrease Vapor Pressure

Density of a gas

Increase Pressure Increase Molar Mass Decrease Temperature INCREASE Density

Heat of combustion trend

Increase branching decrease heat of combustion

Boiling Point Trend for Branching

Increase branching, decrease boiling point.

Human Population Growth Occurred Due To...

Increase in Food Supply Reduction in Disease Reduction of Wastes Expansion of Habitat

Effect of an increase of moles of ions in solution (Osmosis)

Increase osmotic pressure

Effect of temperature increase on solubility (Solids)

Increase solubility

Increase ksp

Increase solubility

Effect of pressure increase on solubility (gases)

Increase solubility Henry's Law Pressure of Sample = (Constant)x[concentration of gas]

Ways to make ΔG negative

Increase/Decrease Temperature!

Hyperthyroidism

Increased metabolic rate, sweating.

Atomic Radius/Metallic Character Trend

Increases down group and left on period.

Aldosterone

Increases reabsorption of water and Na+ - Secretes K+ - Mineralocorticoid Hormone - Produced in adrenal cortex

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Increases reabsorption of water this in turn increases concentration of salts in urine. - Prevents diuresis (Urine Production)

Ionization Energy/Electron Affinity/Nonmetallic Character Trend

Increases up a group and right on period.

Stomata

Influence gas exchange, transpiration, ascent of sap, and photosynthesis. Close in high temperature Open when concentration of CO2 is low Close at night and open in the day

Mendelian Inheritance

Inheritance from parents to child

Oubain or Digitalis

Inhibit the sodium potassium pump

Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Inhibitor neurotransmitter among brain neurons

Three steps of Transcription

Initiation: When RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region (TATA box) and begins to unzip the DNA. Elongation: RNA polymerase assembled RNA nucleotides using one strand of the DNA as a template. Termination: When RNA polymerase reaches a termination point (often AAAAAAA)

Instinct

Innate Behavior

Natural Killer Cells

Innate immunity - Similar to cytotoxic T cells - Release Perforin (Lyses cells) - Release Granzymes (Protease to make cell apoptosis)

Solubility of Ag+ (Silver)

Insoluble

Solubility of CO3 2- (Carbonate)

Insoluble

Solubility of Hg2 2+ (Mercury)

Insoluble

Solubility of OH- (Hydroxide)

Insoluble

Solubility of PO4 3- (Phosphate)

Insoluble

Solubility of Pb2+ (lead)

Insoluble

Solubility of S2- (Sulfide)

Insoluble

Fixed Action Patterns (FAP)

Instinctual processes (Unvarying pattern of behavior) Can not be stopped until action is completed

Cancellous layer of bone

Internal layer of bone containing bone marrow

During what stage of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

Interphase (S)

Humoral Response

Involves most cells. B cells produce plasma cells and memory cells.

Strongest to weakest intermolecular forces

Ion-diploe Dipole-dipole Hydrogen Bonding London Dispersion (Van Der Waals

Successive Ionization Energy

Ionization Energy INCREASES with each successive ionization energy.

Cytochromes

Iron containing non-protein parts of the electron transport chain

R-Selected Species

J-Shaped Curve quickly invade a habitat, quickly reproduce, and then die.

Repolarization

K+ flows out of the cell to cause this movement toward negative potential.

Photoelectric Effect

KE(Electron) = E(Photon) - Work function

+ΔG Keq?

Keq < 1 ΔG?

ΔG = 0 Keq?

Keq = 1 ΔG?

-ΔG Keq?

Keq > 1 ΔG?

Keq for forward = 10 = [Prod]/[React] Reverse?

Keq for reverse = 1/10 = [React]/[Prod] Forward?

If Keq = 20 what is Keq rev?

Keq rev = 1/20 what is Keq Fwd?

Keto-enol tautomerization

Keto form is preferred 99.9% over enol

Cyanobacteria

Known as blue-green algae Can fix nitrogen Are autotrophic Are photosynthetic (NOT anaerobic)

Acoelomate

Lack of coelom - Porifera - Cnidarian - Platyheminthes

Bird Development

Large bird egg with cleavages occurring in flattened disk shapes on top of yolk (BLASTODISC). Gastrulation causes invagination along a line called a PRIMITIVE STREAK.

Liver

Largest internal organ

Temperate Grasslands

Less Water Lower Temperature

Strong Bases

LiOH NaOH KOH RbOH CsOH FrOH Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Sr(OH)2 Ba(OH)2

Microtubule Organizing Centers (MTOC)

Lie outside the nuculus during interphase. - In animals, contain centrioles.

230 million years ago - 65 million years ago

Life range of the dinosaurs

Light Independent Reactions (Dark Reactions)

Light must be present for dark reactions to be possible because we need ATP and NADPH for this to occur. - Synthesis of glucose - Take place in chloroplast stroma

Cis Hydrogenation of Alkyne

Lindlars Catalyst/H2

Smooth Muscle

Lines blood vessels and digestive tract to move substances throughout body. - UN-striated - No T-Tubules

Peripheral chemoreceptor

Located in "bodies" that surround the aortic arch and sinuses or carotid arteries.

ATP Synthase

Located on inner mitochondrial membrane. (Eukaryotic) Phosphorylates ADP to ATP from energy of H+ gradient.

Metaphase Plate

Location along the center of the cell where the chromosomes line up.

Thymus

Location of T-cell maturation

Thylakoid Membrane

Location of light dependent reactions of photosynthesis

Epiphyseal Plate

Location of secondary bone growth. - Covered in hyaline cartilage

Oviduct (Fallopian Tube)

Location where eggs move from ovary to the uterus.

Vagina

Location where fetus passes through during birth.

Uterus

Location where the fertilized ovum implants (On the endometrium)

Migration

Long-distance seasonal movement of animals

Memory B Cells

Long-lived B cells to fight future infection

Ways to recognize oxidation

Losing electrons Lose bonds to hydrogen Gaining bonds to oxygen Gaining double/triple bonds

Monosomy

Loss of a chromosome

Extinction (Learning)

Loss of an acquired behavior

Hypothyroidism

Low heart rate, low respiratory rate, and low metabolism

Properties of molecular bonds

Low melting point Soft Non-conductive

What is the pH of a .0005M HF solution? (Ka = 5.0 x 10^-4)

Lower than 3.5 pH

Right lung

Lung that is larger and contains 3 lobes.

Left Lung

Lung that is smaller and contains 2 lobes

Units for a second order reaction

M^-1 s^-1

Units for a zero order reaction

M^1 s^-1

Thick Filaments

Made of myosin

Periderm

Made up of the cork, cork cambium, and phelloderm.

In 6 of the steps, what is a cofactor to promote enzyme activity?

Magnesium Ions (Mg2+)

ml quantum number

Magnetic quantum number Specific orbital (Orientation in space)

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)

Maintains the corpus luteum from degenerating

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a stable internal condition (Within narrow limits)

Hypothalamus

Major connection between brain and endocrine system.

Gamma aminobutyric acid

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter - Increases Chloride - Increases K+ flow out

Myosin

Make up thick filaments

Actin

Make up thin filaments

square in an inequality

Makes it wearing any quality can have one value on both sides of X in an inequality

Monotreme

Mammal that lays eggs

Polygenic Inheritance

Many genes affecting a certain phenotype (Height)

Biotic Potential

Maximum growth rate of a population with unlimited resources and without growth restrictions.

Carrying Capacity

Maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained in a particular habitat.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM)

Measurement of the time it fluoresence appears after irradiation of a membrane. - Quantitative measure of ions, molecules, and gases in a cell.

Holobastic/Meroblastic Cleavage

Merobastic Cleavage: Occurs in monotremes (Egg layers), birds, fish, and reptiles.

Electrical Conductor Trend

Metals > Non-Metals

AUG

Methionine - State Codon

Circle with an angle in middle and outside #29 exam 2

Middle angle is double outer angle

What is the work function (Photoelectric Effect)?

Minimum amount of energy required to ionize an electron.

Endosymbiotic Theory

Mitochondria, Chloroplats, and other organelles took resident in a prokaryote. Evidence: Mitochondria/Chloroplasts have their own naked, circular DNA They reproduce independently of the cell. They have the similar ribosomes as bacteria and cyanobacteria They have two membranes (Second probably developed by endocytosis) Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble membranes of cyanobacteria.

Molality

Moles of solute/kg of solvent Used for colligative properties

Parenchymal Cells

Most common component of ground tissue - Thin walls - Serve as storage, photosynthesis, and secretion

Crystallization

Most important method for purifying sold organic products

Digestion process in humans

Mouth (Salivary se): Bolus --> Pharynx --> Esophagus --> Stomach (Pepsin and HCl to store, mix chyme, break down) --> Small Intestine (Aminopeptidase, Maltase, Lactase - villi and microvilli) --> Large Intestine (Reabsorption of water)

Sugar transport

Movement of carbohydrates through the phloem from a source (leaves) to a sink (Location of utilization) - Pressure-Flow Hypothesis

(Simple) Diffusion

Movement of solute/water from higher concentration to lower concentration across membrane without protein.

Sporophyte

Multicellular diploid plant structure (Actual Plant)

Coenocytic

Multiple nuclei in a single cell (No septa)

Come from mesoderm

Muscle Skeleton Blood system Gonads Spleen Kidneys Adrenal cortex

Types of symbiosis

Mutualism - Both species benefit Commensalism - One species benefits, One species is unharmed Parasitism - One species benefits, one species is harmed

Schwann Cells

Myelin sheath of peripherial nervous system. (Contain nodes of ranvier that perform saltatory conduction of impluses)

Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria

N2 --> NH4

Nitrifying Bacteria

NH4+ --> NO2- --> NO3- (Used by plants)

Reaction between HNO3 and H2SO4

NO2+ and HSO4- and H2O

Trans Hydrogenation of Alkyne

Na or Li/NH3 Cold

Strong Oxidizing Reagents

Na2Cr2O7/H2SO4 KMnO4/OH (Hot/Conc) - Changes primary to carboxcylic acid - Only primary/secondary carbons

Uniqueness of water phase diagram

Negative solid-liquid line. (Solid is less dense than liquid)

Vapor Pressure Depression Equation (Raoult's Law)

New vapor pressure = (mole fract)x(Pure Vap Press) + (mole fract)x(Pure Vap Press) .......

Ionization Energy/Electron Affinity Trend Exceptions

Nitrogen Beryllium Beryllium has a full 2s2 subshell, and Nitrogen has half full 2p3 subshell.

Initiation Halogenation Step

No radicals on left All radicals on right

Pauli Exclusion Principle

No two electrons can have the same quantum numbers.

1×10-2 M Cu(NO3)2 was added to NaIO3 to a final concentration of 6.0×10-3. Does a precipitate form? (Ksp of Cu(IO3)2 = 3.6 × 10-6)

No. Find Qsp then compare to Ksp. If it is smaller, no precipitate. Qsp < Ksp If it is larger, precipitate. Qsp > Ksp

Cofactor

Nonprotein that assists an enzyme (apoenzyme when part of complex) to create a holoenzyme.

Melting Point Trend for Branching

Normal>most branched>second most>single branched

What is the Bohr model of the atom?

Nucleus with higher and higher energy levels (n) as circles

Phosphates

Nutrients for many plants that can decrease O2 in water. (Eutrophication)

Bohr Effect

O2 binding affinity dereases under low pH conditions (High CO2)

Ectotherm (Poikilotherm): Cold-Blooded

Obtain body heat from their environment.

