EarthSci 1121

Two different distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula

True

Two distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula.

True

Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten.

True

Very early in earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten-True/False

True

scoria

vesicular ejecta that is the product of basaltic magma

Small holes and voids in extrusive igneous rocks that are left by escaping gasses are termed.

vesicular/ craters

volatile increases

viscosity increases

When contained within magma, compounds such as H20, CO2, CH4 and SO2 are termed ________ based on the relatively low temperature at which they become a gas.

volatile gases?

Substances that can be transformed to a gas at relatively low temperatures are termed

volatiles

Substances that can be transformed to a gas at relatively low temperatures are termed ____________. Volatiles

volatiles

When contained within magma, compouds such as H20, CO2, CH4 and SO2 are termed ______________based on the relatively low temperature at which they become a gas.

volatiles

define pyroclastic debris

volcanic ash and scoria that is thrown out of the volcano upon the eruption

intrusion formed within the magma chamber of volcano

volcanic neck

What was unusual about the 1986 disaster around Lake Nyos in Cameroon?

volcanically derived carbon dioxide gas bubbled from the lake and suffocated people and animals nearby

Ash, cinders, and blocks are all types of ____________.

volcaniclastic debris

The apparent polar wander path obtained from magnetite crystals in basalts on the North American continent is now interpreted to be the result of

wandering of the geomagnetic North Pole

What are the conditions that promote limestone formation?

warm water, shallow and sunlit water, clean/clear water without mud

Chemical weathering takes place most rapidly in environments that are ____________ and ____________.

warm; wet

Regions of the sea floor with positive magnetic anomalies were formed during times when Earth's magnetic field ____________.

was exceptionally strong

If a geologist found preserved mud cracks, he or she could conclude that the environment in which they formed

was once covered in wet mud was once covered in hexagonal plates with curled-up edges has been covered in sediment All of the above are correct.

In the atmosphere, carbonic acid forms from the reaction of carbon dioxide and ______.

water

Layer Z is most likely to be reservoir rock containing _______ in the pore space.

water

which is more dense, water or ice?

water

which is more dense, water or steam?

water

Important volatiles in magmas include ____________.

water and carbon dioxide

Welded tuff (ignimbrite)

Tuff that is deposited while hot -Hot pyroclastic flow material that fuses before cooling.

Gases that are abundantly emitted by volcanoes include ____________.

water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide

relative weak flows readily

Unlike lithosphere, the asthenosphere

As shown in the figure, different silicate minerals are grouped based upon how Si-O tetrahedra bond. In this grouping scheme, three-dimensional network silicate minerals have either no cleavage (quartz) or two planes of cleavage at 90 degrees (feldspar). What causes this difference within the same silicate group?

Unlike quartz, the feldspars have Al and some combination of Na, Ca, and K in their atomic structure, allowing cleavage.

Which of the following energy sources does not produce carbon dioxide?

Uranium

Seismic Waves

waves produced by earthquakes

In Mica each sheet contains chemical bonds that are very strong. However the bonds that hold the sheets together are very?

weak, so the sheets can be easily torn apart. this is an example of cleavage

What is the term for the general process by which rocks are broken down at the Earth's surface?

weathering

What is the primary processes of the formation of sedentary rock?

Weathering (breakdown), erosion (transport) and deposition (where everything ends up)

A pyroclastic deposit in which the particles are partially fused is termed a welded tuff.

welded

If particles are partially fused during the compaction of an ash or pyroclastic flow, then the resulting fused and compacted rock is said to be _________.

welded

Ash and lava fragments that cascade down the sides of a volcano eventually settle and lithify to form ____________.

welded tuff

Most of the metals currently in commercial use

were discovered during the last two centuries

Most of the metals currently in commercial use ____________.

were discovered during the last two centuries

Define hot spots and give an example

what areas with mantle plumes are dubbed, Hawaii and the Emperor Islands

Partial melting

When a rock is heated, certain minerals may begin to melt while other minerals remain solid

calcite

When in contact with hydrochloric acid, which mineral gives off bubbles of carbon dioxide gas?

Convergent

Where plate destruction occurs. When two plates collide and one of them is subducted back into the earth

Divergent

Where plates are separating and new oceanic lithosphere is forming. Most commonly form along the crests of oceanic ridges.

Transform

Where the plates slide laterally past one another

The internal ordering of mineral crystals is detected using

X-ray diffraction

The internal ordering of mineral crystals is detected using ____________.

X-ray diffraction

Which national park is home to a large volcanic caldera formed through a very large explosive eruption 630,000 years ago?

Yellowstone

Which national park is home to a large volcanic caldera formed through a very large explosive eruption 640,000 years ago?

Yellowstone

Intrusive

_____ igneous rocks commonly have large mineral crystals. The slow loss of heat allows the minerals in the cooling magma to form large, well-developed crystals.

Original Horizontality

______ ______ ///// ///// Material was once horizontal, must have been tilted. Not igneous rock, only sedimentary

An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed ____________. a. porphyritic b. phaneritic c. aphanitic d. necrotic

a

Basaltic lavas that solidify at the surface before flow ceases fracture irregularly, producing a sharp-surfaced lava rock named _________.

a a

magma

a body of molton rock found a depth including any disolved gasses and liquids

Fault

a break in earth's lithosphere along which earthquakes hav occurred

shield volcano

a broad gently sloping volcano built from the fluid basaltic lava

lava dome

a bulbous mass associated with an old-age volcano produced when thick lava is slowly squeezed from the vent, lava domes may act as plugs to deflect subsequent gaseous eruptions

Regional metamorphism

a change in the texture, structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to changes in temperature and pressure over a large area, generally as a result of tectonic forces

Contact metamorphism

a change in the texture, structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to contact with magma

concrete is ______. a) synonymous with the term 'cement' b) synonymous with the term 'Portland cement' c) a combination of cement, sand, and gravel d) powdered rock of any lithology mixed with water and allowed to set overnight

a combination of cement, sand, and gravel

Magmatic differentiation

a complex process whereby a single melt can produce a wide variety of different igneous rocks

Mica

a complex silicate has perfect one-directional cleavage occurs as two varieties: biotite and muscovite is formed of thin, elastic flakes

intermediate composition

a composistional group of igneous rocks indicating that the rock contains al least 25% dark silicate minerals, the other dominate mineral is plagioclase feldspar

mafic "basalt composistion"

a compositional group of igneous rocks indicating that the rock contains substantial dark silicate minerals and calcium rich plagioclase feldspar

felsic "granite composition"

a compositional group of igneous rocks indicating the rock is composed almost entirely of light colored silicates

ultramatic composition

a compositional group of igneous rocks that contain mostly olivine and pyroxene

Within the terminology of plate tectonics, an active margin is

a continental coastline that coincides with a plate boundary

in the terminology of plate tectonics, an active margin is

a continental coastline that coincides with a plate boundary

fissure

a crack in a rock along which there is a distinct separation

When a piece of quartz is broken it has?

a curved, shell-shaped fracture

obsidian

a dark colored glassy rock that usually forms when silica rich lava is quenched quickly , not composed of minerals in the sense that other rocks are

Describe and pyroclastin type of eruption?

a fast-moving current of extremely hot gas, moving away from the volcano.

basalt

a fine grained igneous rock of mafic compsition

Minerals are all naturally occurring solid substances with a definable chemical composition. They must also possess ____________.

a fixed crystalline structure (spatial arrangement of atoms and ions)

minerals are all naturally occuring solid substances with a definable chemical composition. they must also possess

a fixed crystalline structure (spatial arrangement of atoms and ions)

pyroclastic flow

a highly heated mixture, largely of ash and pumice fragments traveling down the flanks of a volcano or along the surface of the ground

Mount St. Helens killed a geologist studying the volcano because ____________.

a landslide produced a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one anticipated

Mt. St. Helens killed a geologist studying the volcano because ____________.

a landslide produced a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one anticipated

caldera

a large depression typically caused by collapse or ejection of the summit area of a volcano

batholith

a large mass of igneous rock that formed when magma was emplaced at depth, crystallized and subsequently exposed by erosion

pahoehoe flow

a lava flow with a smooth to ropey surface

Strata

a layer of material, naturally or artificially formed, often formed one upon another.

pumice

a light colored glassy vesicular rock commonly having granite composistion

Melting Point Line

a line on a plot of temperature and pressure showing where a substance transitions from solid to liquid

lacolith

a massive igneous body intruded between existing stradda

viscosity

a measure of a fluids resistance to flow

A unique substance with its own chemical composition and crystal structure is what?

a mineral

What is a naturally occurring , inorganic solid with a crystal structure and a characteristic chemical composition called?

a mineral

Minerals are homogeneous substances in that

a mineral's physical properties and geometry are spatially uniform (the material behaves much the same no matter where it is observed)

volcano

a mountain formed from lava and or pyroclastics

What is the definition of a mineral?

a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a crystal structure and a characteristic chemical composition

The structure of an atom is

a nucleus of protons and neutrons and an electron "cloud"

columnar joints

a pattern of cracks that forms during cooling of molten rock to generate columns

Seismic Discontinuity

a place where the velocities of seismic waves change abruptly

Foliated metamorphic rocks possess

a planar fabric consisting of mineral grains in preferred orientaions of preferred patterns of association (banding)

stock

a pluton similar to a batholith but smaller

An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed a. porphyritic b. phaneritic c. aphanitic d. necrotic

a porphyritic

welded tuff

a pyroclastic deposit composed of particles fused together by the combination of the heat still contained in the deposit after it has come to rest and the weight of overlying material

cinder cone

a rather small volcano built primarily of ejected lava fragments that consists of pea to walnut-sized lapilli

Shadow Zone

a region of earth where seismic waves cannot be detected by seismometers

What is a solid combination of minerals or mineral materials called?

a rock

A clastic rock is

a rock formed from the cementation of transported grains

Peridotite

a rock made up mostly of silicon, oxygen and the transition metals iron and magnesium that is denser than the basalt and granite that make up Earth's crust

A dike is ____________.

a sheetlike intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers

A sill is ____________.

a sheetlike intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock

Asthenosphere

a soft, plastic, partially molten mechanical layer in earth located below the lithosphere

What is a rock?

a solid combination of minerals or mineral materials

pluton

a structure that results from the emplacement and crystallization of magma beneath the surface of Earth

Iceland rises above the Atlantic Ocean as a result of ____________.

a submarine hot spot located along a mid-ocean ridge

sill

a tabular igneous body that was intruded parallel to the layering of pre-existing rock

dike

a tabular shaped intrusive igneous feature that cuts through the surrounding rock

Cleavage in minerals refers to

a tendency to break along planes of weakness

Cleavage in minerals refers to ____________.

a tendency to break along planes of weakness

vesicular texture

a term applied to the aphanitic igneous rocks that contain many small cavities called vesicles

discordant

a term that used to describe plutons that cut across existing rock structures such as bedding planes

concordant

a term used t describe an intrusive igneous mass that formed parallel to the bedding of the surrounding rock

pegmatitic texture

a texture of an igneous rock in which the interlocking crystals are all larger than one centimeter in diameter

aphanatic texture

a texture of igneous rocks in which the crystals are too small for individual minerals to be formed distinguished without a microscope

What is cleavage?

a type of fracture in which the mineral tends to split along regular, well-defined plants(flat surfaces) were bonds are weakest

aa flow

a type of lava flow that has a jagged blocky surface

What is each mineral?

a unique substance with its own chemical composition and crystal structure

fumarole

a vent in a volcanic area from which fumes or gases escape

composite cone

a volcano composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material

29 Which type of magma has the greatest silica content

a, Felsic

7 Within the sea floor, the rate of geothermal heal flow is greatest

a, along mid-ocean ridges

23 Trace amounts of impurity in a mineral can commonly produce significant differences in ____ among individual crystals of this mineral

a, color

35 Basaltic lavas

a, contain more iron and magnesium than rhyoliticlavas

14 Deep-oceanic trenches are features of plate boundaries

a, convergent

15 The volcanoes of the Cascades Mountains are related to melting of rock associated with a plate boundary

a, convergent

17 At transform-plate boundaries

a, earthquakes are common but volcanoes are absent

54 What does pyroclastic debris consist of

a, fragments of solidified lava erupted into the air from a volcano

46 What type of rock is being formed in this picture

a, igneous

8 The age of oceanic crust____ with increasing distance from a mid-ocean ridge

a, increases

34 Hawaiian-style effusive cruptions are a greater threat to property than to human life

a, true

As compared to aphanitic igneous rocks, phaneritic rocks are ____________. a. coarser grained b. finer grained c. more mafic d. more felsic

a. coarser grained

Is a laccolith a. concordant or b. discordant as an intrusion?

a. concordant

PeleOs hair a. consistes of thin strands of basaltic pyroclastic debris b. acquires aerodynamic torpedo like shapes during flight out of the volcanic cent c. forms only at the leading edge of basaltic lava flows d. was instrumental in scoring the winning goal to defeat Uruguay in the 1958 World Cup finals

a. consistes of thin strands of basaltic pyroclastic debris

Basaltic lavas a. contain more iron an d magnesium than rhyolitic lavas b. contain more silica than rhyolitic lavas c. are more biscous than rhyolitic lavas d. contain a greater proportion of trapped volatiles than rhyolitic lavas

a. contain more iron an d magnesium than rhyolitic lava

As compared to coarse grained igneous rocks, all fine grained igneous rocks a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temps d. solidify at lower temps

a. cool and solidify more quickly

As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, all fine-grained igneous rocks ____________. a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temperatures d. solidify at lower temperatures

a. cool and solidify more quickly

Rhyolitic lavas a. do not flow as far from the vent as basaltic lavas do b. cool much more slowly than basaltic lavas do c. are associated with volcanoes that almost never emit pyroclastic debris d. all of the above

a. do not flow as far from the vent as basaltic lavas

Which type of magma has the greatest silica content a. felsic b. intermediate c. mafic d. ultramafic

a. felsic

Which type of magma has the greatest silica content? a. felsic b. intermediate c. mafic d. ultramafic

a. felsic

At continental rifts, vast bodies of basaltic lava flow forth from fissures, forming a. flood basalt b. pyroclastic flows c. ash fall tufts

a. flood basalt

Large igneous provinces are formed by ___________, which can flow tens to hundreds of kilometers. a. flood basalts b. sills c. super plumes d. None of the above are correct.

a. flood basalts

If a body of magma becomes for felsic, its viscosity will a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same

a. increase

If a body of magma becomes more felsic, its viscosity will ____________. a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same

a. increase

When magma crystallizes, ____ are formed. a. intrusive igneous rocks, b. volatiles c. extrusive igneous rocks d. pyroclastic debris

a. intrusive igneous rocks

When magma crystallizes, ____________ are formed. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. extrusive igneous rocks c. volatiles d. pyroclastic debris

a. intrusive igneous rocks

Most terrestrial volcanic glass a. is highly silicic in composition b. is coarse grained c. consists of microscopic crystals d. freezes from lavas with low viscosity

a. is highly silicic in composition

A fast moving flow consisting of a mixture of water and volcaniclastic debris is termed a a. lahar b. glowing avalanche c. flood basalt d. stratovolcano

a. lahar

In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form

a. long one-dimensional chains b. extensive two-dimensional sheets c. massive three-dimensional frameworks

Due to fractional crystallization and assimilation of surrounding host rock, most magmas that rise slowly through the crust evolve chemically to become a. more felsic b. more mafic c. dominated by nonsilicate minerals

a. more felsic

Magma tends to _____________. a. move upward, away from where it formed b. move downward, away from where it formed c. move laterally d. stay in one place

a. move upward, away from where it formed

In Bowen's discontinuous reaction series, the first mineral to crystallize from a mafic melt is ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz

a. olivine

In Bowen's discontinuous reaction series, the first mineral to crystallize from a mafic melt is a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz

a. olivine

Stoping by magmas occurs when ____________. a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated b. the magma stops flowing and starts to solidify c. the magma becomes fully solidified to form intrusive rock d. the magma alters a thin rind of surrounding country rock

a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated

Stoping by magmas occurs when a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated b. the magma stops flowing and starts to solidify c. the magma becomes fully solidified to form intrusive rock d. the magma alters a thin rind of surrounding country rock

a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated

An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed ____________. a. porphyritic b. phaneritic c. aphanitic d. necrotic

a. porphyritic

A sill is a (an)____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers

a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock

Which of the following is a way crystals can form?

a. solidification of a melt b. precipitation from solution c. solid-state diffusion d. biomineralization e. precipitation from gas

Mt Fuji in Japan is an example of a a. statovolcano b. cinder cone c. shield volcano

a. stratovolcano

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ consist of alternating layers of tephra and solidified lava. a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes

a. stratovolcanoes

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ which sometimes referred to as composite volcanoes a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes

a. stratovolcanoes

An island volcanic arc occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Mt. St. Helens, Washington

a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska

Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten. a. true b. false

a. true

Ash, cinders, and blocks are all types of a. volcaniclastic debris b. lava flows c. Peleos hair d. volcanos

a. volcaniclastic debris

Gases that are abundantly emitted by volcanoes include a. water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide b. oxygen, ozone, and water vapor c. oxygen, hydrogen, and neon d. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxygen

a. water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide

With regard to minerals, hardness refers to ____________.

ability to resist being scratched by other substances

hardness

ability to resist being scratched by other substances

How often do magnitude 8 earthquakes occur?

about every 5 to 10 years

Since a glass plate has a hardness of 5.5 if a mineral can scratch it is its hardness above or below 5.5?

above 5.5

The rate of motion of a lithospheric plate with respect to a stationary hot spot is termed

absolute plate velocity

A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) to a solution is called a(n) ______.

acid

The coast of the northwestern United States is an example of a/an _____ margin

active

Earthquakes are most frequent near coastlines that are termed

active margins

Oceanic lithosphere thickens away from mid-ocean ridges primarily due to the

addition of new lithosphere mantle as a result of cooling.

The change in temperature that an air parcel experiences as it rises or falls in the atmosphere is called ______ heating and cooling.

adiabatic

Smaller earthquakes that occur after a major earthquake along the same fault that are termed

aftershocks

current idea continental drift

agree that continental drift occurs; the mechanisms that drive drift are at work in the ocean basins and upper mantle and were unknown in wegener's time

Plutonic rock

aka intrusive; Rocks formed from magma at depth

Around 1929, Hubble and other astronomers discovered that the light of distant galaxies displayed red shifts relative to the light of nearby stars. This means that

all distant galaxies are moving away from Earth at an immense velocity the whole Universe is expanding

Which one of the following features is NOT associated with sedimentary rocks?

all may be associated with sedimentary rocks (bedding, foliation, fossils)

Which of the following processes occurs during lithification?

all may occur (recrystallization,compaction,cementation)

Hot-spot volcanoes ____________.

all of the above

In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form

all of the above

The metallic content of Earth's core is ____________.

all of the above

The world faces an energy crisis because _________. a) world demand for energy will increase b) world oil production will peak and begin to decline c) shortages and the resulting escalation of prices can shock the economic and political order d) all of the above

all of the above

Whether an eruption will primarily produce lava flows or pyroclastic debris is influenced by ____________.

all of the above

In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form ____________.

all of the above (long one-dimensional chains, extensive two-dimensional sheets and massive three-dimensional frameworks)

During fractional crystallization

all of the above:iron, magnesium, and calcium is removed from the magma and the magma becomes enriched in silica, sodium, and potassium and the composition of the magma becomes more felsic

Carbonic acid, the primary agent of chemical weathering is produced by ________ .

all of these

Soil is composed of a) organic matter produced by organisms b) fragments of bedrock c) clay minerals formed by the chemical alteration of bedrock d) all of these

all of these

The physical and chemical weathering of a granite will produce a) ions dissolved in rainwater and soil water b) mineral fragments and granite fragments c) clays and iron oxides d) all of these

all of these

The physical and chemical weathering of a granite will produce __________.

all of these

Which of the following can be triggered by an earthquake?

all of these

Which of the following can trigger a tsunami?

all of these

Which of the following factors would increase the rate of weathering?

all of these

Which of the following observations may indicate a forthcoming destructive earthquake?

all of these

Which of the following problems is associated with the burning of coal? a) acid rain b) carbon dioxide emissions c) ash with toxic metal impurities d) all of these

all of these

Shallow earthquakes, less than 20 km deep, are associated with

all of these (convergent, divergent or transform plate boundaries)

Which of the following factors would increase the chemical weathering rate?

all of these (increasing rainfall, temperature, organic activity)

Which of the following types of currents can transport sand grains?

all of these (rivers, wind, ocean waves)

which of the following affect the rate of weathering? a) the soil type and extent b) the rock type c) the climate d) all of these affect weathering rates

all of these affect weathering rates

Ripples occur:

all of these can have ripples (on sand beneath the waves at beaches,on underwater sandbars in streams,on the surface of windswept dunes)

as compared to arkose, quartz sandstone

all the above

obsidian

all the above

unlike physically precipitated chert, biochemical chert

all the above

Earthquakes are likely to occur along

all three major types of plate boundaries

A mixture of copper and tin would be called

alloy

Which environment would most likely produce sedimentary deposits characterized by very well-sorted, very well-rounded grains that are nearly pure quartz?

alluvial fan

Within the sea floor, the rate of geothermal heat flow is greatest ____________.

along mid ocean ridges

Sea-floor spreading is driven by volcanic activity ________.

along mid-ocean ridges

The youngest sea floor occurs

along mid-ocean ridges

sea floor spreading is driven by volcanic activity

along mid-ocean ridges

Sea-floor spreading is driven by volcanic activity where?

along mid-ocean ridges. NOT folded mountain belts.