Michael Addition

Occurs with weaker nucleophiles R2CuLi (Organocuprate) Sulfides HNR2 C=N Alpha carbon nucleophile NOT Grignard NaBH4 LiAlH4

Heartwood

Old xylem listed at the center of the stem for support.

Antibodies

On the surface of some B-Cells. Contain 5 different classes IgD, IgA, IgG, IgM, and IgE Made in a Y shape

Food Chain

One chain of who eats who

Monocot

One cotyledon Fibrous Roots Parallel Veins Scattered Vascular Tissue Floral Organs (In 3s)

Allele

One of several variations of a gene

Lamella

One of the bony layers around the haversian canal.

Directional Selection

One side of extremes is selected against (Pushes to other extreme)

Elementary Reaction aA + bB -->< cC + dD

One step of the larger reaction. aA + bB -->< cC + dD m = a n = b

K-Selected Species

One whose population size remains relatively constant. Produce a small number of relatively large offspring that require extensive parental care until they mature. Reproduction occurs repeatedly during their lifetimes

Allium

Onion cells (Large chromosomes that stain dark.)

Mitotic Nondisjuction Issues (Result in Mosaicism)

Only occur during embryonic development, causing a fraction of the cells to contain too many/not enough chromosomes.

Open vs. Closed circulatory system

Open (Insects and Mollusks): Pump blood into an internal cavity (Hemocoel - sinuses) to be bathed in hemolymph. Pass through ostia (Holes) to return to the heart. Closed (Annelida and veretebrates): Blood is confined to vessels.

Countercurrent Exchage

Opposite bulk flow transferring materials

Ovary

Organ where the ova (Eggs) are produced.

B Cells

Originate and develop in bone marrow Response to antigens with antibodies.

T Cells

Originate in bone marrow and develop in thymus gland. Use MHC markers to distinguish between self and non-self

Water transport to plants

Osmosis Capillary Action Cohesion/Tension

Intramembranous ossification

Ossification for skull, pelvis, and rib cage. (Created within a fibrous membrane)

Anatomy of the ear

Outer ear: Tympanic membrane Middle Ear: Malleus, incus, and stapes --> oval window Inner Ear: Cochlea (Round window allows for expansion of cochlea. - Semicircular canals: Movment bends nerve endings.

Cortical layer of bone

Outer layer of bone that is hard and dense - Osteons are building blocks (Haversian system)

Trophoblast

Outer layer of the embryo that will form the developing embryo's contribution to the placenta

Ag(NH3)2+ (Tollen's Reagent) OR 1. Ag2O, OH- 2. H3O+

Oxidize aldehyde to carboxcylic acid - Also works on Alpha-hydroxyketones Good test to detect aldehydes.

What is the most abundant element in the human body?

Oxygen

Left Atrium

Oxygenated blood enters here from the pulmonary veins.

Wavelengths of photosystem II

P680 (Captures light through chlorophyll A) - Powerful oxidizer to H2O (Photolysis - Splitting water)

Wavelengths of photosystem I

P700

Mild Oxidizing Reagents

PCC/PDC - Changes primary to aldehyde - Only primary/secondary carbons

Steps of Mitosis

PMAT Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Bowman's Capsule

Part of Kidney - Renal Artery flows into this and blood passes through glomerulus to filter then exits through efferent arteriole.

Limbic System

Part of the brain responsible for emotion/memory

3rd Law of Thermodynamics

Perfect Crystal at 0K = 0 entropy

Tundras

Permafrost Winters are very cold

Telomerase

Perserves the end of eukaryotic chromosomes

Second line of pathogenic defense

Phagocytes, Complement, Interferon, Inflammation.

Substrate Level Phosphorylation

Phosphate group and the energy are transferred to ADP with a substrate molecule.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Phosphate group is added to ADP to create ATP but the energy comes from elsewhere. (Electrons in electron transport chain supply energy to generate H+ gradient which supplies energy to generate ATP)

PGA

Phosphoglyceric acid

Rods

Photoreceptors that dectect low light levels.- Contain rhodopsin

Cones

Photoreceptors that detect color

Cell Walls in Different Organisms

Plants - Cellulose (B-Glucose) Fungi - Chitin (B-Glucose with nitrogen group in place of -OH) Bacteria - Peptidoglycan

Differences in Plant and Animal cells

Plants - Contain cell walls and central vacuoles. Do not have centrioles, lysosomes, cholesterol. (Plasmodesmata for Gap junction)

Sarcolemma

Plasma membrance of muscle cell with Transverse tubules (T-Tubules)

Episomes

Plasmids that can become incorporated into the bacterial genome.

Fresh Water Biome

Ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers

Stomata

Pores found in the bottom on leaves. - Site of atmospheric gas exchange

Nucleosome

Portion of DNA bound to histone protein

Epiblast

Portion of birds, reptiles, and mammals that forms a primitive streak

What are the pre and post ganglionic receptors for the parasympathetic nervous system?

Pre - Acetylcholine (Long) Post - Acetylcholine (Short) - Cholinergic Receptor Ganglia Location: At or near effector organ

What are the pre and post ganglionic receptors for the sympathetic nervous system?

Pre - Acetylcholine (Short) Post - Norepinephrine or Epinephrine (Long) - Adrenergic Receptor Ganglia Location: Just outside spinal chord - Can synapse to adrenal medulla

Coevolution

Predator and prey evolving according to one another

Progeria

Premature aging due to a thyroid gland disorder (Recessive)

Gas Density

PressurexMolar Mass/RT

Different protein structures

Primary - Amino Acid Sequence Secondary (Fibrous) - Hydrogen Bonds (Alpha-Helix, or Beta-Pleated) Tertiary (Globular) - Hydrogen Bonds, Hydrophobic interactions, Disulfide Bonds (Cysteine to Cysteine), Ionic Bonding. Quaternary - Several peptides together

Primary Growth vs Secondary Growth

Primary Growth: Primary xylem and phloem develop at apical meristem. Actively dividing cells increase shoot/root. Secondary Growth:

Lymphocytes

Primary agents in the immune response.

n quantum number

Principle quantum number Represents shells (Periods)

Changing alcohol to tosylate

R-OH + TsCl (Pyridine Solv) --> R-OTs - Better leaving group - No inversion of stereochemistry

Nuclides with atomic numbers greater than 83

Radioactive and unstable

Genetic Drift

Random increase/decrease in alleles Founder Effect: Migrating individuals don't have same allele frequencies of their previous population. Bottleneck: Dramatic Decrease in size changing allele frequencies

Adaptive Radiation

Rapid evolution of a species from a single ancestor (Ancestral species placed in colonbizable location.)

NO (g) + NO (g) --> N2O2 (g) - Fast N2O2 (g) + Cl2 (g) --> 2NOCl (g) - Slow What is rate law expression?

Rate = k[NO]^2[Cl2] Cl2 is not an intermediate

Oxygen Group (Chalcogens)

React with metals to form metal oxides

Keq < 1

Reactants Favored (Keq)

Qc > Kc

Reactants Favored (Qc/Kc)

Central Chemoreceptors

Receptors in the CNS. - Effect blood brain barrier

Cytotoxic (Killer) T Cells

Recognize and destroy non-self cells by puncturing them.

Parts of blood

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) Platelets (For clotting - Fibrinogen) Plasma (Liquid)

Most abundant blood cell type

Red blood cells

H2/PdC

Reduces Alkenes/Alkynes

Clemmensen Reduction

Reduces a ketone/aldehyde to a hydrogen. (Especially side chain to benzene.) 1. Sn/HCl 2. OH- works also

1. LiAlH4 2. H30+

Reduces aldehydes, ketones (Secondary), acid chlordies, acid anhydrides, esters, nitriles (amines), amides (amine), and carboxcylic acids.

1. NaBH4 (Source of hydrides), EtOH 2. H30+

Reduces aldehydes, ketones (Secondary, acid chlorides, and acid anhydrides.

Wolff Kishner

Reduces ketone/aldehyde to a hydrogen (Using nitrogen) H2-N-N-H2 / OH-

Degeneracy of the genetic code

Refers to the redundancy of the amino acid code.

Mechanisms of gene expression in eykaryotes

Regulatory Proteins: Repressors and Activators. Nucleosome Packing: - Methylation causes tightly bound nucleosome preventing transcription. - Acetylation causes loosely bound nucleosome promoting transcription. RNA interference: short interfereing RNA (siRNA).

Arrhenius equation

Relates that a reactions rate (Ea and collisions) is directly to k.

Thalamus

Relay center of the brain - Receives sensory, motor, visual, and auditory stimulus and routes it to other areas in the brain

Ovulation

Release of secondary oocyte from the follicle. - If fertilized then it will move on to meiosis 2.

Epinephrine (Adrenaline)/Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

Released from adrenal medulla to stimulate blood vessels/liver/heart to increase blood glucose and constrict.

Growth Hormone (GH)

Released from anterior pituitary to stimulate bone/muscle to grow. (Non-Tropic)

Prolactin (PRL)

Released from anterior pituitary to stimulate mammary glands to produce milk. (Non-Tropic)

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Released from anterior pituitary to target ovaries/testes to regulate gametes. (Tropic) - Causes ovarian follicles to develop - In males, FiSH (Sperm swimming)

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Released from anterior pituitary to target ovaries/testes to regulate gametes. (Tropic) - Causes ovulation and development of the corpus luteum. - Estrogen promotes LH releasing. - In males, LH large and hairy (Act on leydig cells to release testosterone)

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Released from anterior pituitary to target the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids. (Tropic)

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Released from anterior pituitary to target the thyroid to secrete T4 and T3. (Tropic)

Insulin

Released from pancreas to stimulate liver/muscle/fat to lower blood glucose.

Glucagon

Released from pancreas to stimulate the liver to increase blood glucose.

Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)

Released from posterior pituitary to target kidneys to reabsorb more water

Oxytocin

Released from posterior pituitary to target mammary glands to stimulate release of milk.

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Releases "Releasing Hormones" or tropic hormones F (FSH) L (LH) A (ACTH) T (TSH) P (Prolactin) i G (Growth Hormone)

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Releases.. ADH - Oxytocin -

Phosphatatse

Removes a phosphate from something.

Deletion Mutation

Removing a nucleotide from the DNA sequence.

DNA Polymerase I

Replaces RNA primers with DNA nucleotides

Cork Cambium

Replaces shed epidermis

Substitution Mutation

Replacing one nucleotide with another

Fungi Asexual Reproduction

Reproduction via.. - Fragmentation (breaking hyphae) or - Budding (Pinching off of hyphal outgrowth) or - Asexual Spores (Sporangiospores-Saclike capsules/Conidia- Forms at tips of hyphae)

Nitrogen Cycle

Reservoir: Atmosphere (N2), Soil (NH4+, NH3, NO2-, NO3-) Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrogen (NH4+ or NO3-). Animals obtain nitrogen through eating plants or animals. Assimilation Stages 1. Nitrogen Fixation - N2 is converted to NH4+ by nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes. N2 is converted to NO3- by lightning or UV radiation. 2. Nitrification - NH4+ is converted to NO2- and NO2- is converted to NO3- by nitrifying bacteria. Release: Denitrifying bacteria converty NO3- to N2 (Denitrification). Also organic compound are converted into NH4+.

Carbon Cycle

Reservoir: Atmosphere, fossil fuels, peat, and organic material. Assimilation: Plants use CO2 in photosynthesis. (Animals consume plants) Release: Plants and animals respirate and decompose. (Also burning)

Hydrologic Cycle (Water)

Reservoir: Oceans, Air, Groundwater, and Glaciers Assimilation: Plants absorb water from soil and animals drink water Release: Plants and animals decompose.

Phosphorus Cycle

Reservoir: Rocks and ocean sediments Assimilation: Plants absorb phosphate from soils. Animals eat plants. Release: Plants and animals release phorphorus when they decompose

Photoperiodism

Response of plants to changes in photoperiod (Length of daylight and night). - Circadian rhythm

RuBP

Ribulose Bisphosphate (Combines with CO2 to create 12 PGA)

Resource Partitioning

Species coexisting in spite of competition for the same resources. (Different locations for finding same resources.)

Catalyst

Speeds up reaction rate but is not consumed in the reaction. Can be reused.

Parts of the sperm

Sperm Head - Haploid nucules with 23 chromosomes Acrosome - Tip of head that contains lysozymes to penetrate the egg. Midpiece - Consists a flagellum with 9 + 2 microtubule array. Tail - Performs whiplike-motion to move cell.

Gamete

Sperm or Egg with a haploid get of chromosomes - Pollen for plants

ms quantum number

Spin quantum number Represents up or down spin

Photolysis

Splitting of water - Occurs in the *lumen of the thylakoid*

Meiosis for plants

Spores are then end product - Spores are haploid cells that divide by mitosis to form a gametophyte (Muticellular haploid structure). Mommy and Daddy cells seem to do this then come together to form next step. - The gametes then fuse and produce a diploid cell that grows by mitosis (Sporophyte).

[H+] = Equilibrium Shortcut

Sqr(Ka*[HA])

[OH-] = Equilibrium Shortcut

Sqr(Kb*[A-])

Embryonic Cleavage

Stage of rapid cell division with decreasing cell size.

Middle Lamella

Sticky cement that attached adjacent plant cells one to another.

Interferon

Stimulate neighboring cells to produce proteins against viruses.

Helper T Cells

Stimulate proliferation of B cells and cytotoxic T cells

Corticotropin Releasing Hormone

Stimulates release of ACTH - From the hypothalamus

Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone

Stimulates release of throid stimulating hormone - From the hypothalamus

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrtete FSH and LH.

Come from endoderm

Stomach lining Bladder lining Respiratory lining PLTT Pancreas Liver Tyroid + Parathyroid Thymus

UGA UAG UAA

Stop Codons

Cotyledon

Storage tissue that provides nutrition to the develoiping seedling

Increase Ka Decrease pKa

Stronger Acid (Ka/pKa)

Centrosome

Structure where spindle fibers of metaphase and anaphase of mitosis/meiosis emerge. - Help in cell structure with microtubules. - Made of two centrioles (90 degrees from eachother)

Primary Sex Characteristics

Structures directly involved in reproduction (Ovaries, testes, uterus)

Homologous structures

Structures that might perform the same function but have the same ancestry.

Analogous Structures

Structures that perform the same function that are on animals with different ancestry

Palentology

Study of fossils that reveal existence of extinct species. Deeper the fossil, the older.

Biogeography

Study of how geography shows the distribution of a species. (Unrelated species in different areas containing similar appearance)

Ecology

Study of the abundance of organisms, their interactions with other organisms and the environment.

What substances are the strongest reducing agents?

Substances with the most negative Ereduction

Point Mutation

Substitution Insertion Deletion Frameshift

Types of Point Mutations

Substitution - Sickle Cell Deletion Insertion

3. Morula

Successive cleavage divisions making a solid ball

-ocarp

Suffix for fungus that is a fruiting body.

Intermediate Filament

Support to maintain shape of the cell (Anchor) - Made of keratin

Guard Cells

Surround the stomata and control its opening and closing

S in ribosomal measurements

Svedberg unit, How readily something forms sediment in a centrifuge.

Symmetry and IR

Symmetrical structures do not absorb on an IR

Rough ER

Synthesizes glycoproteins by attaching polysaccharide to protein.

Cell-Mediated Response

T cell response to any nonself cell. Produce C-T cells Produce helper T-cells Helper-T binds to Macrophages Helper-T binds to interleukins

Dermis

Tattoos puncture into this..

Triple Point (Phase Diagram)

Temp/Pressure point where all three phases are in equilibrium

Critical Point (Phase Diagram)

Temp/Pressure point where liquids and gases are indistinguishible (Line no longer exists)

2, 4-DNP

Test to find carbonyl groups

Elementary Steps

The

Empirical Rule

The 68%-95%-99% rule 68% of normal distributed population is within 1 standard deviation of the mean 95% of normal distributed population is within 2 standard deviation of the mean 99.7% of normal distributed population is within 3 standard deviation of the mean

Gene

The DNA that has the instructions for a particular trait

K value on a graph

The absolute value of the slope (Right by x) of the equation of the graph with a straight line.

Territoriality

The active possession and defense of a territory that an animal lives.

Natural Selection

The adaptations of a species due to pressures from the environment. (Increases beneficial traits, decreases unbeneficial traits.) - Reproductive potential, population size is stable, resources are limited, species compete for survival, variation among individuals, variation is heritable.

Enthalpy

The amount of heat-energy a substance contains.

A Glycosidic linkage?

The bond between two sugars.

Synaptonemal Complex

The combined events of... Synapsis Tetrads/Bivalents Chiasmata Crossing Over

Monera

The current kingdom shared by bacteria and archaea

Telomere

The end of an eukaryotic chromosome.

Feedback Inhibition (Allosterics)

The ending product of a reaction prevents the production of more product.

Phenotype

The expression of a trait from a gene

(Spiral) Determinate Cleavage

The fate of the cell (ie. what that cell can develop into) is set or determined early on.

Capacitation

The final step in sperm maturation that happens in the female reproductive tract. (Before Acrosome reaction and fertilization)

Synaptic Cleft

The gap that separates adjacent neurons

Third line of pathogenic defense

The immune response. Attacks specific antigens.

Hydroxyapatite

The inorganic part of bone made of calcium phosphate and hydroxyl groups.

Locus

The location on a chromosome where a gene is located.

Hybrid Cross

The mating of things expressing different traits.

Law of Independent Assortment

The migration of one pair of homologues to different poles doesn't effect the migration of another pair of homologues.

Which alpha carbon is more acidic in alpha carbon reactions?

The more substituted alpha carbon (Use LDA [Big Bulky] to deprotonate the less substituted)

Fundamental Niche

The niche an organism occupys when competitors are not present

Realized Niche

The niche an organism occupys when competitors are present.

Half Equivalence Point is equal to?

The pH of a given substance

Genotype

The part of chromosome that codes for a trait (Ex: Pp)

Megakaryocytes

The precursor cell to platelets

Protein Synthesis

The process showing how proteins/enzymes are made from DNA.

Integrated Rate Law

The rate law equations incorporating time.

In an electrolytic cell...

The reaction at the anode (+) is oxidation AN OX The reaction at the cathode (-) is reduction RED CAT The flow of electrons goes from anode to cathode FAT Cat From ANODE TO CATHODE The reaction is non-spontaneous

In a galvanic cell

The reaction at the anode (-) is reduction The reaction at the cathode (+) is oxidation The flow of electrons goes from anode to cathode FAT Cat From anode to cathode

Surface tension

The reason why liquids form a spherical shape

Operator

The region in an operon that, if bound by a repressor protein, will prevent RNA polymerase from transcribing

TLC plate (Silica Gel)

The silica gel is polar and the solvent (hexane) is nonpolar. Therefore, the more polar, the less a substance moves

RNA polymerase holoenzyme

The structure when RNA polymerase is bound to sigma factor.

Chemical Kinetics

The study of how fast reactions occur (Reaction Rate)

Taxonomy vs. Phylogeny

The study of organism classification by phylogeny. Study of evolutionary relationships.

Wobble

The third base pairing on the nucleotide of the tRNA and the mRNA (Not always required)

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

The total pressure is the combination of all the partial pressures. You can find an individual partial pressure if you know the mole fraction. Mol fraction of certain gasxTotal Pressure = Partial Pressure Exerted by a certain gas.

Habitat

The type of place where an organism usually lives

Chemical Communication

The use of pheromones to cause behavioral changes (Releaser [behavior] and primer [physiological])

Tactile Communication

The use of touch to communicate.

Parthenogensis

The viability of a unfertilized egg

Ecosystem

The way organisms interact with their physical environment

Methanol (l) ΔH > Methanol (g) ΔH

The ΔH for liquid states are higher than gas because we need more heat IN (endothermic) our molecule for it to stay gaseous.

Alpha Cells (Pancreas)

These cells produce glucagon to increase blood sugar levels AG

Beta Cells (Pancreas)

These cells produce insulin to remove rising levels of glucose in the blood (To the liver/muscle-glycogen and adipose cells-fat) BI

Sclerenchyma Cells

Thickest cell wall type (Mechanical Support)

Confocal Laster Scanning Microscopy

Thin slices of living cells can be viewed with dye or fluorescense.

Structure of a triglyceride

Three fatty acids with a glycerol molecule

Ground Tissues

Three types 1. Parenchyma Cells 2. Collenchyma Cells 3. Sclerenchyma Cells

Canaliculi

Tiny Canal in the bone

Strong Acid/Strong Base Titration

Titration of equivalence point of pH 7

Weak Base/Strong Acid Titration

Titration of equivalence point of pH <7

Weak Acid/Strong Base Titration

Titration of equivalence point of pH >7

What is the most important part of cellular respiration

To create energy (ATP)

Sulfonate Esters

Tosylate Mesylate

Population Size

Total number of individuals in a population.

Population Density

Total number of individuals per area.

Secondary Compounds

Toxic chemicals that discourage herbivorbes from eating.

Bright field microscope

Traditional microscope. - Compound microscope (Has mroe than one lens): Objective, eyepiece lenses. - Poor contrast: Best to fix and stain sample.

When tRNAs move between A-P-E sites

Translocation

Transposons

Transposable elements that can move to a new location on the same or different chromosomes. - May or may not affect the expression of a gene.

All gases have the same number of molecules at the same Temp and pressure? T/F

True

Enzymes made by pancreas

Trypsin (Activated by enteropeptidase), chymotrypsin, lipase, and amylase. Send these into duodenum.

Vas Deferens

Tube inbetween the epididymis and urethra

Homeotic Genes

Turn genes on and off. - Homeobox is 180 nucleotide sequence that identifies a particular class of genes that control development.

Complement

Twenty proteins that perform defense reactions on pathogens to lyse cells.

Supplementary Angles

Two angles that add up to 180

Products at the end of Meisosis I

Two cells with haploid sister chromatids (Still in X shape, but homologous chromosomes were separated.)

Dicot

Two cotyledon Ring shaped vascular tissue Taproot Present Floral Organs (4s or 5s)

Isosceles Triangle

Two equal sides

Structure of a phospholipid

Two fatty acids with a glycerol and a polar head group.

Organ system

Two or more organs working together to accomplish a particular task.

Parallel evolution

Two species that are related that undergo similar mutations after diverging from common ancestor

Divergent Evolution

Two species that become different that came from a common ancestor

Thin Filaments

Two strands of actin in a double helix (Contain troponin and tropomyosin)

Convergent Evolution

Two unrelated species that develop analogous traits that make them similar to eachother.

Halophile

Type of Archaea that live in high salt concentrations

Methanogen

Type of archaea that produce methane by obtianing energy from H2 and fix CO2. (Live in swamps, mud, and guts.)

Inversion Mutation

Type of mutation where a sequence of DNA is excised, flipped, and reinserted back into the DNA sequence

Kinesis

Undirected change in speed because of a change in stimulus

Autotroph

Use non-organic molecules to create energy.

What is UV vis?