The metal ores that are found in veins within plutons typically occur _____

alongside abundant quartz

subduct zone over plate

always composed of continental lithosphere

subduct zone down plate

always composed of oceanic lithosphere

A hotspot is

an area of volcanic activity with a deep magma source

According to the United States Geological Survey, the term pyroclastic flow refers to a ground-hugging mixture of ash, pumice, rock fragments, and hot gas that rushes down the side of a volcano at speeds of 100 km/hour or more. The temperature within pyroclastic flows can reach 500° C or more. The picture below shows a ground hugging cloud of hot gases and ash (white arrow) rushing down the side of Mayon Volcano, Philippines, during an explosive eruption on 15 September 1984. What do geologists call a pyroclastic flow composed of hot gases and ash?

an ash flow

porphyritic texture

an igneous rock texture characterized by 2 distinctively different crystal sizes. the larger are called phenocrysts and the smaller matrix of crystals is called the groundmass

pyroclastic texture

an igneous rock texture resulting from the consolidation of individual rock fragments that are ejected from a violent volcanic eruption

phanertitic texture

an igneous rock texture that in which the crystals are roughly the same size and large enough so the indiviual mineral can be distinguished by the naked eye

All oil traps contain ___________.

an impermeable layer

xenolith

an inclusion of unmelted, country rock in an igneous pluton

volcanic neck

an isolated, steep sided, erosional remnant consisting of lava that once occupied the vent of a volcano

A volcanic island arc forms when

an oceanic plate subducts beneath another oceanic plate

Moving into the interior of Earth, temperature ____________.

and pressure both increase

Coarse-grained diorite is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________.

andesite

The form of small poorly developed crystals is termed

anhedral

The form of small, poorly developed crystals is termed

anhedral

A neutral atom that gains an electron becomes a/an ______________ .

anion

The oil trap shown here is a(n) ____________

anticline

Describe the six types of igneous textures (aphanitic, phaneritic, porphyritic, glassy, vesicular, and fragmental/pyroclastic)

aphanitic-Fine grain size, quick cooling Phaneritic-Coarse grain size- slow cooling Porphyritic-mixture of grain sizes, mixture of cooling times Glassy-instant cooling visicular-contains tine holes from gas bubbles in lava-spongelike Fragmental/Pyro-Pieces of rock or ash welded together by heat.

drift N America

apparent polar wandering from magnitite crystals and basalts found in N. America say

Extrusive

are composed of small mineral grains that cannot be seen by the unaided eye.

sill

are concordant and parallel the layers of surrounding rock

dikes

are discordant and cut across layers of surrounding rock

Igneous rocks

are formed through the freezing of melt can be produced at the surface of the Earth as well as deep below the surface are the most common type of rocks within Earth All of the above are correct.

Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks

are lighter in color than mafic rocks

Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks ____________.

are lighter in color than mafic rocks

majority mineral

are quite common and are rare

The vast majority of mineral types

are rare form under special conditions

A minerals crystal structure, color, streak, luster, density, hardness, fracture and cleavage are used to?

are the properties that identify what type of mineral

Transition Zone

area between upper and lower mantle of the earth

MORs

areas with the most (pulling) force that drives plate motion

subduct zones

areas with the most (pushing) force that drives plate motion

A clastic rock comprised of sand-sized grains derived from the physical weathering of granite and containing a sizable proportion of feldspar is termed ____________.

arkose

A feldspar-rich sandstone is called a(n) ________ .

arkose

Which of the following sandstone types is most likely to form by the mechanical weathering of a granite?

arkose

Pyroclastic debris consiting of glass shards and lava "froth" ejected from a volcano, with grain sizes less than 2 mm, is termed

ash

What rock makes up an ignimbrite sheet?

ash-flow tuff

The lithosphere lies atop the

asthenosphere

The lithosphere lies directly above the

asthenosphere

Most of the pulling force driving plate motion is produced

at subduction zones

Most of the pulling force driving plate motion is produced ________.

at subduction zones

Five trillion atoms can fit into the head of an atom. Which of the following is in the correct order of smallest to largest?

atom, electron, nucleus, proton

150 km

average thickness of continental lithosphere is about

41 All volcanic eruptions pass through the crater at the volcanic summit

b, False

48 Using radiometric dating of___ geologists conclude that the barth is about___years old

b, Meteorites, 4.56 BY

45 Which of the following would NOT be considered a rock

b, a pile of unconsolidated sand

39 Basaltic lavas that solidify at their surface fracture irregularly, producing a sharp-surface lava rock named

b, a'a'

55 if a volcano is erupting a gassy, felsic silica rich magma then it is more likely to be

b, an explosive eruption

24 Synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit a fracture pattern termed

b, conchoidal

13 Iceland is one of the few places in the world that is both above sea level and situated atop a ____ plate boundary

b, divergent

16 Mid-ocean ridges are

b, divergent-plate boundries

10 All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust

b, false

21 The most useful diagnostic property of minerals is their color in a hand sample

b, false

6 A compass today points directly to geographic north

b, false

47 Grabite is a type of rock that forms deep underground from magma that cools very slowly, what type of rock is granite

b, igneous

52 Pillow Basalts form by

b, injection of basaltic lava into water

33 Mafic lavas are distinguished by

b, low viscosity

37 Volcanoes that do not occur along present plate boundaries are associated with

b, mantle hot spots

12 At a divergent plate boundary, two opposed plates__

b, move away from one another

22 The most recently formed portion of any crystal always found

b, on the outer edges

38 The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is

b, plagioclase

19 Which of the following would NOT render the volcanos on Hawaii's big island inactive

b, the mantle plume below hawaii moving farther to the northwest

25 Which of the following would help distinguish continental hot spots from oceanic hot spots

b, the presence of both mafic and felsicmagmas

53 Volcanic ash consists of__ an avalanche of hot ash flowing down the flanks of a volcano is known as a

b, tiny shards of glass/pyroclastic flow

49 Why did most geologists initially oppose Wegener's hypothesis of continental drift

b, wegner could not explain how or why continents move

Olympus Mons, the largest known volcano in the Universe is found on a. Earth b. Mars c. Neptune d. Io, a moon of Jupiter

b. Mars

Basaltic lavas that solidify at the surface before flow ceases fracture irregularly, producing a sharp surfaced lava rock named a. pahoehoe b. aa c. pumice d. hyaloclasite

b. aa

Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks ____________. a. contain more iron and magnesium than intermediate rocks b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks c. are darker in color than mafic rocks d. are found in oceanic crust

b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks

Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks a. contain more iron and magnesium than intermediate rocks b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks c. are darker in color than mafic rocks d. are found in oceanic crust

b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks

Coarse grained gabbro is most similar in mineral composition to fine grained a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite

b. basalt

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ consist of a simple, conical pile of tephra. a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes

b. cinder cones

If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will ____________. a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same

b. decrease

If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same

b. decrease

Is a dike a. concordant or b. discordant as an intrusion?

b. discordant

Nonviolent eruptions characterized by extensive flows of basaltic lava are termed a. pyroclastic b. effusive c. explosive

b. effusive

Pillow basalts, shown below, attain their distinctive blob-like shapes because their parent lavas do not travel far prior to solidification. This is because the parent lavas ____________. a. are completely devoid of volatiles and thus travel slowly b. erupt underwater and thus cool very quickly c. are highly felsic and thus travel slowly d. are ultramafic and thus freeze at exceptionally high temperatures

b. erupt underwater and thus cool very quickly

All of the Earth's internal heat was acquired very early in its history through meteoric impact and differentiation of the core. The Earth's interior loses heat to space but does not currently receive heat through any known process. a. true b. false

b. false

Vesicles are a term used to describe a texture in __________ igneous rocks. a. crystalline b. glassy c. pyroclastic

b. glassy

The lithifiication of material from pyroclastic flow forms a rock called a. metabasalt b. ignimbrite c. migmatite d. tuff

b. ignimbrite

A majority of the melts in the Earth form through the partial melting of ultramafic mantle rock. These newly formed magmas are ____________. a. ultramafic b. mafic c. felsic d. intermediate

b. mafic

Volcanoes that do NOT occur along either present or emergent plate boundaries are associated with ____________. a. continental rifts b. mantle hot spots c. mid-ocean ridges d. subduction zones

b. mantle hot spots

In 1902, a famous, deadly volcaniclastic flow killed thousands of people on the Caribbean island of a. puerto rico b. martinique c. aruba d. jamaica

b. martinique

When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is a. more mafic than the original chemistry of the rock b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock c. identical to the original chemistry of the rock d. completely unpredictable

b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock

When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is ____________. a. more mafic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted c. identical to the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted d. completely unpredictable (it could be more mafic or more felsic)

b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted

If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be ____________. a. identical in chemical composition to the magma b. more mafic than the magma c. more felsic than the magma

b. more mafic than the magma

If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be a. identical in chemical composition to the magma b. more mafic than the magma c. more felsic than the magma

b. more mafic than the magma

Bowen's continous reaction series describes the crystallization behavior of a single mineral a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz

b. plagioclase

Bowen's continuous reaction series describes the crystallization behavior of a single mineral (with variable chemical composition), ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz

b. plagioclase

The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz

b. plagioclase

A blob like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is called a a. guyot b. pluton c. lava flow d. andesite

b. pluton

A blob-like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is ____________. a. guyot b. pluton c. lava flow d. andesite

b. pluton

Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they _ a. possess porphyritic texture b. possess exceptionally coarse grains c. are mineralogically identical to the extrusive rock basalt d. are glassy, cooling so rpaidly that crystals do not have time to form

b. possess exceptionally coarse grains

Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they ____________. a. possess porphyritic texture b. possess exceptionally coarse grains c. are mineralogically identical to the extrusive rock basalt d. are glassy, cooling so rapidly that crystals do not have time to form

b. possess exceptionally coarse grains

The geotherm is the rate of change of a. pressure with depth in Earth's interior b. temp with depth in earth's interior c. temp with altitude in earth's atmosphere d. temp with latitude on earth's surface

b. temp with depth in earth's interior

The geotherm is the rate of change of ____________. a. pressure with depth in Earth's interior b. temperature with depth in Earth's interior c. temperature with altitude in Earth's atmosphere d. temperature with latitude on Earth's surface

b. temperature with depth in Earth's interior

The difference between tephra and tuff is that a. tephra is created in ash falls, whereas tuff is created in pyroclastic flows b. tephra is unlithified, whereas tuff is lithified c. tephra is always silicic, whereas tuff is always basaltic d. all of the above

b. tephra is unlithified, whereas tuff is lithified

A continental volcanic arc occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Japan

b. the Andes Mountains

How do rock particles move during the passage of a P wave through the rock?

back and forth parallel to the direction of wave travel

Coarse-grained gabbro is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained

basalt

Coarse-grained gabbro is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________.

basalt

Give an example of a fine grained igneous rock

basalt

The extrusive compositional equivalent of gabbro is________.

basalt

The magma composition erupted by a hotspot beneath oceanic crust is

basalt

pillow lava "pillow basalts"

basaltic lava that solidifies underwater and develops a structure that resembles a pile of pillows

On a geologic map, if the contacts between sedimentary rock units form a bull's eye pattern of concentric circles, with the youngest unit in the center, the underlying structure is a(n)

basin

Most coal is mined from ____________, which develop and preserve the thick sedimentary sequences necessary for deep burial.

basins

most coal is mined from

basins

The major source of aluminum metal, _______, is a clay-rich ore composed of aluminum hydroxide.

bauxite

Radioactive isotopes, differentiation of Earth's iron core, gravity-driven compression, and meteoric bombardment all caused early Earth to ____________.

be much hotter at present

Because the velocity of sediment settling (deposition) is positively related to grain size for waterborne sediments, fluvial deposits are more likely than glacial deposits to ____________.

be well sorted

Because the velocity of sediment settling (deposition) is positively related to grain size for waterborne sediments, fluvial deposits are more likely than glacial deposits to

be well sorted

In which of the following environments would you expect to find oscillation ripples?

beach

In which of the following environments would you expect to find symmetrical ripples?

beach

Why is limestone considered a biochemical sedimentary rock?

because it was made of broken and ground shells of dead organisms

Why are silicate minerals the most common group of minerals in the crust?

because oxygen and silicon are the most common elements in the crust

With increasing altitude, the concentration of gases in our atmosphere ____________.

become less dense

WIth time, sediment transported by a fluvial system ___________.

becomes rounded and smaller

With time, sediment transported by glaciers ___________.

becomes smaller

Geologists call individual layers of sedimentary rocks _____________ , whereas several of them together are called _

beds; strata

What are the characterizations of shield volcanoes?

big, very hot, basalt, low viscosity, quiet eruptions, contains relatively fluid melt

Cemented shells of marine organisms form which kind of sedimentary rock?

biochemical

Solar energy stored in material such as wood, grain, sugar, and municipal waste is called __________.

biomass

The most common type of amphibole is

biotite

Which of the following minerals always appears to be darker in color than the other minerals in the list? (A)Quartz (B) Plagioclase (C) K-feldspar (D)Calcite (E) Biotite

biotite

Which of the following minerals display one direction of well developed cleavage? (A)Quartz (B) Calcite (C) Galena (D)Biotite (E) Pyroxene

biotite

Flint, once commonly used to form arrowheads, is a

black variety of replacement chert

Protoplanets

bodies approaching the size of todays planets.