Used in conjugated molecules and involves transitions between electronic energy levels (Promotes electrons to higher energy levels when excited)

Rubisco (Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenose)

Used in first step of cavlin cycle to change 6 CO2 and 6 RuBP to 12 PGA.

NBS

Used to add to allylic position

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)

Used to detect movement of lipids and proteins in a cell.

Western Blot

Used to detect the amount of protein in a sample. - Separate by gel electrophoresis then use primary antibody then a secondary antibody with indicator (fluorescence)

Comparative Anatomy

Uses homologous structures and analogous structures to demonstrate evolution. Homologous: Evolution from a common ancestor. (Similar structure due to similar ancestor) Analogous: Demonstrates similar adaptations. (Similar structure but not from similar ancestor)

Auditory Communication

Using sounds to elicit a response.

Relative Rate Expression

Using the rate of a certain reactant or product to then use the coefficients to find rate for other parts of equation

Ileocecal valve

Valve between the small and the large intestine

Phloem

Vascular tissue - Moves sugars - Made of sieve-tubes - Living at maturity - Associated with companion cells

Xylem

Vascular tissue - Moves water and minterals - Gives extra strength as a secondary cell wall - Dead at maturity

Occipital Lobe

Visual cortex of the cerebrum

Phagocytes

WBCs (Leukocytes) that engulf pathogens. Macrophages Neutrophils

Temperate Deciduous Forests

Warm Summer Cold Winters Moderature Precipitation

Cuticle

Waxy protective secretion from epidermal cells.

Hyperpolarization

When -80mV is reached due to K+ leaving the cell.

Polyploidy

When ALL of the chromosomes undergo meiotic nondisjunction. - Producing gametes with twice the # of chromosomes.

Observational Learning

When an animal copies the behavior of another animal without experiencing any prior positive reinforcement.

Habituation

When an animal disregards a meaningless stimuli

Insight

When an animal is exposed to a new situation without prior experience and performs a behavior and receives a desirable outcome

Spatial Learning

When an animal learns to associate attribute of a location with rewards.

Trial-and-Error Learning (Operant Conditioning)

When an animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with either reward or punishment.

Batesian Mimicry

When animals that have no defense mechanisms have coloration similar to those that do.

Mullerian Mimicry

When animals with the same defense mechanism share the same coloration.

Endochondral Ossification

When cartilage is replaced with bone - Long bones

Density-Dependent Inhibition

When cell density is high in an area, a cell may inhibit division.

5. Gastrula

When cells move inward (invaginate) into the blastula. - Three germ layters form (Endo, Meso, Ecto) - Archenteron (Center cavity of cell inside endoderm) - Blastopore - opening of archenteron (Becomes mouth in protostome or anus in deuterostome)

Chromosomal Aberration

When chromosome segments are changed.

Right Ventricle (Tricuspid)

When deoxygenated blood has passed through the right atrioventricular valve, it enters where to then be pumped into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve.

Gastrulation

When epiblast cells invaginate inward through the primitive streak to form three germ layers (Endo, Meso, Ecto)

When do d-block electrons count toward valence?

When final electron is in the d-block

Sex-Linked Inheritance

When genes are on the X or Y (Not likely) chromosome, it makes dominant and recessive genes affect males. Ex: Hemophilia

Artificial Selection

When humans breed animals (Not natural selection)

Associative Learning (Classical Conditioning)

When neutral stimulus is conditions to elicit a natural reflex.

Translocation Mutation

When nucleotides are excised then reinserted somewhere else in the DNA

Epistasis

When one gene affects the phenotypic expression of a second gene. Ex: 1st Gene: On/Off gene, 2nd Gene: Hair Color Expression

Pleiotropy

When one gene has more than one phenotypic expression. Ex: The gene in pea plants that effect wrinkled/round also effects starch production and water concentration.

Left Ventricle (Bicuspid)

When oxygenated blood passes through the left atrioventricular valve it enters here to then pass through the aortic semilunar valve to enter the systemic circuit.

Blastula Stage

When the solid morula beings to develop a hollow, fluid filled center.

Competitive Exclusion Principle

When two species compete for the exact same resources.

Transpiration

When water evaporates out of the stomata

CaCO3(s) ⇄ CaO(s) + CO2(g) Keq = 20 What if it is changed to 2CaCO3(s) → 2CaO(s) + 2CO2(g)?

When we add the same coefficient in front of every substance in a chemical reaction, the Keq of the new reaction will be equal to the value of the initial Keq raised to the power of the coefficients. 2CaCO3(s) → 2CaO(s) + 2CO2(g), Keq = 400

In an amide, what is the hybridization of the N and where do the lone pair electrons reside?

Whenever a lone pair participates in resonance, it resides in the p orbital. And the hybridization of the N would be Sp2. (Resonance)

Intermembrane Space

Where the H+ protons are pumped in the electron transport chain. (Between inner and outer membrane)

HIO4

Will change vicinal alcohols to aldehyde/ketone. Or if two ketones are adjacent they will go to carboxcylic acids

Inner Cell Mass

Will form the embryo - Bilaminar stage causes two cell types (Epiblast and Hypoblast)

Small nuclear ribonucleic proteins (snRNPs)

Will form with proteins to form the spliceosome

Beta Decarboxylation

With B-Keto esters if you add heat it decarboxylates the ester group. This occurs and detaches making a double bond but is replaced with an H during acid quench

Visual Communication

Wolves showing their teeth to elicit a response.

Organolithium

Works the same as grignard

Are strong acids strong electrolytes?

Yes

Odd concentration vs time graph

Zero-Order: - Straight Line - Decreasing Half-Life First-Order: - Curved line - Half-life is constant Second-Order: - Curved line - Increasing Half-life

What is a desiccator?

a glass container or other apparatus holding a drying agent for removing moisture from specimens and protecting them from water vapor in the air

Dalton's Atomic Theory

all matter is composed of atoms, which can combine in ratios to form compounds, and that atoms differ based on size/mass.

Amine solubility in water

amines larger than 3 carbons are not soluble in water unless in acidic solution.

What does pulmonary surfactant do?

decrease the surface tension in the lungs, making inspiration less challenging.

Osmotic Pressure Equation

iMRT, where i is the van't Hoff factor, M is the molarity (mol/L), R is the ideal gas constant (0.0821 L atm / mol K) and T is the absolute temperature (K).

The zeroeth law of thermodynamics

if two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then all systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

miRNA

microRNA - RNA silencer. (Post transcriptional way to regulate gene expression)

What is different about a solution that is neutral at pH of 6.1?

pH + pOH = 12.2 Therefore pH < 6.1 are acidic and pH > 6.1 are basic

pH of 1 x 10^-6 [H+]

pH = 6 [H+]?

pH of 1 x 10^-12 [H+]

pH = 7

What is the pH of a [H30+] = 1 x 10^-12

pH = 7 We can not use the -log equation with solutions more dilute than 1 x 10^-7.

Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

pH = pKa + log(conj base/acid) log(1/1) = 0, pH = pKa

Calculation for reproductive rate

r = (Birth - Death)/Population size

ΔH

reactants - products

Units for a first order reaction

s^-1

snRNA

small nuclear RNA that contributes to the spliceosome

1/sqrt(5)

sqrt(5)/5

Henry's Law

the solubility of a gas in liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution. Ex) Triple the pressure of O2, Triple the solubility

Gamma Emission

when the nucleus of a radioactive atom has too much energy. It often follows the emission of a beta particle.

ΔE = q(Heat) + w(Work)

work = -Pressure*ΔVolume +q = Heat absorbed by system from surroundings. -q = Heat released to surroundings. +w = Surroundings do work on system (Compression) -w = System does work on surroundings (Expansion)

If the distance between (x, -2) and (4, 3) is 5, what is the value of x?

x = 4

Blastocoel

~ 128 cell stage when a hollow cavity begins to form in the center of a solid mass or dividing cells.

E cell and delta G equation

ΔG = -nFE° n: Number of moles of electrons transferred F: 96,500 E°:

Gibbs Free Energy Equation

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS (-) is spontaneous (+) is nonspontaneous (0) is at equilibrium

Area of an Ellipse

π*a*b

Human Ribosomes

80S (60S with 40S)

pH + pOH = pKa + pKb =

= 14

Cos(-θ)

= Cos(θ)

-Sin(θ)

= Sin(-θ)

10^-pH =

= [H+]

10^-pOH =

= [OH-]

Solubility of ClO4- (Perchlorate)

Soluble

Solubility of NH4+ (Ammonium)

Soluble

Solubility of NO3- (Nitrate)

Soluble

Buffer

Solution that resists pH change (weak conjugate acid/conjugate base pair)

True Predator

Something that kills and eats another plant/animal.

Diatoms

- Algae-like - Have tests that fit together like a box lid - Tests are made of silica (SiO2)

Theoretical yield of aerobic respiration vs. actual yield

36 ATP to 30 ATP

# of atoms for a face-centered cubic unit cell

4 atoms per unit cell. - Atoms at corners and face centers of unit cell.

Lanthanides

4f orbitals are..

The way that DNA polymerase creates DNA.

5' --> 3'

Actinides

5f orbitals are..

Needed reagents for producing glucose in calvin cycle

6 CO2, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH

Parasite

Something that lives on another organism and obtains nourishment from that organism.

Kc =

= [Products]/[Reactants] - The only thing that changes Kc is temperature! - Only gaseous and aqueous (NO SOLIDS OR LIQUIDS)

-log[H+] =

= pH

-log[OH-] =

= pOH

Ellipse

?

Chitin

A Beta-Glucose molecule with a nitrogen containing group attached

Nucleotide

A Phosphate A Nitrogenous Base A 5 Carbon Sugar

Competent Bacteria

A bacterium that has been prepared to receive genes via transformation - Often is caused by electroporation or heat shock/CaCl2

Glycocalyx

A carbohydrate coat covering some bacteria and animal cells (Glycoproteins and glycolipids)

Reaction that forms a disaccharide from a monosaccharide

Condensation or Dehydration Reaction

Chromosome

Condensed chromatin

Taigas

Conferious forests Winters are cold (Snow)

Ligament

Connect bone to bone

Stroma Lamellae

Connecting area between thylakoids - Location of cyclic photophosphorylation

DNA ligase

Connects the okazaki fragments

Detrivores (Decomposers)

Consuemrs that eat dead plants and animals.

Testis (Testes)

Contain a seminiferous tubules in a sac

Myofibril

Contain thin and thick filaments

Bilateral Symmetry

Contain top (dorsal), bottom (Ventral), head (Anterior), and Tail (Posterior).

Cerebrum

Contains frontal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and parietal lobe..

Monocot

Contains.. 1 cotyledon Parallel venation Multiples of 3s for flowering Scatterered vascular bundles Fibrous root system

Dicot

Contains.. 2 cotyledons Netted venation Multiples of 4s or 5s for flowering Circular vascular bundles a tapROOT

Chromatography

Contains.. Mobile Phase: Solvent Stationary Phase: Tube or special paper

Five exceptions to electron configuration

Cr: [Ar] 4s13d5 Mo: [Kr] 5s14d5 Cu: [Ar] 4s13d10 Ag: [Kr] 5s14d10 Au: [Xe] 6s14f145d10

Intermediate

Created and consumed in the reaction.

RNA primase

Creates a RNA primer for DNA polymerase to add nucleotides.

Disgestion by liver

Creation of bile to emulisify fats

Septa

Cross walls. Partition hyphae (Filaments) into compartments.

Test Cross

Crossing a known genotyped organism with an unknown one to find the genotype.

Dominance Hierarchies

"Pecking order" of animals within a group.

Area of a polygon

(1/2)*(# of sides)*sin(360/# of sides)*(Length from center to corner

Area of a triangle

(1/2)*base*height

Ozonolysis

(Alkene/Alkyne) 1. O3 2. DMS, H2O, or Zn (Two Ketones or aldehyde) (Alkene/Alkyne) 1. O3 2. H2O2 OR 1. KMnO4 (Hot Conc) 2. H3O+ (Carboxcylic acids)

Alkyne Dihalogenation

(Alkyne) 1. Br-Br (Two carbons with two halogens)

Steps to Lactic Acid Fermentation

(Occurs in humans and other mammals) 1. Pyruvate is converted to lactic acid (lactate) by NADH being oxidized to NAD+. - Lactate is transported to liver to be converted back to glucose.

Steps to Alcohol Fermentation

(Occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria.) 1. Pyruvate is converted to acetaldehyde (1 acet and 1 CO2 for every pyruvate) 2. Acetaldehyde is converted to ethanol (ethyl alcohol) by oxidizing NADH to NAD+ (Main purpose).

Squaring X + 2

(X + 2)(X + 2)

Sum of interior angles of a polygon

(number of sides-2)*180

Bone vs Cartilage

*Both* - Made of cells - No epithelial tissue - Made from mesenchymal cells - Contain collagen *Bone* - Contain Blood Vessels - Made of osteocytes *Cartilage* - Made of chondrocytes

1. Fertilization

*Recognition:* Sperm produces protein to bind to receptor molecules on glycoprotein layer of oocyte. (Vitelline layter insures that fertilization occurs only between egg and sperm) *Penetration:* Sperm and oocyte fuse *Formation of fertilization membrane*: Vitelline layter forms a membrane to block additional sperm. *Completetion of meiosis 2:* Sperm penetration triggers meiosis 2 to produce ovum and polar body *Fusion of nuclei and replication of DNA:* Sperm and ovum nuclei fuse (Diploid)

Steps in Clotting Cascade

*Tissue is damaged.* This tears blood vessel walls which exposes collagen that is within the wall. *Exposed collagen* in the circulating blood causes the platelet activation and platelets begin to adhere and aggregate in the area of the blood vessel where the rip has occurred. This forms a *platelet plug.* Activated platelets release *thromboplastin* (also known as tissue factor). Thromboplastin converts the precursor (inactive) *prothrombin into its active form, thrombin.* Activated thrombin converts precursor *fibrinogen to fibrin*. Fibrin strands polymerize with other fibrin strands, and attach to platelets to form a blood clot (hemostatic plug).

Products per cycle of Krebs Cycle and pyruvate to acetyl CoA

- 1 ATP - 3 NADH - 1 FADH2 - 2 CO2 In conversion of pryuvate to acetyl CoA - 1 NADH - 1 CO2

Products of glycolysis

- 2 net ATP (2 Consumed in steps 1 and 3, 4 Produced in steps 7 and 9). - 2 NADH coenzyme (Step 6) - 2 Pyruvate (After finish 10)

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

- About 80 RNA nucleotide - Used for transporting amino acids - Contains the anticodon to the mRNA strand

trp operon

- Active production of tryptophan. - Rising levels of tryptophan causes the inactive repressor to become activated. - Called repressible enzymes.

C4 Photosynthesis - Cugarcane - Corn - Crabgrass

- Add on feature to calvin cycle (C3 photosynthesis) 1. CO2 enters leaf in mesophyll cells and combines with PEP (Phophoenolpyruvate) to create OAA (Oxaloacetate - 4 carbons) - PEP carboxylase is enzyme. 2. OAA is converted to malate. 3. The malate is shuttled to a bundle sheath cell with a plasmodesmata. 4. Malate is converted back to pyruvate and CO2. 5. CO2 is left in bundle sheath cell and pyruvate (ATP --> AMP) is taken back to the mesophyll cell. PURPOSE: Get CO2 to bundle sheath cells because there is little O2 there. - Higher photosynthesis rate - Less water loss from stomata - PEP has lower affinity for O2 so it prevents photorespiration DAT BOOTCAMP This method is called C4 photosynthesis because the CO2 molecule integrates into and becomes a four carbon compound first, before it bonds to RuBisCO later on. PEP carboxylase has even lower affinity for O2 compared to RuBisCO, so even in the presence of O2, it is very unlikely to bind to oxygen. This is an advantage. The enzyme PEP carboxylase takes CO2 and converts it into oxaloacetate. Oxaloacetate quickly turns into malic acid. Both oxaloacetate and malic acid are four carbon compounds, hence the name C4. The malic acid will be transferred from the mesophyll cells where PEP carboxylase reaction has occurred, to the bundle sheath cells. The bundle sheath cells are located in a different area in the leaf anatomy (they surround the vascular bundles of plants), where O2 concentration is much lower. Here the malic acid can be decarboxylated to release CO2. The CO2 can now undergo the conventional Calvin cycle with RuBisCO, in an environment where O2 is not as prevalent, and RuBisCO has low risk of photorespiration. The C4 photosynthesis process isolates CO2 spatially. Spatial isolation means that CO2 is transported to a different location (a different space) to prevent photorespiration. C4 photosynthesis transports the CO2 to the bundle sheath cells.

Chlorophyta (Green Algae)

- Algae-like - Contain both chlorophyll a and b - Store carbohydrates as starch Variations in sexuality - Isogamous Gametes - Both sperm and egg are equal size. - Anisogamous Gametes - Sperm and egg differ in size. - Oogamous Gametes - Large egg remains in parent and is fertilized by motile sperm. (Charophytes are ancestors of plants)

Rhodophyta (Red Algae)

- Algae-like - Contain red accessory pigement called phycobilin. - Multicellular - Gametes do NOT have flagella

Euglenoids

- Algae-like - Have 1-3 flagella from apical end. - Have pellicles (Protein strips that wrap cell membranes) - Can be heterotrophic in absence of light. - Some have an "eyespot" for phototaxis (Response to light)

Diazonium salt to bromine

CuBr

Diazonium salt to nitrile

CuCN

DIazonium salt to chlorine

CuCl

Restriction Enzymes

Cuts DNA at palindromes

p21

Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor

Sarcoplasm

Cytoplasm of muscle cell containing sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Chirality Terms

D (+) L (-) But R and S are their own thing in organic chemistry

Complementary DNA (cDNA)

DNA created from reverse transciptase.

Recombinant DNA

DNA transferring from one organism/chromosome to another.

Chromatin

DNA with proteins attached

Meta Directors

Deactivators Eletron Withdrawers

Effect of temperature increase on solubility (gases)

Decrease solubility

Increase in energy (Photon) toward wavelenth and frequency

Decrease wavelength Increase frequency

RNase (Ribonuclease)

Degrades RNA

Integral Proteins (Transmembrane)

Proteins that cross through the plasma membrane

Convoluted Tubule

Proximal Convoluted Tubule --> Loop of Henle --> Distal Convoluted Tubule

Artery/Vein Switch Locations

Pulmonary/Umbilical Artery: Carry DEoxygenated blood Pulmonary/Umbilical Artery: Carry OXYgenated blood

Character Displacement

Qualities of a population to obtain resources in different ways. (Resource Partitioning)

Changing alcohol to mesylate

R-OH + MsCl (Pyridine Solv) --> R-OMs - Better leaving group - No inversion of stereochemistry

Interphase

- DNA is enclosed in the nuclear envelope. - Two Microtubule Organizing Centers (MTOC) are by eachother. Growth takes place in all three phases. G1: G1 Checkpoint: At end of G1, if cell conditions are not appropriate/programmed, cell won't go to S or G2 phase. Go to G0 phase. S: DNA molecule for second chromosomes is formed. G2: Material for the next mitotic division are prepared. G2 Checkpoint: At end of G2, cell evaluates accuracy of DNA replication. M Checkpoint: Occurs during metaphase to ensure that microtubules are properly attached to kinetochores before continuing to anaphase.

Euchromatin

- DNA is loosely bound to nucleosomes. - Transcriptionally active.

Heterochromatin

- DNA is tightly bound to nucleosomes. - Transcriptionally inactive. - Stains Darker

Osmosis

- Diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane. - Hydrostatic pressure develops from water moving into body cells. - Turgor pressure develops from water moving into plant cells. (Central Vacuole) - Plasmolysis occurs due to cell collapse (shrinkage) from water leaving cells

Kingdom Fungi

- Domain Eukarya - Grow filaments (Hypahe. MYCELIUM) - Can be coenocytic. - Either parasites (contain haustoria) or saprobes - Dominantly haploid (Form diploid structures during reproduction) Divisions - mycota/Classes - mycete... 1. Zygomycota 2. Ascomycota 3. Glomeromycota 4. Basidiomycota 5. Lichens 6. Deuteromycota ZAG DLB

Kingdom Animalia

- Domain Eukarya Similarities... 1. Multicellular 2. Heterotrophic 3. Diploid Generation 4. Motile 5. Two/Three layers in embryo Members are... Nematoda Annelida Porifera Platyhelminthes Arthropoda Echinodermata Rotifera Cnidaria Chordata Mollusca NAP PEAR CCM

Transmission Electron Microscopy

- Electrons are transmmitted through a sample. - Allows us to view internal structures. - "Cuts" sample into slices.

Centrioles

- Enclosed in centrosome near nuclear envelope - Make spindle apparatus during cell division - Arranged in 9 + 3 fashion (Same as basal body) - Plants do not have centrioles (Only mosses and ferns)

Human Embryo Facts

- Even distribution of yolk (Even cleavage throughout yolk) Vegetal Pole - Less Actively Dividing Animal Pole - More Actively Dividing

Sexual Selection

- Females increase quality of males as mates (Female Choice) - Contests among men for mates. (Male Competition)

Hypahe

- Filaments for digestion of substances. - Common in fungus

Photorespiration

- Fixation of oxygen (Instead of CO2). - Creates useless products (Broken down by peroxisomes). - Creates competition for calvin cycle (Fixation of CO2).

Stroma of Chloroplast

- Fluid filled area - Cavlin cycle takes place here

Epoxide

- Formed with peroxy acid and alkene - Alkene and Cl2/H2O (Then adding NaOH to deprotonate alcohol), the intramolecular Sn2

Dynamic Equilibrium

- Forward Rate = Reverse Rate - Does not mean that the concentrations of products and reactants are the same.

Oomycota

- Fungus-Like - Water molds, downy mildews, and white rusts. - Form filaments (Hyphae) which secrete enzymes to digest substances. (Filaments lack septa) - Coenocytic (Having many nuclei in a single cell) - Cellulose cell walls (Instead of chitin)

Cellular Slime Molds

- Fungus-like - Spores geminate into amoebas (Eat bacteria) - Amoebas will aggregate when food sources deplete. - Spores will be released to repeat the cycle (Stimulated by cAMP)

Eosinophils

- Granulocyte - Fight parasites

Spirochetes

- Group of bacteria - Coiled and move in corkscrew motion. - Flagella are internal within layers of cell wall.

Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria

- Group of bacteria - Heterotroph that fix nitrogen - Usually have a mutualistic relationship with plants. - Live in plant "nodules".

Cyanobacteria

- Group of bacteria - Photosynthetic (Chlorophyll a - and phycobilins [accessory pigment]) - Some are heterocytsts that fix nitrogen

Chemosynthetic Bacteria

- Groups of bacteria - Autotrophic - Called "nitrifying" bacteria because they convert NO2 to NO3.