____ waves pass through the interior of the Earth

body

From the following list what item represents the size class composed of the largest pyroclastic material?

bombs/blocks

Which of the following human activities has resulted in increased rates of weathering?

both A and B

Picture

both A and B are not minerals; however, C is a mineral

Which of the following is not a mineral?

both A and B are not minerals; however, C is a mineral

All other factors being equal. intrusive rocks that form deep within earth __ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface a. are more felsic b. contain a smaller proportion of volatiles c. cool more slowly d. cool more rapidly

c cool more slowly

1 From the choices below, the best estimate of the age of the universe is____ Old.

c, 14 billion years

58 If the scale on a map is 1:24,000 then what is the length in centimeters of a field that measures 1 cm long on the map

c, 24000

11 Within the terminology of plate tectonics an active margin is___

c, a continental coastline that coincides with a plate boundary

9 A "stripe" of a particular magnetic orientation that has a very large width could be indicative of ___

c, both a and b are correct, a-a great deal of time spent in a particular magnetic regime, b-higher spreading rates than other points in time

51 in which of the following tectonic settings is magma formation NOT likely a consequence of decompression melting

c, convergent margin arc

28 All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth___ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface

c, cool more slowly

26 Gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites, which are igneous rocks that are

c, exceptionally coarse grained

36 Consult the figure below. if you found deposits of tuff at an __ igneous setting, you could conclude that the lava had a__ viscosity content

c, extrusive, high

43 The Hawaiian island chain is an example of a

c, hot-spot island chain

30 A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, new mexico is a

c, intrusion formed within a volcano

32 Mt. Kilimanjaro and the basin and range province are the result of

c, rifting

42 Of the three primary forms of subaerial vocanoes___ cover the largest areas

c, shield volcanoes

18 Hot spots can occur

c, within either continental or oceanic plates

A famous example of hot-spot volcanism occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Mt. St. Helens, Washington

c. Hawaii

The eruption of Mt St. Helens killed a geologist stuyding the volcano because a. the geologist disregarded orders to keep a safe distance from the vent b. the eruption produced a greater volume of ash than anyone predicted c. a landslide produced a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one had anticipated d. lahars swept down all sides of the volcano and buried all towns within 100 km

c. a landslide produced a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one had anticipated

Iceland rises above the Atlantic Ocean as a result of a. normal mid ocean ridge activity b. a submarine hot spot located within the interior of the plate c. a submarine hot spot located along a mid ocean ridge d. subduction of an oceanic plate underneath the continental Eurasian plate

c. a submarine hot spot located along a mid ocean ridge

Radioactive isotopes, differentiation of Earth's iron core, gravity-driven compression, and meteoric bombardment all caused early Earth to ____________. a. glow brighter than the Sun b. be much cooler than at present c. be much hotter than at present d. be much more oblong than at present

c. be much hotter than at present

Radioactive isotopes, differentiation of Earth's iron core, gravity-driven compression, and meteoric bombardment all caused early earth to a. glow brighter than the sun b. be much cooler than at present c. be much hotter than at present d. be much more oblong than at present

c. be much hotter than at present

Explosive or voluminous eruptions may cause the volcano to collapse on the floor of the now empty magma chamber, producing a broad depression termed a a. crater b. lahar c. caldera d. fissure

c. caldera

All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth ____________ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface. a. are more felsic b. contain a smaller proportion of volatiles c. cool more slowly d. cool more rapidly

c. cool more slowly

If you found tuff deposits at an ___________ igneous setting, you could conclude that the lava had a ___________ viscosity content. a. intrusive; high b. intrusive; low c. extrusive; high d. extrusive; low

c. extrusive; high

The smoky cloud that rises from the vent of an actively erupting volcano is composed of a. smoke from wildfires inside the volcano chimney b. smoke from wildfires on the outer slopes of the volcano that become funneled into the crater c. fine volcaniclastic debris suspended in the air d. a continouus fountain of dark, basaltic lava

c. fine volcaniclastic debris suspended in the air

As compared to subaerial basaltic lavas, submarine basaltic lavas differ in that they a. always produce violent pyroclastic debris flows b. produce large crystals of pyroxene and plagioclase c. form pillow like mounds because they cannot flow as far from their source d. all of the aboce

c. form pillow like mounds because they cannot flow as far from their source

Volatiles refer to substances that ____________. a. crystallize most rapidly out of a melt b. melt immediately upon contact with a hot body of magma c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases

c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases

Volatiles refer to substances that a. crystallize most rapidly out of a melt b. melt immediately upon contact with a hot body of magma c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases

c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases

The Hawaiin island chain is an example of a a. island volcanic arc b. continental volcanic arc c. hot spot island chain d. stratovolcano assembly

c. hot spot island chain

A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, New Mexico (below), is a (an) ____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers

c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano

The difference between lava and magma is that magma ____________. a. is light in color, whereas lava is dark b. usually has mafic composition, whereas lava usually has felsic composition c. is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface d. flows more quickly than lava

c. is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface

Geologically, melts are equivalent to both a. felsic and mafic magmas b. felsic and mafic lavas c. lavas and magmas d. fine grained and coarse grained igneous rocks

c. lavas and magmas

Geologically, melts are equivalent to both ____________ and ____________. a. felsic magma; mafic magma b. felsic lava; mafic lava c. lavas; magmas d. fine-grained igneous rocks; coarse-grained igneous rocks

c. lavas; magmas

The difference between lava and magma is that a. magma is light in color and lava is dark b. magma usually has mafic composition an lava usually has felsic composition c. magma is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface d. magma flows more quickly than lava

c. magma is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava usually has reached the surface

The difference between magma and lava is ____________. a. magma cools more rapidly than lava b. magma is found at the surface, whereas lava is found below the surface c. magma is found beneath the surface, whereas lava is found at the surface d. There is no difference; the two terms mean the same thing.

c. magma is found beneath the surface, whereas lava is found at the surface

Injecting hot fudge into ice cream is an appropriate analogy for which cause of magma melt? a. Melting due to a decrease in pressure b. melting due to an addition of volatiles c. melting due to heat transfer from rising magma d. All of the above are correct.

c. melting due to heat transfer from rising magma

If a body of igneous (source) rock is subjected to partial melting, the magma that is produced is expected to be ____________. a. identical in chemical composition to the source rock b. more mafic than the source rock c. more felsic than the source rock

c. more felsic than the source rock

In 79 CE, the citizens of Pompeii in the Roman Empire were buried by pyroclastic debris derived from an eruption of a. mt. olympus b. olympus mons c. mt. vesuvius d. mt. st. helens

c. mt. vesuvius

Mt. Kilimanjaro and the Basin and Range Province are the result of _____________. a. converging plates b. subducting plates c. rifting d. None of the above are correct.

c. rifting

Olympus Mons, the largest known Volcano in the Universe, is an example of a a. stratovolcano b. cinder cone c. shield volcano

c. shield volcano

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ have the most gently sloping sides, due to the low viscosity of the basaltic lavas which form them. a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes

c. shield volcanoes

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ are the largest in area a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes

c. shield volcanoes

A volcano emits ash, which falls from the sky, settles in layers and is eventually cemented. The resultant rock is termed a. pumice b. granite c. tuff d. ignimbrite

c. tuff

A volcano emits ash, which falls from the sky, settles in layers, and is eventually cemented. The resulting rock is termed ____________. a. pumice b. granite c. tuff d. ignimbrite

c. tuff

What was unusual about the 1986 disaster around Lake Nyos in Cameroon a. a volcanic eruption involved a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one anticipated b. pyroclastic flows buried surrounding villages, reminiscent of the burial of Pompeii 1900 years earlier c. volcanically derived carbon dioxide gas bubbled from the lake and suffocated people and animals nearby d. a slurry of lava and lake water flowed rapidly outward form the lake and buried surrounding villages

c. volcanically derived carbon dioxide gas bubbled from the lake and suffocated people and animals nearby

Important volatiles in magmas include ____________. a. iron- and magnesium-rich minerals, such as olivine b. potassium and aluminum c. water and carbon dioxide d. trinitrotoluene and nitroglycerin

c. water and carbon dioxide

Important volatiles in magmas include a. iron and magnesium rich minerals b. potassium and aluminum c. water and carbon dioxide d. ricrinitrotoluene and nitroglycerin

c. water and carbon dioxide

Ash and lava fragments that cascade down the sides of a volcano eventually settle and lithify to form ____________. a. basalt b. andesite c. welded tuff d. ash-fall tuff

c. welded tuff

The major mineral found in limestone is

calcite

When in contact with hydrochloric acid, which mineral gives off bubbles of carbon dioxide gas?

calcite

Which of the following common minerals is most easily dissolved in water?

calcite

Biochemical limestones are dominated by carbonate mud and fragments of

calcitic and aragonitic skeletons of marine invertebrates

Most shells of marine organisms are composed of ________ .

calcium carbonate

Explosive or voluminous eruptions may cause the volcano to collapse on the floor of the (now empty) magma chamber, producing a broad depression termed a ___________.

caldera

deserts

caliche

Rhyolite magma

can be formed by fractional crystallization of basalt magma (Silica content is positively correlated with magma viscosity. This means that high silica rhyolite (65-75% silica) is also high in viscosity. This causes it to erupt explosively if gases are present in the magma because the high viscosity nature of the magma (thick, pasty) makes it difficult for gases to be released from the magma. High silica magma compositions can be produced from basalt (the magma composition produced by melting of the upper mantle) through fractional crystallization. As the magma cools, mafic minerals high in Fe, Mg, and Ca are crystallized first by virtue of their higher melting points. This results in a smaller volume of more felsic magma - magma enriched in silica, Na, and K - such as andesite and rhyolite. The amount of silica enrichment depends on the amount of fractional crystallization that has occurred.)

Limestone reefs and salt deposits are important rocks in earths history because they

can be used to infer the ancient climate of the earth; they are deposited in environments that are restricted to warm climates

Marine sediments deposited in water depths greater than about 12,000 feet usually lack ________ .

carbonate shells

The rate of chemical weathering is increased by acids. The most common natural acid on the Earth's surface is ________

carbonic

A neutral atom that loses an electron becomes a/an ______________ .

cation

block and ash flows

caused by collapse of lava dome that became too tall or too steep to support itself usually andesite to dacitic are reversely graded

tuff

cemented ash

According to the figure below, the Earth's magnetic reversals are likely due to

changes in circulation patterns in the outer core

Metamorphism, in broadest terms, involves

changes in mineralogy and texture in response to heat and stress

Some minerals can be identified by a?

characteristic color

Gypsum is an example of a ______ sedimentary rock.

chemical

Petrified wood is an example of a______sedimentary rock.

chemical

The way a rock breaks apart tells us where the ?

chemical bonds are the weakest

Polymorphs are two or more minerals that have the same ______ but different ______.

chemical composition, atomic structure

Spheroidal weathering occurs when

chemical weathering attacks corners and edges of rock more rapidly than its interior

This limestone grave marker is hard to read due to ____ weathering.

chemical? not physical

The distinction between the crust and mantle is primarily on the basis of a difference in ________; the distinction between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is primarily on the basis of a difference in ________.

chemistry (mineral content); degree of physical rigidity

The distinction between crust and mantle is primarily on the basis of a difference in_____; the distinction between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is primarily on the basis of a difference in____.

chemistry (mineral content); degree of physical rigidity.