Mitochondria

- Have their own DNA (Single Circular DNA) - Have a double membrane - Can divide independent of the cells they inhabit (Binary Fission) - Have different ribosomes that the cells they inhabit

Exothermic

- Heat Released - -H - Lower energy in product

Endothermic

- Heat obtained - +H - Higher energy in product

Halogens

- Highly electronegative - High electron affinities - Highly reactive with metals - Good oxidizing agents

Metaphase I

- Homologous pairs of chromosomes spread across the metaphase plate. - Microtubules attached to one of the kinetochores of each homolog.

Central Vacuole

- In plants, occupy large potion of space. - Exert tugor (pressure) when full to maintain plant shape. - Perform function of lysosomes

Trends of lattice energy

- Increase bond length decrease lattice energy. - Increase electrons transferred, increase lattice energy.

Ebola

- Infects macrophages, monocytes, fibroblasts, dendritic cells, and endothelial cells. - Can cause blood clots - Blocks interferon - RNA virus - Targets liver cells

lac operon

- Is actively repressed. - When lactose is available, it binds to the repressor protein to inactivate it. - This allows transciption of lactose degradation proteins. - Called inducible enzymes. - Allolactose (Isomer of lactose) binds and inhibits production of lac repressor protein. - Seen in E. coli - "Inducible" operon

Basidiomycota

- Kindom Fungus - Have septa - Reproduce sexually (Four haploid spores)

Menstrual cycle

1. Hypothalamus released GnRH causing FSH and LH release from anterior pituitary. 2. FSH stimulates follicle and oocyte development. 3. FSH stimulates secretion of estrogen from the follicle. 4. Ovulation occurs due to LH. 5. Courpus Luteum (Mature Follicle) develops by LH. - Releases estrogen and progesterone. 6. Estrogen and progesterone stimulate endometrium development. (Lining of uterus thickens with nutrient blood vessels) 7. High levels of estrogen and progestone decrease Anterior pituitary produiction of FSH and LH. 8. Endometrium disintegration (absence of FSH LH corpus luteum deteriorates, then estrogen and progesterone stop and remove endometrium) or implatation (HCG is released from embryo which causes the corpus luteum to continue producing estrogen and progesterone. - placenta will continue producing progesterone)

Cell Differentiation

1. Influence of egg cytoplasm - Unequal cleavages of egg development. 2. Embryonic induction: Organizing cells secrete chemicals influencing development 3. Homeotic Genes: Turn genes off and on.

Main parts of translation

1. Initiation: When the small subunit of the ribosome attaches near the 5' end of the mRNA. tRNA will bind to AUG. Then the large subunit binds to the mRNA. 2. Elongation: When the next tRNA binds to the A site. Amino acid chain is then lengthened by brining more and more tRNAs with amino acids. 3. Termination: When a stop codon is reached. The subunits and then released.

Three Types of Movement

1. Kinesis 2. Taxis 3. Migration

Kingdoms of Eukarya Domain

1. Kingdom Protista 2. Kingdom Fungi 3. Kingom Plantae 4. Kingdom Animalia

16. At equilibrium, what is the concentration of Mn2+ in a solution that is buffered at pH = 12, if the Ksp = 1.6 × 10^-13 for Mn(OH)2?

1. Ksp = [Mn][OH]^2 2. 1.6 × 10^-13 = [Mn][10^-2]^2 - 10^-2 = [OH] because 14 - 12 = 2 = pOH 3. Divide and get 1.6 x 10^-9

Two methods of hormone binding

1. Lipophilic (Steroid) hormone passes through membrane and binds to a receptor protein in the nucleus to activate genes. 2. Hydrophilic (Peptide) hormone binds to receptor on plasma membrane. This then activates second messengers (cAMP and IP3)

Acid Chloride to an aldehyde

1. Lithium tri-tert-butoxide aluminum hydride (LTBA) 2. H2O

Seed plant reproduction

1. Microsporangium produces cells which become microspores (Male haploid cells) which change to pollen grain 2. Megasporangium (Nucellus) makes haploid cells which end up becoming ONE/TWO macrospore (Female) 3. Pollen grain contact megasporangium. Polled tube is made for access toward egg.

Organization of Bacterial Kingdoms

1. Mode of nutrition. 2. Proudction of endospores. 3. Means of motility (Flagella, gliding, or corkscrew) 4. Shapes (Cocci, Bacilli, and Spirilla) 5. Gram Stain (Gram Neg/Gram Pos)

Determining Aromaticity

1. Must be cyclic or polycyclic 2. Need to be sp2 or sp hybridized (No sp3) - O, S, or N can donate electrons to be sp2 even if they appear sp3. 3. Pi electrons must equal 4n + 2. (Huckel's Rule 4. If pi electons are 4n it is antiaromatic ONLY EXCEPTION: Cyclooctatetaene is NON-aromatic

Sources of Variation

1. Mutations 2. Sexual Reproduction (Crossing Over, Independent Assortment, and Random Gamete joining) 3. Diploidy (Heterozygotes different than homozygotes) 4. Outbreeding (Mating outside related individuals) 5. Balanced Polymorphism (Advantageous heterozygotes, Hybrid Vigor (Inbred strains crosseed), and Frequency-dependent selection (Least common doesn't get eaten as much because not usual)

Steps of oxidative phosphorylation

1. NADH and FADH2 are produced 2. Donate H+ and electrons to electron carriers on electron transport chain. 3. Electrical energy pumps H+ out of cell. 4. ATP synthase uses pH and electrical gradient to attach P to ADP --> ATP

Human respiration

1. Nose, pharynx, and larynx (Passageways) 2. Trachea (Cartilage-Lined, covered by epiglottis) 3. Bronchi/Bronchioles 4. Alveolus (Bronchioles end in this sac, surrounded by capllaries) 5. Diffusion across alveolus to blood. 6. Bulk flow of O2 (Through heme of blood) 7. Diffusion to cells 8. CO2 is transported as HCO3 (Bicarbonate - Created in blood cells by carbonic anhydrase) in the plasma. 9. Muscles perform the respiration 10. Respiration is controlled by chemoreceptors in carotid arteries.

Problems that occur at the end of chromosomes.

1. Not enough template strand remains for RNA primase to attach 2. If there are no further okazaki fragments for DNA polymerase to attach to. Soultion: Telomerases attach to the end of the strand and adds short sequences of nucleotides over and over again. Or it just itsn't done (Not important DNA)

Process of neurulation

1. Notochord (Mesodermal) stimulates ectoderm to thicken (Forming neural plate) 2. Neural plate fold in on itself (Neural fold) 3. Continues to fold was the edges touch to make a tube (Neural Tube) 4. Neural tube develops to become CNS. - Neural crest cells are ectodermal (Teeth/Pigment) + The notochord does NOT become the CNA but enduces neuraltion to make it. (Ectoderm is CNA)

Structure of viruses

1. Nucleic Acid: Double or single stranded DNA/RNA 2. Capsid (Protein Coat): Encloses the nucleic acid. 3. Envelope: Surrounds the capsid of some viruses. (Incorporate phospholipids/proteins obtained from the cell membrane).

Methyl Ketone to carboxylate (Haloform Reaction)

1. OH- 2. X2 (Excess) If Cl2 is used it created HCCl3 - Chloroform (Insoluble liquid) - Used to find if there is a methyl ketone. If I2 is used you get HCI3 - Iodoform (Insoluble precipitate)

E2 "Elimination Bimolecular"

1. One step (No carbocation) 2. Strong Base 3. Less substituted product. 4. Prefers E alkene (Unless you NEED to have Z for anti) 5. Need Anti B proton (Anti-coplanar)

Sn2 "Substitution Nucleophile Bimolecular"

1. Only one step Rate = K[Electrophile][Nucleophile] 2. Inverts stereochemistry (Backside attack) 3. Strong nucleophile 4. Prefers primary carbon 5. Polar Aprotic

Syn dihyroxylation

1. OsO4 2. H202

A woman goes for genetic counselling, prior to conceiving a child. She is concerned that she may be a carrier for a lethal autosomal recessive condition that kills homozygous recessives by 1 year of age; her fraternal brother died of this condition. What is the probability that this woman is a carrier for this lethal condition?

66%

CAM Photosynthesis (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) - Cacti

1. PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 to OAA (Oxaloacetate - 4C). 2. OAA is converted malic acid. 3. Malic acid is shuttled to the cell vacuole. (Accumulates during night) 4. During day, malic acid is shuttled out of the vacuole and converted back to OAA (ATP converted to ADP) and releasing CO2 for calvin. DAT BOOTCAMP CAM plants use temporal isolation. Temporal isolation is an isolation based on timing, as a means of preventing photorespiration. There is no spatial separation: the processes occur in the same part of the leaf, but the plant does different processes at different times. During the day, CAM plants close stomata to prevent excessive loss of water, via transpiration, evaporation out of the stomates (keep in mind this will also limit new gases like O2 from entering the plant). At night, CAM plants have their stomata open, allowing CO2 to enter into the leaf. The same enzyme in C4 photosynthesis is used in CAM photosynthesis: PEP carboxylase will fixate CO2 into a four carbon molecule of oxaloacetate which converts into malic acid. In contrast, to the C4 pathway, rather than shuttle the malic acid to a different part of the leaf, the malic acid will be stored in a vacuole, for later use. During the day, the malic acid will be shuttled out of the vacuole, CO2 will be decarboxylated from the malic acid, and the typical Calvin cycle will occur in a low O2 environment (stomates are closed). During the day the sun shines brightly, and ATP as well as NADPH are being produced plentifully.

Steps of fungi sexual reproduction

1. Plasmogamy - Fusing of cells of two (Haploid) fungal strains. Two dikaryons. 2. Karyogamy - Fusing of dikaryons (Haploid Nuclei) 3. Meiosis - Diploid nucleus splits to two haploid daughter cells

Fertilization in angiosperms

1. Pollen lands on stigma 2. Ovules in ovary produce megaspores. (Embryo sac) 3. When pollen enters enbryo sac, diploid zygote forms.

Sn1 "Substitution Nucleophile Unimolecular"

1. Proceeds in two steps. 2. Has a Carbocation (Rearragements) 3. Forms a racemic mixture 4. First step is RDS when leaving group leaves. (Rate = k[Electrophile] 5. Weak Nucleopihle (Strong doesn't allow carbocation) 6. Prefers better carbocation. 7. Heat makes the LG leave!!!! 8. Stabilized molecules are usually sn1 9. Polar Protic

Ways to calculate ΔH

1. Products - Reactants 2. Hess's Law 3. (+) Bonds Broken - (-) Bonds Formed

Mechanisms of replication repair

1. Proofreading: DNA polymerase checks DNA and replaces incorrect pairs. 2. Mismatch Repair: Enzymes make repairs that were missed by DNA polymerase. 3. Excision Repair: Enzyme was remove nucleotidees damaged by mutagens. Enzymes will use the complementary strand as a template to repair the error.

Diels Alder

1. Put diene on left and dienophile on right. 2. Line up charges where they line up. 3. Have groups pointing toward center on wedges and groups going away on dashes. 4. Put dienophile on wedges. 5. Product can have an enantiomer where wedges and dashes switch.

Antimarkovnikov ketone addition

1. Sia2BH or BH3-THF 2. H202, OH

Standard Deviation of {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

1. Take mean = 5 2. Subtract 5 from each number and square it. 3. Add those numbers together. 4. Take the square root of that. 5. 1.4

Lysogenic Cycle

1. The virus invades host cells. 2. The virus will incorporate its viral DNA temporarily into the DNA of the host cell. (Provirus) 3. A trigger will come that causes the virus to undergo lytic cycle.

Three steps of Protein Synthesis

1. Transcription 2. RNA processing 3. Translation

Steps of noncyclic photophosphorylation

1. Two electrons of photosystem II (P680) are excited by light. 2. Electrons are donated to the primary electron acceptor of the electron transport chain. 3. Electrons are passed down electron transport chain via proteins. (Some proteins have nonprotein parts being ferrodoxin/cytochrome) 4. Energy is released from electron transport creating ~ 1.5 ATP. 5. Electrons are donated to photosystem I and are re-energized. 6. The electrons are donated to NADP+ and H+ to create NADPH. 7. The two electrons from photosystem II and H+ are replaced by water splitting. (O2 is released)

E1 "Elimination Unimolecular:

1. Two steps 2. Carbocation rearrangements 3. Weak Bases 4. Give more substituted product (Zaisev's Rule)

Lamarck's Theories

1. Use and Disuse: Increase usage, increase development. 2. Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: Acquired body features developed during lifetime (Muscle Build) passed to offspring. (FALSE) 3. Natural Transformation of Species: Increasing complexity and greatness (FALSE)

Lytic Cycle

1. Virus penetrates the cell membrane. 2. Uses host enzymes to replicate itself. 3. Virus bursts the cell and infects other cells.

Ideal Gas Assumptions

1. Volume of gas molecule is insignificant. - MOST ACCURATE WITH LOW PRESSURE 2. Gas molecules' collisions are perfectly elastic (No intermolecular forces) - MOST ACCURATE WITH HIGH TEMP AND LOW IM FORCES 3. The average kinetic energy of a gas depends on ONLY the system's temperature. BEHAVE MOST IDEAL IN LOW PRESSURE AND HIGH TEMP.

Anti Di-hydroxylation

1. mCPBA 2. Strong Nucleophile (Basic Conditions) 3. Least substituted product 1. mCPBA 2. Weak Nucleophile (Acidic Conditions) 3. Most substituted product

[H+][OH-] = Ka x Kb =

1x10^-14 = Kw

Termination Halogenation Step

2 Radicals on left No radicals on right

# of atoms for a body-centered cubic unit cell

2 atoms per unit cell - 1 in middle and 1/8 of 8 atoms at each corner

Area of a hollow cylinder

2*π*r*h

The chromosome number after meiosis 1

23

Anthracene has how many monobromination products?

3

End of a tRNA that binds to an amino acid

3' becoming aminoacyl-tRNA requring 1 ATP.

The first intermediate of Krebs cycle

3-carbon citrate (Citric Acid)

Cholesterol

30%-50% of the lipid in cell membranes (Amphipathic)

Bacterial Ribosomes

70S (50S with 30S)

Difference in vessels

Arteries: - Contain smooth muscle that can contract or relax, changing their diameter in response to hormones. - Carry and distribute oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body. Aorta: - The largest artery. It accepts blood from the left ventricle. When the heart contracts (systole) the blood pressure is much higher than when the heart relaxes (diastole). The aorta is very elastic and has an important role in stretching and moderating this pulsatile blood pressure. Arterioles (Resistance Vessels - Because of their high resistance): - These are the vessels where blood pressure drops the most. - They also contain a smooth muscle layer and their diameter is influenced by hormones. Capillaries: - Smallest diameter vessels. Capillary walls are one cell thick, and have fenestra or pores that increase what can diffuse into and out of the capillary. Venules: - Connect capillaries to the veins. Venules and veins take blood back to the heart. Veins (Capacitance Vessels - Because they hold the most blood): - The veins are wider than arteries, which allows them to hold more blood. - The blood pressure is lowest once it has reached the veins. - Veins (and medium-large venules) contain valves. These valves ensure the blood flows in the forwards direction. Because the blood pressure is so low, the veins rely on the skeletal muscle pump and the respiratory pump to have adequate venous return to the heart. When skeletal muscles are functioning (ie: contracting and relaxing), they squeeze the veins. Because of the valves that ensure one-way flow, blood that is squeezed can only move 'forwards', towards the heart; this is the skeletal muscle pump. The respiratory pump is also known as the abdominothoracic pump, because it involves both the abdomen and the thoracic cavity. When a person inspires air the pressure in the abdomen increases, and the pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases. An increase in abdominal pressure compresses any veins in this area, which pushes blood 'forwards'. A decrease in thoracic pressure creates negative pressure, causing the vena cava and the atria to expand, which draws blood in. The venules and veins do have smooth muscle, but it is far less than arteries/arterioles. It is mainly arteries/arterioles that vasoconstrict and vasodilate in response to various hormones that act on blood vessels.

Capsomeres

Assemble to form capsid of a virus

Positron Emission

Atomic Number Decreases by One Atomic Mass is the SAME Proton in a radioactive nucleus changes into a neutron and releases a positron and an electron neutrino

Beta Emission (Decay)

Atomic Number Increases by ONE Atomic Mass is the SAME Neutron changes into a proton plus an electron

Alpha Emission

Atomic Number Increases by TWO Atomic Mass Increases by FOUR Two neutrons and two protons leave

Skeletal Muscle

Attached to bones and causes body movement

LDA in alpha carbon reactions

Attacks less substituted alpha hydrogen Adds only ONE group onto alpha carbon.

l quantum number

Azimuthal quantum number Represents subshells (s, p, d, f)

Plasma B Cells

B cells that contain surface antibodies

Acetoacetic ester synthesis

B-Keto compounds are more acidic than single ketones.

Microaerophile

Bacteria that require O2 but are harmed by high amounts.

Area of a rhombus

Base*Height

Halogen Alpha Hydrogen Reaction

Basic: Gives fully halogenated product 1. OH- 2. X2 (Excess) Acidic: Gives mono halogenated product 1. Acid (H+) 2. X2 (Excess)

Spermatogenesis

Begins at male puberty within seminiferous tubules. - Spermatogonia divide by mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes. - Meisosis 1 produces two secondary spermatocytes - Spermatids mature in epididymis

Antagonistic Behavior

Behaviors that relate aggression and fighting.

Oogenesis

Beings during embryonic development

Anaphase I

Beings when homologues within tetrads uncouple and are pulled apart.

Naming Bicyclic Compounds

Bicyclo[3.2.1]octane (Total Carbons) If there is a substituent the bridgehead position constitutes the 1st carbon

Single Strand Binding Proteins

Bind to the DNA strands after being unwound to prevent them rejoining.

Troponin

Binds to calcium and moves tropomyosin.

Mammal Development

Blastocyst: Outer ring called trophoblast and inner cells called embryonic disc. Trophoblast: Accomplishes implantation. Produces HCG. Forms chorion. Embryonic disc: Within trophoblast cavity, inner cell mass (ICM) flattens into the embryonic disc. - Even distribution of yolk (Even cleavages and no pole formed)

Tropomyosin

Blocks

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Body hair, muscle, fat, volice quality, and breasts.

Codominance

Both alleles of a gene are completely expressed in the phenotype. RBCs

Substances that are liquids at standard state

Br2 Hg2

Hoffman Rearrangement

Br2/NaOH + Amide --> amine with carbonyl carbon gone

Parasympathetic nervous system

Branch of autonomic nervous system that activates tranquil functions (Rest and Digest)

Sympathetic nervous system

Branch of autonomic nervous system that prepares body for action. (Fight or Flight)

Lipase

Breaks down fats - Can come from the pancreas

Salivary amylase

Breaks down starch into disaccharides

Properties of Ionic Bonding

Brittle High melting point Hard Non-Conductive

Triphenylphosphine oxide

By product of Wittig reaction Ph3P=O

4. Blasula

Continuous cell divisions that cause the morula to push the cells out to form a circular cavity. Hollow sphere is *this term*. Cavity is the blastocoel. - Develops a hollow, fluid filled cavity in embryonic cells

Autonomic nervous system

Controls activity of organs (Cardias and smooth muscle)

Medulla

Controls autonomic functions of the body - Breathing, heart rate, and digestion.,

1st Law of Thermodynamics

Convervation of Energy - Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another.

Cristae (s: crista)

Convolutions of inner membrane of mitochondria

Sin(θ)

Cos(90 - θ)

Are ionic or covalent bonds stronger

Covalent

19. Which of the following is involved in the monitoring and control of respiration? A. Monitoring of blood [H+] by central chemoreceptors of the medulla B. Increased production of surfactant by the alveoli in response to rise of blood CO2 C. Signaling from the medulla to the diaphragm to alter the rate and depth of ventilation D. Monitoring of cerebrospinal fluid by peripheral chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies E. Increasing respiratory rate in response to a sharp rise in blood pH 19. Which of the following is involved in the monitoring and control of respiration?

C A: Incorrect. The central chemoreceptors of the medulla monitor [H+] levels in the cerebrospinal fluid. B: Incorrect. The function of pulmonary surfactant is to decrease the surface tension in the alveoli. This makes inspiration less challenging, but production of surfactant is not used as a respiratory control mechanism. C: Correct. The medulla is responsible for control of human respiration, and can signal the diaphragm (and rib muscles) to alter the rate and depth of ventilation in response to signals from the central and peripheral chemoreceptors. D: Incorrect. The peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid bodies (and aortic arch) monitor blood levels of [CO2], [O2], and [H+]. E: Incorrect. Respiratory rate would increase in response to a decrease in blood pH. Recall that increased ventilation is the response to respiratory acidosis, which is signaled by a decline in pH.

Formula for a typical sugar

CH2O

Gatterman Koch Formylation

CO, HCl, AlCl3, CuCl

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Calcium storing portion of muscle cell

Sympatric Speciation

Can be caused by balanced polymorphism, polyploidy (plants), and hybridization.

Flow Cytometry, Hemocytometer, and Spectrophotometry

Can be used to count the number of cells in a sample

Grignard

Can not have acid in solution! Used on ketones/Aldehydes to add carbon groups Does not work with amides and carboxcylic acids (Acid/Base Rxn) Nitriles --> Ketones Esters --> Tertiary alcohols Acid Chloride --> Tertiary Alcohol

Boiling Point Trend (Carb. Acids vs. Alcohol)

Carboxcylic acids have a higher boiling point because they can double hydrogen bonds

Hormones from the adrenal medulla

Catecholamines (Epinephrine and Norepinephrine)

Helicase

Causes DNA strand to be unwound, yeilding two separate strands of DNA. - Produces the replication fork

Restiction Enzyme

Causes a cut in a specific portion of DNA.

Topoisomerase (DNA gyrase)

Causes negative supercoiling by breaking and rejoining the double helix of DNA.

Adding pressure of inert gas Adding a catalyst

Causes no shift according to Le Chatelier's Principle.

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone

Causes release of luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone

Carotenoids

Causes the red, orange, and yellow in dying leaves

Macrophage/Monocyte

Cell Eaters. - No specificity

Parts of a neuron

Cell body - Nucleus and organelles Dendrite - Receives stimuli Axon - Sends nerve impulses

(Radial) Indeterminate Cleavage

Cell fate isn't set early, and then if a cell was split off—this cell has complete potential and can go on to form a separate organism; when this happens in humans we get identical twins!

Germ cells

Cells of the body that will produce gametes - Oocyte: Become 4n then arrest in prophase 1 until puberty (4n), then at ovulation meiosis 1 occurs and we get a 2n secondary oocyte and a 2n polar body. Then meiosis 2 occurs and we get more polar bodies and an *n* secondary oocyte. - Spermatogonia: Replicate by mitotic division.