Minerals are classified into groups primarily on a basis of ____________.

chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula

minerals are classified into groups primarily on the basis of

chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula

asteroid vs. meteor vs. meteorite:

chunks of rock and metal vs. object moving into earth's atmosphere vs. object from space hitting earth

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ consist of a simple, conical pile of tephra.

cinder cones

What is the sediment present in deep oceans, lakes, etc?

clay

Shale refers to a rock formed from

clay minerals

What minerals form by the breakdown and weathering of rock-forming silicate minerals and are important constituents of soils?

clays kaolinite

Minerals that split evenly when they break apart form what type of fracture?

cleavage

The tendency of crystals to break along regular planes of weakness is termed________.

cleavage

The way halite breaks apart in small cubes is an example of ?

cleavage

The way mica breaks apart in sheets is an example of ?

cleavage

Weak atomic bonding in one direction in a mineral will result in

cleavage

Which of the following is a nonrenewable energy resource?

coal

Which one of the following is a biochemical sedimentary rock?

coal

A coal deposit that is not economical to mine today would be considered part of our __________ .

coal resources

Phaneritic texture

coarse-grained, crystals are large enough to be seen w/out a microscope, formed by slow cooling (intrusive) ROUGHLY EQUAL SIZED CRYSTALS

As compared to aphanitic igneous rocks, phaneritic rocks are ____________.

coarser grained

What micro-fossil makes up the limestone chalk?

coccolithophores, which are single celled marine plants

Which of the following conditions promotes slow chemical weathering?

cold temperatures

When two bodies of continental lithosphere are pulled together at a convergent boundary, the result is

collision and mountain formation

Which of the following is not a reliable physical property of minerals

color

trace amounts of impurity in a mineral can commonly produce significant differences in _____ among individual crystals of this mineral

color

streak

color of a mineral in powdered form

Wegners continental drift

combined form super-continent - Pangaea - late Paleozoic to Mesozoic

Wegener proposed continental drift after he observed evidence from fossils, glacial deposits, and the fit of the continents that suggested all of the continents were once

combined to form a supercontinent (he termed pangaea) in the late paleozoic through the mesozoic

wegener proposed continental drift after he observed evidence from fossils, glacial deposits, and the fit of the continents that suggested all of the continents were once

combined to form a supercontinent (he termed pangaea) in the late paleozoic through the mesozoic

Magnetic Field

comes from poles, which change over time, and protects us from solar wind.

The most common lithification process for fine clastics is _______ .

compaction

Which of the following is an example of a physical, as opposed to a chemical, diagenetic process?

compaction

wider

compared to a slowly spreading mid-ocean ridge, a rapidly spreading ridge is

Why do composite volcanoes consist of alternating lava and pyroclastic layers?

composite cones are created by a mixture of explosive activity and lava flows

Mineral groups are classified based on their dominant

composition

The development of a preferred orientation of large, flaky mica crystals within metamorphic rock is termed

compositional binding

Waves in which particles of material move back and forth parallel to the direction in which the wave itself moves are called

compressional waves

P-Waves

compressional waves by an earthquake. travel the fastest in earth and so are the first to arrive at seismic wave detectors

Most glasses and some minerals (like quartz, shown in the figure) exhibit a type of fracture characterized by nested and curved, cracked surfaces. What term describes this property

conchoidal

Synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit______fracture

conchoidal

synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit a fracture pattern termed

conchoidal

Where does conglomerate and breccia occur?

conglomerate - gravel beds in streams and glaciers breccia - alluvial fans and deserts

Which of the following lists is written in order of decreasing particle size?

conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone

When the streak mark created by a mineral is the same color as the mineral, the streak is termed ______________ .

congruent

tectonic plates

consist of oceanic or continental lithosphere or a combination of both

Consult the figure below. As compared to the amphibolite metamorphic facies, the greenschist facies

consists of lower grade rocks

Ashfall

consists of tephra that rains down from the eruption column

Pelé s hair ____________.

consists of thin strands of basaltic pyroclastic debris

phenocryst

conspicuosly large crystal embedded in the matrix of finer grained minerals

The metamorphic process by which high pressure and temperature "sqeeze" and elongate mineral grains is termed ______ (two words)

contact metamorphism

Metamorphism may be induced by

contact with hot pluton, contact with hot groundwater, or heat and pressure associated with deep burial

Basaltic lavas ____________.

contain more iron and magnesium than rhyolitic lavas

According to Wegener, puzzle pieces are to a jigsaw puzzle as ____________ is/are to Pangaea

continents

Which of the following is part of the process that leads to the exhumation of metamorphic rocks?

continents squeezing together, mountain belts collapsing, erosion

Large, think,non volcanic mountain belts like the Himalayas are features associated with plate boundaries

convergent

The lithosphere of the earth is generally thickest at or near ________ plate boundaries.

convergent

The volcanoes of the Cascades Mountains are related to melting of rock associated with a ____________ plate boundary.

convergent

Consult the figure below. Subduction zones are

convergent plate boundaries

subduction zone

convergent plate boundaries also known as

As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, all fine-grained igneous rocks

cool and solidify more quickly

All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth ____________ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface

cool more slowly

All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth ____________ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface.

cool more slowly

As compared to the asthenosphere, the lithosphere is ____________.

cooler and less able to flow

The first ores which were widely smelted by humans to produce metal were those of

copper

Of the three primary chemical layers of the Earth (crust, mantle, core), which is the thickest layer

core

Of the three primary chemical layers of the Earth (crust, mantle, core), which is the thickest layer?

core

Which of Earth's layers has the greatest density?

core

What kind of a bond forms when one or more electrons are shared by two atoms?

covalent

The difference between covalent and metallic bonds is

covalent bonds are when atoms share the same electron(s), but metallic bonds are special types of covalent bonds where an electron is shared among several atoms in sequence

Define mantle plumes

create intraplate volcanism, areas of upwelling in the mantle, originate in parts of the deep mantle where the rock is unusually warm and therefore rises buoyantly by convection

Consult the figure below. Distinct internal laminations that are inclined at an angle to the boundary of the main sedimentary layer are called _

cross beds

The geothermal gradient is largest in the:

crust

The lithosphere is composed of the ____________.

crust and upper most part of the mantle

Atoms that are arranged in a particular geometric shape are called?

crystal structure

Name the 8 properties that can be used to identify minerals?

crystal structure, color, streak, luster, density, hardness, fracture and cleavage

The growth of mineral crystals from a melt is the process of

crystallization

Name some types of crystal structure?

crystals with six sides, crystals shaped like cubes, sheets, needles, or threads.

Describe the crystal structure of the mineral Halite(table salt)?

cubic crystals

Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of ____________. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. hot spots c. volatiles d. pyroclastic debris

d

Viscosity depends on ____________. a. temperature b. volatile content c. silica content d. All of the above are correct.

d

Which of the following is NOT a factor controlling the cooling rate of magma? a. depth of intrusion b. shape and size of magma body c. presence of circulating groundwater d. All of the above are factors.

d

Igneous rocks ____________. a. are formed through the freezing of melt b. can be produced at the surface of the Earth as well as deep below the surface c. are the most common type of rocks within Earth d. All of the above are correct.

d. All of the above are correct.

Large igneous provinces can cause ______________. a. sea level rise b. climate change c. extinction d. All of the above are correct.

d. All of the above are correct.

Viscosity depends on ____________. a. temperature b. volatile content c. silica content d. All of the above are correct.

d. All of the above are correct.

Which of the following is NOT a factor controlling the cooling rate of magma? a. depth of intrusion b. shape and size of magma body c. presence of circulating groundwater d. All of the above are factors.

d. All of the above are factors.

Which national park is home to a large volcanic caldera formed through a very large explosive eruption 630,000 years ago? a. Acadia b. Carlsbad Caverns c. Great Smoky Mountains d. Yellowstone

d. Yellowstone

A dike is a. a sheetlike intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. a cooled layer of lava c. an intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. a sheetlike intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers

d. a sheetlike intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers

Hot spot volcanoes a. can arise form the ocean floor b. can arise on the continents c. may arise in the interior of lithospheric plates d. all of the above

d. all of the above

Igneous rocks a. are formed through the freezing of a melt b. can be produced at the surface of the earth as well as deep below the surface c. are the most common type of rocks within earth d. all of the above

d. all of the above

Obsidian a. is volcanic glass b. possesses conchoidal fracture c. typically is felsic in composition d. all of the above

d. all of the above

Pahoehoe a. forms when basaltic lava flows cease flowing and solidify simultaneously b. has a smoother texture than aa c. is easier to walk on than aa is d. all of the above

d. all of the above

Whether an eruption will primarily produce lava flows or pyroclastic debris is influenced by a. the viscosity of the lava b. the composition of the lava c. the proportion of volatiles within the lava d. all of the above

d. all of the above

The formation of magma within earth is not caused by which of the following processes? a. decompression b. addition of volatiles c. transfer of heat from adjacent magma or very hot rocks d. loss of volatiles to the atmosphere

d. loss of volatiles to the atmosphere

Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of ____________. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. hot spots c. volatiles d. pyroclastic debris

d. pyroclastic debris

The greatest hazard to human life associated with volcanoes is a. flowing lava b. volcanic gas c. falling ash d. pyroclastic flows

d. pyroclastic flows

Coarse grained granite is most similar in mineral composition to fine grained a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite

d. rhyolite

Coarse-grained granite is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________. a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite

d. rhyolite

A dike is a (an) ____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers

d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers

The hot spot track associated with the Hawaiian Islands and Emperor Seamounts a. shows that the Pacific plate has been stationary of the last 30 million years b. occurs along a divergent plate boundary c. occurs along a convergent plate boundary d. shows that the Pacific Plate has been moving northwest for the last 30 million years

d. shows that the Pacific Plate has been moving northwest for the last 30 million years

In regard to the cooling of molten rock, a __________ volume and a __________ shape cools faster. a. larger; spherical b. larger; pancake c. smaller; spherical d. smaller; pancake

d. smaller; pancake

As compared to mafic igneous rocks, all felsic igneous rocks ____________. a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temperatures d. solidify at lower temperatures

d. solidify at lower temperatures

As compared to mafic igneous rocks, all felsic igneous rocks a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temps d. solidify at lower temps

d. solidify at lower temps

Pillow lavas are associated with a. continental rhyolitic eruptions b. continental basaltic eruptions c. submarine rhyolitic eruptions d. submarine basaltic eruptions

d. submarine basaltic eruptions

lahar

debris flows on the slopes of volcanoes that result when unstable layers of ash and debris become saturated and flow down slope, usually flowing stream channels

The angle between the direction that a compass needle points and a line of longitude at a given location is the magnetic

declination

If a P wave were to go from a solid to a liquid - what would happen to its velocity?

decrease

If only density increases with increasing depth within the Earth, the velocity of a P wave should

decrease

If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will

decrease

If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will ____________.

decrease

If an S wave were to go from a solid to a liquid - what would happen to its velocity?

decrease to 0.0

If the pressure increases, what happens to the melting point of ice?

decreases

What happens to the boiling point of water as the pressure decreases?

decreases

Diagenesis requires

deep burial warm groundwater high temperatures and pressures All of the above are correct.

In which of the following sedimentary environments would you least expect to find gravel?

deep marine

Where does chert form?

deep oceans where sediment accumulates very slowly because they are isolated from continents

Mercalli intensity scale

defines the intensity of an earthquake by the amount of damage it causes—that is, by its destructiveness

Which of the following environments is an example of a shoreline/transitional environment?

deltaic

Which of the following sedimentary environments is dominated by waves and tidal currents?

deltaic

Topset, foreset, and bottomset beds are indicative of

deltas

As compared to continental crust, the rocks that make up oceanic crust are

denser

As compared to continental crust, the rocks that make up oceanic crust are ____________.

denser

Felsic

describes magma or igneous rock that is rich in feldspars and silica and that is generally light in color

Mafic

describes magma or igneous rock that is rich in magnesium and iron and that is generally dark in color

Normal faults assume a more shallow dip angle with depth; when the fault plane becomes nearly horizontal, these faults are termed

detachments

What effect would plants have on a sand dune environment?

deter sand movement

reverse faults or thrust faults

develop in response to squeezing (compression) and shortening of the crust

The hardest mineral is __________.

diamond

What is the hardest mineral?

diamond

Which of the following is not a reason why calcite and halite both have the same number of cleavage planes (3), but at different angles

different conditions of formation

If you look at our granite kitchen counter what does each different-colored particle represent?

different mineral crystals

How is Bowen's Reaction Series used to predict the order in which different minerals melt?

different minerals form at different temps. The solid minerals left behind may interact with new minerals, and create a new one.

A vertical magma intrusion that spreads apart the country rock is

dike

7. The intrusive compositional equivalent of andesite is ____________.

diorite

The intrusive compositional equivalent of andesite is

diorite

Normal, reverse, and thrust are all examples of ____________ faults. a. dip-slip b. strike-slip c. oblique-slip

dip-slip

Where is the focus with respect to the epicenter?

directly below the epicenter

The apparent polar-wander paths for continents that were not connected over some span of geologic history will likely ____________ concerning the positions of the ancient magnetic pole.

disagree

Under the theory of plate tectonics, the plates themselves are

discrete pieces of lithosphere at the surface of the solid earth that move with respect to one another

under the theory of plate tectonics, the plates themselves are

discrete pieces of lithosphere at the surface of the solid earth that move with respect to one another

Chemical weathering in which water bonds with, and removes, ions from crystal faces is termed

dissolution

decomposition of minerals by organic acids is ____ weathering

dissolution

weathering through decomposition by rxn with water ___ weathering

dissolution

Wave

disturbance that transmits energy from one point to another by causing periodic motions.

Deep oceanic trenches are features of plate boundaries

divergent

Iceland is one of the few places in the world that is both above sea level and situated atop a ____ plate boundary

divergent

mid ocean ridges are

divergent

mid-ocean ridges are _____ plate boundaries

divergent

The boundary between watersheds is called the drainage

divide

Rhyolitic lavas ____________.

do not flow as far from the vent as basaltic lavas do

Natural glass is NOT considered a mineral because it

does not have a fixed crystalline structure

Natural glass is not considered a mineral because it ____________.

does not have fixed crystalline structure

When limestone becomes chemically altered so that half of the calcium atoms are replaced by magnesium, the resultant rock is termed

dolostone

A fold shaped like an upside-down bowl is a

dome

A fold shaped like an upside-down bowl is a(n)

dome

the apparent polar-wander path obtained from magnetite crystals in besalts on the north american continent is now interpreted to be the result of

drifting of the north american continent

A body of rock under high pressure is more likely to exhibit ____________ than is a body of rock at low pressure. a. brittle behavior b. ductile behavior

ductile behavior

crystal settling

during the crystallization of magma, the earlier formed minerals are denser than the liquid portion and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber

Which type of metamorphism affects the greatest volumes of rock?

dynamothermal metamorphism

2 The main effect that the Earth's magnetic field has on the Earth's habitability is___

e, both a and c are correct, a. solar wind, cosmic rays

transform plate have

earthquakes common, volcanoes absent

A mineral that has a rough crumbly surface is said to have an?

earthy luster

Nonviolent eruptions characterized by extensive flows of basaltic lava are termed ____________.

effusive

Chemical reactions triggered by _______ transform organic material into hydrocarbons.

elevated temperatures

Point B is called the earthquake

epicenter

Differential stress will cause crystals to align in a preferred orientation unless the crystals are

equant

At high altitude within the troposphere, the global pattern of air flow is from the

equator to the horse latitudes

Which of the following processes is not an important cause of subsidence during the development of a sedimentary basin?

erosion of sediments

Pillow basalts attain their distinctive blob-like shapes because their parent lavas do not travel far prior to solidification. This is because the parent lavas ____________.

erupt underwater and thus cool very quickly

The form of large, well developed crystals is termed________.

euhedral

How often do magnitude 8 earthquakes occur?

every 5-10 years

Gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites, which are igneous rocks that are ____________.

exceptionally coarse grained

gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites which are igneous rocks that are

exceptionally coarse-grained

What type of jointing is shown in this picture of a Granite outcrop?

exfoliation

In agreement with the Big Bang theory, our Universe is

expanding

Phreatomagmatic eruptions are ____________.

explosive (pyroclastic)

Plinian Eruptions

explosive intermediate volcanism can produce ash fallout, pyroclastic surges, pyroclastic flows and block and ash flows

Consult the figure below. If you found tuff deposits at an ___________ igneous setting, you could conclude

extrusive; high

If you found tuff deposits at an ___________ igneous setting, you could conclude that the lava had a ___________ viscosity

extrusive; high

60 Contour lines on a topographic map that are close together indicate flat terrane

f- False

The diamonds we see today do not display their natural crystal faces, but rather ____________, a typical engagement ring bearing 57 of them.

facets

Asbestos a mineral

fale

A single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures.

false

All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust. FALSE

false

All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust.

false

All minerals are chemical compounds (composed of more than one element).

false

All minerals are held together by ionic bonds.

false

All of the Earth's internal heat was acquired very early in its history through meteoric impact and differentiation of the core. The Earth's interior loses heat to space but does not currently receive heat through any known process.

false

All portions of the mid-ocean ridge system have a well-defined axial trough (central rift)

false

All volcanic eruptions pass through the crater at the volcanic summit.

false

Before the discovery of coal, humans did not produce or consume energy

false

Diamond and graphite are both polymorphs of pure silicon.

false

In a hot-spot volcanic island chain, such as the Hawaiian Islands, all islands possess active volcanoes simultaneously and therefore the risks of volcanic hazards are about the same for all islands

false

It is rare for mineral crystals to display any sort of symmetry (invariance of pattern with respect to a transformation, such as rotation or mirror-image reflection)

false

Metamorphism brings changes in mineral arrangement and the texture of rocks, but it never leads to new mineral assemblages.

false

Nearly all of the present mountain ranges are the products of single orogenic events. a. false b. true

false

One of the reasons volcanic eruptions are so deadly is that there is no way to predict where an eruption will occur in the near future.

false

Rocks are always made up of minerals

false

Sedimentary deposition is a continuous process: rivers, lakes, and the ocean deposit sediments nonstop at a fairly constant rate.

false

Similar sediment and depositional thickness can be found in all sedimentary basins.

false

Sliding motion along transform faults caused the segments of the mid-ocean ridges to become dislocated with respect to one another.

false

Tectonic foliation, such as elongation of quartz grains, always occurs parallel to the original bedding plane of a body of rock. a. false b. true

false

That the Earth is a sphereoid is a relatively new discovery, not widely accepted until the 15th Century when it was confirmed by Columbus's voyage.

false

The Earth's mantle is made up mostly of melted peridotite.

false

The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 was the greatest explosive eruption in the last two hundred years of world data.

false

Until Columbus's voyage in 1492, most scientists thought the Earth was much smaller than it actually is

false

Within a platform, sedimentary rocks always have a horizontal orientation. a. true b. false

false

a single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures. true or false?

false

diamond and graphite are both polymorphs of pure silicon. true or false?

false

Most minerals and rocks on Earth are classified as _____ based on their elemental composition.

family, group, silicate?

As compared to warm fronts, cold fronts move

faster

A fracture in the crust, where rocks slide past one another, is termed a ________.

fault

Point C is called the

fault scarp

The distinction between joints and faults is that

faults are fractures along which displacement has occurred; displacement does not occur along joints

The most abundant mineral group in Earth's crust is

feldspar

felsic mineral

feldspar muscovite quartz

Magma that is high in silica, Na, and K; and low in Fe, Mg, and Ca, is said to have what composition?

felsic

Which type of magma has the greatest silica content a. felsic b. intermediate c. mafic d. ultramafic

felsic

Which type of magma has the greatest silica content?

felsic

Fe3+ refers to ________.

ferric iron

How old is the universe?

fifteen billion years old

Which of the following types of sediments are most abundant?

fine clastics

The smoky cloud that rises from the vent of an actively erupting volcano is composed of ____________.

fine volcaniclastic debris (ash) suspended in the air

Nuclear energy is derived by ___________.

fission of atoms of U 235

On average, continental crust is approximately ____________ as oceanic crust

five times as thick

at continental rifts, vast bodies of basaltic lava flow forth from fissures forming

flood basalt

At continental rifts, vast bodies of basaltic lava flow forth from fissures, forming ____________.

flood basalts

Define Lahars

floods of mud and muddy water produced during and after an explosive eruption

flood basalt

flows of basaltic lava that issue from numerous cracks or fissures and commonly cover extensive areas with thickness of hundreds of meters

Point A, where slip initiated during the earthquake, is called the

focus

The point where movement occurred which triggered the earthquake is the

focus

Slaty cleavage, schistosity, and compositional banding are all examples of

foliation

In metamorphic rocks, alternating bands of minerals with differing compositions and/or grain fabrics are termed

foliations

Which of the following statements regarding the nuclear accident at Chernobyl in the Ukraine in 1986 is false?

food supplies in many countries had to be purified in order to be consumed

Normal faults

form in response to stretching or extension of the crust

*Crystallizing

form or cause to form crystals. (Sometimes cooling of magma)

As compared to subaerial basaltic lavas, submarine basaltic lavas differ in that they ____________.

form pillow-like mounds because they cannot flow as far from their source

Strike-slip faults

form where one block of crust slides past another laterally; have near-vertical planes on which slip occurs parallel to an imaginary horizontal line, called a strike line, on the fault plane. No up or down motion takes place here

Igneous Rocks

formed when magma or lava cools and crystalizes and when pyroclastic materials become consolidated.