Blastomere

Cells that are formed as a result of embryonic cleavage

Osteoclast

Cells that break down bone

Osteoblast

Cells that synthesize bone

Wittig Reaction

Changes C=O to C=C-R (Cis) 1. Start with alkyl Halide 2. Add Ph3P 3. nBuLi (To deprotonate)

Side chain oxidation

Changes a side chain with a benzylic carbon from a benzene ring to a carboxcylic acid.

Ovarian cycle

Charaterized by events in the ovary 1. Follicular phase - Development of egg and secretion of estrogen from follice. 2. Ovulation - Release of egg. 3. Luteal phase - Secretion of estrogen and progesterone from corpus luteum.

Stomach Cells

Chief Cells: Secrets Pepsinogen Parietal Cells: Secrets HCl and intrinsic factor G-Cells: Secretes gastrin and stimulates parietal cells Mucous Cells: Secretes mucous

Positive feedback

Childbirth, Lactation, and Sexual Orgasm

Pigments of photosynthesis

Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, and Carotenoids

Metaphase II

Chromosomes align on metaphase plate. (Haploid)

Exonuclease

Cleaves at the ends of a polymer

Endonuclease

Cleaves bonds between nucleotides

Epididymis

Coiled tube part of testicle that is the final site of sperm maturation

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

Collection of glycoproteins that work to differentiate between self and non-self.

Bulk Flow

Collective moment of substances due to physical pressure (Blood flow)

Acetylcholine

Common neurotransmitter to muscle cells that is broken down by cholinesterase.

Telophase

Concluding step of nuclear division. - A nuclear envelope deveops around the chromosomes at each pole of the cell. (Forming two nuclei) - Chromosomes disperse to chromatin. - Nucleoli reappear.

Coelom trend Stome Trend

Privileged- Porifera Children- Cnidarian Play- Platyheminthes Nicely- Nematoda And- Annelida Maturely- Mollusca Always- Arthropoda Ensuring- Echinoderma Cooperation- Chordata Everything before Nematoda is acoelomate (lack a coelom). Everything after Nematoda is coelomate (contains a coelom). Nematoda are considered pseudocoelomate ('fake' coelomate). This pseudocoelem helps with nematode motility; they use the pseudocoelem as as hydrostatic skeleton. A hydroskeleton provides rigidity through fluid pressure. [E]: Echinodermata and Chordata are deuterostomes—all the other animal phyla from the mnemonic are protostomes.

Alcohol to alkyl halide with PBr3, PCl3, PI3

Proceeds by an Sn2 mechanism - No tertiary carbons! - Inversion of stereochemistry! R <--> S

What is a cortical reaction? When does it occur?

Process initiated during fertilization by the release of cortical granules from the egg, which prevents polyspermy, the fusion of multiple sperm with one egg. Fast Block - Immideately after sperm fuses with egg. - Na+ diffuses and depolarizes egg. Slow Block - Gradually after fusion - Ca2+ realease from within egg (Exocytosing cortical granules)

Interstitial Cells

Produce male sex hormones - Testosterone - Other androgens

Delta cells (Pancreas)

Produce somatostating - Inhibits production of insulin and glucagon.

Seminiferous Tubules

Produce sperm

Glucocorticoids

Produced by adrenal cortex to increase blood glucose

Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)

Produced by adrenal cortex to target the kidney to increase reabsorption of Na+ and excrete K+.

Progesterone

Produced by ovary to stimulate the mentration cycle during pregnancy. - Prepares uterus for implantation - Decrease at the end of menstruation

Estrogen (Estradiol)

Produced by ovary to stimulate the uterus to menstrate. - Prepares uterus for implantation (Causes endometrium to thicken its tissue) - Levels drop at the end of menstruation

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Produced by parathytoid to increase Ca2+ in the blood. (Causes bones and tubules to release calcium)

Melatonin

Produced by pineal gland for circadian rhythm.

Testosterone

Produced by testis to promote spermatogenesis

Erythryopoietin

Produced by the kidney to stimulate bone marrow stem cells to produce red blood cells.

Cholecystokinin

Produced by the small intestine (Duodenum) in response to presence of fat to stimulate the gallbladder to release bile and pancrease to make enzymes.

Triiodothyronine (T3)/Thyroxin (T4)

Produced by the thyroid to increase cellular metabolism

Calcitonin

Produced by thyroid to lower blood Ca2+ - Stimulate osteoblasts - Inhibit osteoclasts

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

Produced from ATP which can trigger an enzyme to generate cellular changes

Inositol triphosphate (IP3)

Produced from membrance phospholipids to trigger release of Ca2+ from endoplasmic reticulum to activate enzymes to make cellular changes.

Bile

Produced in the liver Stored in the gallbladder Emulsifys fat Released into duodenum by stimulation of gall bladder by cholecystokinin

Malonic Ester Synthesis

Produces carboxcylic acid with R groups on the alpha carbon

Smooth ER

Produces lipids and hormones (In liver, aids in detoxification of drugs and toxins)

Nucleolus

Produces rRNA and assembles ribosomes

Primary Oocyte

Product after the original oogonia divide by mitosis

Gametogenesis

Production of eggs in females and sperm in males

Keq > 1

Products Favored (Keq)

Qc < Kc

Products Favored (Qc/Kc)

Differences of prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotes: Flagella not made of microtubule, Ribosomes (70S), bacteria/cyano - peptidoglycan, archaea - polysaccharides, Eukaryotes: Nucleus, organelles, Ribosomes (80S), no cell wall animal, cellulose plant, chitin fungus

Parts of an operon

Promoter: A sequence of DNA that RNA polymerase attaches to. Operator: Can block the action of RNA polymerase Structural Genes: Code for several related enzymes to produce a particular end product. Regulatory Genes: Can react with activator/inhibitor proteins. to assist in RNA polymerase attachment.

Physical Properties

Properties that can be determined without changing the chemical makeup of a sample (Boiling point, melting point, color, odor, electrical conductance, and solubility)

Chemical Properties

Properties that change the chemical makeup of a sample. (Rusting, tarnishing, combustion)

Extensive Properties

Properties that depend on sample amount (Length, mass, and volume)

Intensive Properties

Properties that do not depend on sample amount (Density, melting point, boiling point)

Steps of Meiosis

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

Kinetic Energy of a gas

Proportional to absolute temperature

Ketal

Protects aldehydes/ketones during synthesis to get rid of esters/amides

Muciin

Protects the lining of the stomach from acidity.

Peripheral Proteins

Proteins attached to the inside/outside of the plasma membrane

Solubility of C2H3O2- (Acetate)

Soluble

Solubility Rules

Rule 1: All compounds of Group I-A elements (the alkali metals) are soluble. Rule 2: All ammonium salts (salts of NH4+) are soluble. Rule 3: All nitrate (NO3-), chlorate (ClO3-), perchlorate (ClO4-), and acetate (CH3COO- or C2H3O2-) salts are soluble. Rule 4: All chloride (Cl-), bromide (Br-) and iodide (I-) salts are soluble except for those of Ag+, Pb+, and Hg22+. Rule 5: All sulfate (SO42-) compounds are soluble except those of Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Pb2+, Hg22+, and Hg2+, Ca2+, and Ag+ sulfates are only moderately soluble. Rule 6: All hydroxide (OH-) compounds are insoluble except those of Group I-A (alkali metals) and Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+. Rule 7: All sulfide (S2-) compounds are insoluble except those of Groups I-A and II-A (alkali metals and alkali earths). Rule 8: All sulfites (SO32-), carbonates (CO32-), chromates (CrO42-), and phosphates (PO43-) are insoluble except for those of NH4+ and Group I-A (alkali metals) (see rules 1 and 2)

S8 S2 Dimagnetic/Paramagnetic?

S8: Dimagnetic S2: Paramagnetic

Pascal

SI unit for pressure

Benzene Sulfonation

SO3 (fuming) H2SO4

Alcohol to alkyl chloride

SOCl2 - Sn2 - Inverstion of stereochem - No tertiary carbons

Major functions of proteins

STEDS Storage (Caesin in milk) Transport (Transmembrane proteins) Enzymes Defense (Antibodies) Structure (Keratin in hair)

Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH)

Same as LH but in males. - Stimulates produces of testosterone and other androgens

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Scatters electrons when hitting the sample to create a 3D image of the object. - Lower magnigication than transmission electron microscopy. - Good for viewing a sample's surface.

Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper's glands)

Secrete fluid of unknown function into urethra

Prostate Gland

Secretes a milky alkaline fluid into urethra to neutralize its acidity

Altruistic Behavior

Seemingly unselfish behavior that reduces the fitness of an individual.

Temporal Lobe

Senory input, languguage, auditory, and visual comprehension occur in this part of the cerebrum.

Types of neurons

Sensory Neuron - Received initial stimulus Motor Neutron - Stimulates an effector cell Association Neuron - Send sensory impulses to motor neurons (Interneurons)

Parietal Lobe

Sensory cortex of the cerebrum

Thin Layer Chromatography

Separates non-volatile mixture in a sample

Gas Chromatography

Separates volatile mixtures such as alkenes from alcohols

Amnion

Serves as protection to a developing embryo

Nucleic Acid

Several nucleotides bonded together

Tests

Shells

Electron Microscopy

Shoots electrons at a fixed sample (treated to not degrade proteins and structures) and metal coated (Gold or Pd). This kills the cells.

What did Ernest Rutherford do?

Shot ALPHA PARTICLES at a gold plate to prove that there is a nucleus.

Miller-Urey experiment

Showed that water, hydrogen, ammonia, and methane could be heated and form organic molecules (Including aminio acids)

Embryology

Shows similar stages of development (Ontogeny) Similarities develop phylogeny.

What is the most abundant element in the earth's crust?

Silicon and Oxygen

Satellite Cell

Similar function to astrocytes, but are in the PNS.

Claisen Condensation

Similar to aldol but uses esters! - -OR groups must match or you just change the group that is attached to the ester. - Must have acid quench to remove the other O group on the ester 1. -OR 2. H+ - B-ketoester

Blastodisc

Similar to the inner cell mass for bird/reptile/fish to form the embryo.

Cos(θ)

Sin(90 - θ)

Refractory Period

Since Na+ and K+ are on opposite sides of the cell, a neuron can not respond to new stimuli until they are on the correct sides.

What is equation of line B? Line A: y = 2x + 11 Line B: Contains (6, -7) and is perpendicular

Since they are perpendicular, B must have a negative inverse slope of A. Slope A: 2 Slope B then is -1/2 Y = -1/2x + b thus far -7 = -1/2(6) + b b = -4 y = -1/2x + -4 is answer

Autorhythmic cell cycle

Sinoatrial node (SA - Pacemaker - upper right area of heart) initiates cycle by contracting the atria and stimulating the atrioventricular node (AV - Lower right of right atrium). Then sends the impulse through the bundle of His then through the ventircles and the Purkinje fibers. (SA --> AV --> Bundle of His --> Purkinje fibers)

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids are pulled apart (Homologues not present)

Primitive streak

Site of gastrulation for mammals

Inner membrane

Site of oxidative phosphorylation

Gizzard

Site of physical digestion in Annelida

First line of pathogenic defense

Skin, Antimicrobial Proteins (Lysozyme), Cilia, Gastric Juices, and symbiotic bacteria.

Axial Skeleton

Skull, Spine, and Rib Cage

Alcohol to alkyl halide

Sn1 reaction (Weak nucleophile)

Cooperation

Social behavior among animals where they work together to acheive a goal.

Phase changes that are endothermic (+H, create disorder)

Solid --> Liquid (Fusion) Liquid --> Gas (Vaporization) Solid --> Gas (Sublimation)