Relative ages expressed on the geologic time scale primarily resulted from the study of _____.

fossil content and spatial relationships among sedimentary rocks

Energy resources derived from natural organic materials are called ________.

fossil fuels

halite

found in most kitchens

How many oxygen ions are involved in the formation of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron?

four

Minerals that do not possess cleavage are said to possess

fracture

Minerals which do not possess cleavage are said to possess ____________.

fracture

The way in which a minerals crystalline structure or the bonds formed between the atoms in the crystals will determine how a mineral will?

fracture

minerals that do not possess cleavage are said to possess

fracture

How a mineral breaks is how it?

fractures

The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure?

framework

In which type of silicate are the greatest proportion of oxygen atoms shared by pairs of adjacent tetrahedra?

framework silicates

The intrusive compositional equivalent of basalt is

gabbro

oceanic crust

gabbro and basalt

beneath a blanket of sediments, oceanic crust is primarily composed of two rocks

gabbro and besalt

Which list of igneous rocks is in order of increasing silica content?

gabbro, andesite, rhyolite (Mafic igneous rocks such as basalt (effusive) and gabrro (intrusive) have the lowest silica (50%) and most iron/magnesium. Intermediate rocks like andesite (extrusive) and diorite (intrusive) have more silica (60%) and a more even mix of Fe/Mg/Ca and Na/K. Felsic rocks like rhyolite (effusive) and granite (intrusive) have the most silica, the least Fe, Mg, and Ca, and the most Na and K.)

Beneath a blanket of sediments, oceanic crust is primarily composed of two rocks, ____________ and ____________.

gabbro; basalt

volaties

gaseous components of magma dissolved in the melt volatiles will readily vaporize (form gas) at surface pressures

Luster refers to its?

general appearance of the mineral, or how shiny it is

The velocities of seismic waves traveling from earthquake foci

generally increase with depth, occasionally making abrupt jumps termed seismicvelocity discontinuities.

hat type of energy is derived from heated groundwater?

geothermal energy

In which of the following sedimentary environments would you expect the sand deposits to be poorly sorted?

glacial

Which of the following sedimentary environments is characterized by sand, gravel and mud?

glacial

Glass is not a mineral because

glass lacks an internal atomic structure

Vesicles are a term used to describe a texture in __________ igneous rocks.

glassy

Pyrite (fool's gold) is identified by its?

golden color

Clastic sedimentary rocks are primarily classified on the basis of

grain size

What does the rate of cooling (of rock) effect?

grain size

Give an example of a coarse grained igneous rock

granite

The intrusive compositional equivalent of rhyolite is __________.

granite

Order the following igneous rocks by their relative silica content

granite: 70% andesite: 52%-63% peridotite: < 45% basalt 45%-52%

As compared to ultramafic rocks, mafic rocks have a

greater proportion of silica

Consult the figure below. Compared to low-grade metamorphic rocks, high-grade rocks

greater temperature and pressure

Pyroclstaic Flows

ground hugging avalanche of hot tephra, rock fragments, and volcanic gasses that rushes down the side of the volcano. 500 degrees C

minerals classified

grouped by chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula

Volcanoes that have submerged beneath the surface of the sea are termed

guyots

volcanoes that have submerged beneath the surface of the sea are termed

guyots

The ideal shape of a mineral's crystal face is termed its crystal

habit

The ideal shape of a mineral's crystal face is termed its crystal ______________ .

habit

Which of the following minerals is most susceptible to chemical weathering?

halite

Which of the following rocks is deposited only by non-biological, chemical precipitation ?

halite

weathering fastest to slowest

halite, olivine, feldspar, quartz

In the Mohs hardness scale the higher the number the ?

harder the mineral

The resistance of a mineral to scratching tells us the minerals?

harness

Wegener's idea of continental drift was rejected by American geologists because

he could not conceive of a valid mechanism that would cause continents to shift positions

Wegners idea rejected

he could not concieve of valid mechanism that would cause continents to shift postions

The region of space that contains the material of our solar system is termed the

heliosphere

contains solar system

heliosphere

Which of the following minerals is most stable at the Earth's surface?

hematite

The Crystal shape and atomic structure of the minerals galena (see figure above) and halite are related by which of the following

hey have the same structure, but by different elements

extrusive

high

What are the characteristics of extrusive rock?

high cooling rate, small crystals, fine-grained texture

Minerals with higher atomic masses have?

higher densities

What's the name of the non-foliated metamorphic rock that results from contact metamorphism?

hornfels

In which of he following climates will chemical weathering be most rapid?

hot and humid

Lava

hot molten or semifluid rock erupted from a volcano or fissure, or solid rock resulting from cooling of this.

Hot spots are caused by

hot plumes of mantle material that rises up through cooler, denser surrounding rock

The Hawaiian island chain is an example of a

hot spot island chain

The Hawaiian island chain is an example of a(n) ____________.

hot spot island chain

The Hawaiian island chain is an example of a(n) ____________.

hot-spot island chain

What is the fracture of a mineral?

how a mineral breaks

Rock typically found in extremely humid environments that is heavily decomposed by chemical weathering is called

humus

Chemical weathering in which water bonds with, and removes, ions from crystal faces is termed

hydration?

2 type polarity bonds

hydrogen bonds; van der Waals bonds

The characteristic 'rotten egg' smell of many active volcanoes is derived from ____________.

hydrogen sulfide gas

Chemical weathering in which water breaks apart bonds in silicate minerals to produce clay is termed

hydrolysis

The point within Earth where an earthquake takes place is termed the

hypocenter (focus)

Which transport medium carries the largest particles

ice

Some minerals have unusual properties that help?

identify them

Decompression melting

if the pressure affecting hot rock decreases while the temperature stays the same, a magma forms; Melting that occurs as rock ascend due to a drop in confining pressure.

A body of gneiss is subjected to heat and forms a melt. Later the melt cools and crystallizes to form a(n)

igneous rock

A body of gnelss is subjected to heat and forms a melt. Later the melt cools and crystallizes to form a(n)

igneous rock

Porphyry

igneous rock with large crystals (PHENOCRYSTS) set in a matrix of fine-grained crystals (GROUNDMASS)

glassy texture

igneous rocks that contain no crystals, such as obsidian

plutonic

igneous rocks that form at depth, after the god of the lower world in classical mythology

intrusive

igneous rocks that formed below the Earth's surface

Any rock formed from a pyroclastic or ash flow is called an __________________.

ignimbrite

The lithification of material from a pyroclastic flow forms a rock called ___________.

ignimbrite

the lithification of material from pyroclastic flow forms a rock called

ignimbrite

What is the general name for a rock formed from a pyroclastic flow deposit?

ignimbrite?

Siliceous environments, named for the silica-rich shells deposited in them, occur ________.

in a deep-sea environment

Thermal (contact) metamorphism occurs

in areas surrounding igneous intrusions

One expects talus cones to be most abundant in areas

in high mountains that have many days of sub-freezing temperatures

Which of the following statements is true? a) in the US oil production is greater than oil consumption b) in the US oil production equals oil consumption c) in the US oil production is less than oil consumption

in the US oil production is less than oil consumption

nuee ardente

incandescent volcanic debris buoyed up by hot gases that moves down-slope in an avalanche fashion

angle between mag field line and surface of earth

inclination

If a body of magma becomes more felsic, its viscosity will ____________.

increase

As a rock breaks into smaller pieces, the surface area to volume ratio ______ .

increases

The age of oceanic crust ____________ with increasing distance from a mid-ocean ridge

increases

The age of oceanic crust ____________ with increasing distance from a mid-ocean ridge.

increases

With increasing travel time the difference in arrival times between the P and the S waves

increases

the age of oceanic crust _____ with increasing distance from mid-ocean ridges

increases

water can be heated to higher temperatures by

increasing the pressure

Why such thick flows?

intermediate flows very viscous

A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, New Mexico, is a(n)

intrusion formed within the magma chamber of volcano

A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, New Mexico, is a(n) ____________.

intrusion formed within the magma chamber of volcano

When magma crystallizes, ____________ are formed.

intrusive igneous rocks

The atoms of most rock-forming minerals are held together by______chemical bonds.

ionic

The atoms of most rock-forming minerals are held together by___covalent___chemical bonds.

ionic

What kind of bond is formed when sodium and chloride combine to form halite?

ionic

The difference between ionic and covalent bonds is

ionic bonds are when atoms are attracted electrostatically due to positive and negative charges, whereas covalent bonds are when atoms share the same electron(s)

The range in chemical composition in a mineral typically results from

ionic substitution.

In the whole Earth, the four most common elements are oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and

iron

What mineral is integral to paleomagnestim?

iron

Which of the three most commonly used metals must be smelted from its ore minerals in the presence of carbon monoxide gas (from the burning of carbon-based charcoal)?

iron

Unlike the lithosphere, the asthenosphere ________.

is able to flow over long periods of time

At a subduction zone, the downgoing (subducting) plate

is always composed of oceanic lithosphere

Regional metamorphism __

is another name for dynamothermal metamorphism

Unlike physically precipitated chert, biochemical chert

is bedded

The Moho

is found deeper underneath continents than under oceans

Most terrestrial volcanic glass ____________.

is highly silicic in composition

thickness oceanic lithosphere

is least near mid-ocean ridges and thickens away from the ridges

Continental lithosphere

is thicker than oceanic lithosphere

The lithosphere of Earth can be bent and broken, but will not flow because it

is too cool

Why does the density of a mineral vary?

it depends on what elements the mineral contain

natural glass is not considered a mineral because it

it does not have a fixed crystalline structure

When liquid water freezes

it expands by 9% in volume

Within a single mountain range, ____________.

it is possible to find a variety of metamorphic rocks produced in distinct facies, including high, low, and intermediate grade rocks

What does transport do?

it makes rocks smaller and round

Define composition of sedimentary rock

it's mineral content

The density of a mineral depends on what?

its chemical composition

Each mineral has a characteristic set of properties that results from what?

its chemical composition and crystal structure

Define texture of sedimentary rock

its grain size, sorting, and the degree of rounding (angularity) experienced by individual grains

The most recently formed portion of any crystal is always found on

its outer edges

magnetic field Earth geologic past

known to have been constant through geologic time, due to remnant magnetization of iron-rich minerals in rocks

the magnetic field of earth in the geologic past is

known to have experienced numerous polarity reversals, due to remnant magnetization of iron-rich minerals in rocks

A fast moving flow consisting of a mixture of water and volcaniclastic debris is termed a ____________.

lahar

A fast-moving flow consisting of a mixture of water and volcaniclastic debris is termed a ____________.

lahar

What would you call a particle blown out of a volcano if it ranges in size from 2 to 64 mm?

lapilli

Define volcanic bombs

largely molten rocks that are thrown from volcanoes during an eruption

If the interior of the Earth was mostly liquid instead of solid, tides would be

larger than they are

tropical soil

laterite

The distinct, three-d arrangement of atoms within a mineral is called the crytal

lattice

The distinct, three-dimensional arrangement of atoms within a mineral is called the crystal ________.

lattice

Silicate liquids that flow out at the Earth's surface or seabed are called _________.

lava

Eruption of rhyolite magma tends to produce

lava domes (rhyolite magma is high in viscosity (meaning it is thick and pasty) by virtue of its high silica content and low temperature (compared to basalt). The high viscosity of rhyolite prevents it from flowing away from the vent where it is erupted. Instead, rhyolite piles up are the vent forming a steep, dome shaped structure - a lava dome. Meanwhile, shield volcanoes and cinder cones are associated with eruptions of low viscosity basalt, either effusively when little gas is present (shield) or a foamy or frothy manner when large amounts of gas are present (cinder cones). Intermediate viscosity andesite produces composite volcanoes that erupt both explosively (when the magma is gas charged) and effusively (after the magma has de-gassed).)

Extrusive igneous rocks form from the crystallization and consolidation of _________ or the eruption and accumulation of _____________ material.

lava, pyroclastic

Geologically, melts are equivalent to both ____________ and ____________.

lavas and magmas

for the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is _____ variable than the color in hand sample

less

A mineral that has a lighter mass is?

less dense

ash

less than 2mm

For the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is

less variable than the color in a hand sample among crystals

For the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is

less variable than the color in hand sample among crystals

For the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is ____________.

less variable than the color in hand sample among crystals

Define Pumice

light enough to float on water, is formed when gas escapes from melt that has felsic composition

So the less dense a mineral the ?

lighter mass it has

The metallic content of Earth's core is

likely similar to what has been found in metallic meteorites partly liquid and partly solid an iron alloy (mostly iron with a few other elements mixed in) All of the above are correct.

Caves are most lively to form in which of the following rock types?

limestone

Sinkholes are a concern primarily for residents whose dwellings are constructed atop

limestone

What biochemical sedimentary rock is composed of lithified calcium carbonate shells deposited in shallow, warm ocean water?

limestone

What is the most abundant biochemical precipitate in the oceans?

limestone

What is the most common sedimentary rock?

limestone

____________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of marble

limestone

Melt

liquid portion of magma

A sandstone with abundant rock fragments and clay minerals is a(n) ______ .

litharenite

Compaction and cementation of grains occurs during

lithification

tuff

lithified

Tectonic plates of rigid and brittle __________ move over a softer and ductile ___________ below.

lithosphere; asthenosphere

What does it mean to say that a mineral is inorganic?

living things did not produce the minerals.

What causes the formation of an alluvial fan?

load capacity decreased velocity friction All of the above are correct.

In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form

long one-dimensional chains massive three-dimensional frameworks extensive two-dimensional sheets All of the above are correct.

The formation of magma within Earth is NOT caused by which of the following processes?

loss of volatiles to the atmosphere

The formation of magma within Earth is not caused by which of the following processes?

loss of volatiles to the atmosphere

What are the characteristics of intrusive rock?

low cooling rate, relatively large crystals, coarse-grained texture

Minerals with lower atomic masses have?

lower densities

A minerals appearance or how shiny it is is referred to its?

luster

The shininess of a mineral is a helpful diagnostic property termed

luster

The terms metallic, earthy, dull, glassy, silky, pearly, resinous, or brilliant are used to describe a minerals

luster

The way in which a mineral reflects light is called its?

luster

The way that the surface of a mineral reflects light is called?

luster

the shininess of a mineral is a helpful diagnostic property termed

luster

Eruptive Columns

made of volcanic ash and small lapilli that are shot into the air at high velocity and form a cloud over the volcano

A majority of the melts in the Earth form through the partial melting of ultramafic mantle rock. These newly-formed magmas are ____________.

mafic

An oceanic hot spot volcano is most likely to produce _____ lava in terms of relative silica composition.

mafic

An oceanic hot spot volcano is most likely to produce______lava in terms of relative silica composition.

mafic

Intrusive igneous rocks form from the crystallization and consolidation of _________.

magma

Silicate liquids existing beneath the Earth's surface are called

magma

Lava

magma erupted at surface

The difference between lava and magma is that ____________.

magma is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface

marine magnetic anomalies result from sea-floor spreading in conjunction with

magnetic polarity reversals

Name some unusual properties of minerals?

magnetite is strongly attracted to a magnet, fluorite glows under an ultraviolet light, Quartz and tourmaline become electrically charged when heated and cooled that is why quartz are used in electronic equipment like watches, Iceland Spar you can see double images when you look through it so this property is useful in certain optical instruments

The maximum amplitude of ground motion recorded by seismograph and the distance from the epicenter provide a measure of the Earthquake's ______ such as its number on the Richter Scale.

magnitude

Which boundary marks a change from 100% solid to 100% liquid?

mantle ... outer core

Volcanoes that do not occur along either present or emergent plate boundaries are associated with ____________.

mantle hot spots

Swamps, channels, floodplains, and submarine slopes all play a role in the development of

marine deltas

MORs

marine magnetic anomaly belts run parallel to

Density is the ratio of________to________.

mass to volume

Groundmass

matrix of similar crystals , the matrix of fine-grained crystalline material in which larger crystals are embedded

At a subduction zone, the overriding plate

may be composed of either oceanic or continental lithosphere

The protolith subjected to metamorphism

may belong to any of the three primary rock types

What is the meaning of inorganic?

means not living

Bathymetry

measuring the depths of the oceans

decompression melting

melting that occurs as rock acsends due to the drop in confining pressure

What is the name of the atmospheric layer above the stratosphere, in which temperature decreases with altitude?

mesosphere

How would you describe the luster of galena, pyrite, silver, and gold?

metallic

What kind of a bond is represented in an aggregate of copper atoms?

metallic

What's the luster of galena, pyrite, silver, and gold?

metallic

Both Galena and Pyrite have what kind of luster?

metallic luster but different colors

What are some descriptions of luster?

metallic, earthy, dull, glassy(vitreous), silky, pearly, greasy , resinous, or brilliant

A buried body of shale is subjected to differential stress, causing clay minerals to realign and produce slate; this is an example of

metamorphism

Which of the following processes does not occur during diagenesis?

metamorphism

Net chemical change in metamorphic rock induced by reaction with hot groundwater is termed

metamotism

Stony Achondrites

meteorites from small planetary bodies that ha differentiated into layers and then were broken up

Iron Meteorites

meteorites the type of material found in Earth's core

Stony Chondrites

meteorites thought to represent material from small planetary bodies that had differentiated into layers and then were broken up

Cleavage is most conspicuous in

mica

Which of the following minerals would be most likely to form a clay mineral during chemical weathering?

mica

What type of plate boundary would you expect decompression melting to occur? What magma composition is produced within this environment?

mid ocean ridge Basalt magma

Consult the figure below. Most of the pushing force driving plate motion is produced

mid ocean ridges

marine magnetic anomaly belts run parallel to

mid-ocean ridges

Most of the pushing force driving plate motion is produced ________.

mid-oceanic ridges

The highest grade peltic metamorphic rock that shows signs of partial melt is called ______.

migmatite

highest grade peltic metamorphic rock

migmatite

Chemical and biochemical rocks are classified primarily on the basis of

mineral composition

What two things does the composition of a rock refer to?

mineral content of a rock and the chemical content of a rock

specific gravity

mineral property defined by the density of the mineral sample divided by the density of water

What are the building blocks of rocks?

minerals

The main difference between minerals and rocks is

minerals are composed of atoms bonded together, whereas rocks are generally composed of aggregates of minerals

Silicates

minerals that contain silicon and oxygen bonded together

Dense Oxides

minerals that form deep in earth's mantle due to the enormous pressures

Due to fractional crystallization and assimilation of surrounding host rock, most magmas that rise slowly through the crust chemically evolve to become ____________.

more felsic

When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is

more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted

When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is ____________.

more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted

If a body of igneous (source) rock is subjected to partial melting, the magma that is produced is expected to be

more felsic than the source rock

If a body of igneous (source) rock is subjected to partial melting, the magma that is produced is expected to be ____________.

more felsic than the source rock

If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be

more mafic than the magma

If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be ____________.

more mafic than the magma

Evidence Late Paleozic

more readily accept Wegners Pangea than modern continental config

What are the characterizations of stratovolcanoes?

more viscous, extreme violence, more steam, formed from a mixture of lava and pyroclastic debris, local lava source, erupt different types of melt over thousands of years

on outer edges

most recently formed portion of any crystal is always found

Which of the following minerals is most susceptible to chemical weathering?

most to least susceptible: halite, potassium feldspar, olivine, quarts

at a convergent plate boundary, two opposed plates

move toward one another

Magma tends to

move upward, away from where it formed

if we mentally align the continents to fit wegeners concept of pangaea, evidence of late paleozoic glacial deposits is

much more readily explained than in the modern continental configuration

Lahar

mudflow with volcanic origin density of wet concrete usually cold

Which of the following groups represent the most abundant sedimentary rocks?

mudstones and shales

The single property that can be used to identify any mineral is ____________.

multiple properties must be used to diagnose a mineral

shear stress at sufficient depth within a fault plane can induce ductile shear, forming fine-grained metamorphic rock named

mylonite

Burning of which of the following fuels produces the least amount of carbon dioxide per unit of energy?

natural gas

Layer X is most likely to be reservoir rock containing _______ in the pore space.

natural gas

In an oil trap formed by an anticline, ________ accumulates on top, _____ in the middle, and _________ at the bottom.

natural gas, oil, groundwater

An anion carries a _____ charge.

negative

Presently, Earth's atmosphere is dominated by which two gases?

nitrogen & oxygen

Presently, Earth's atmosphere is dominated by which two gases?

nitrogen and oxygen

Can a softer mineral scratch a harder mineral?

no

Is coal an inorganic material?

no coal is not inorganic because it was created from plant remains which was once a living thing

Is the color of a mineral's streak the same color as the mineral itself?

no not always

Is brick and concrete an inorganic material?

no they are human made and are made from natural materals

picture

none of the above; multiple properties must be used to diagnose a mineral

Burial metamorphism produces

nonfoliated rocks only

Burial metamorphism produces ____________

nonfoliated rocks only

Thermal (contact) metamorphism produces

nonfoliated rocks only

How would you describe the luster of calcite, K-feldspar, and plagioclase?

nonmetallic

positive

normal

regions of the sea floor with positive magnetic anomalies were formed during times when earths magnetic field had _____ polarity

normal

When the hanging wall slips down the slope of the fault

normal fault

Earthquakes can occur with _________ faulting.

normal, reverse, or thrust

A continental volcanic arc occurs at ______.

not Hawaii

the lithosphere is rising under Canada due to

not buoyancy

The geothermal gradient is largest in the

not mantle or outer core

The________ is the location within the crust where slip along a fault releases seismic energy.

not subduction zone. Wadati-Benioff zone?

natural gas a) consists of longer carbon chains as compared to oil b) is denser than oil c) is produced at higher temperatures than oil d) is produced at higher temperatures than graphite

not: A answer: b or c

Which layer of the atmosphere is chemically stratified, with the lightest molecules riding above heavier molecules?

not: troposphere

A paleomagnetic record from one location shows increasing inclination with time. This indicates:

nothing

Isotopes of an element differ by

number of neutrons

The atomic number and atomic weight of an atom are determined by which of the following, respectively?

number of protons, number of protons plus neutrons

luster streak B. the color of a mineral in its powdered form B. the color of a mineral in its powdered form 11.3 Incorrect cleavage C. the non-planar manner in which a mineral breaks A. the tendency of a mineral to break along smooth planar surfaces 11.4 Incorrect fracture A. the tendency of a mineral to break along smooth planar surfaces

D. appearance or quality of reflected light from the surface of a mineral

stravo volcano

"composite cone"

Which of the following minerals belong to the sulfide group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Halite (NaCl) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH)) (E) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)

(A) pyrite FeS2

Which of the following minerals are built from the independent silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)

(A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4)

Which of the following minerals are built from the single chain silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)

(B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6)

Which of the following minerals are built from the double chain silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)

(C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2)

Which of the following minerals belong to the carbonate group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Halite (NaCl) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH)) (E) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)

(C) Calcite (CaCO3)

What is the formula for plagioclase?

(Ca,Na)(Al,Si)AlSi2O8

Which of the following minerals belong to the phosphate group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Halite (NaCl) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH)) (E) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)

(D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH))

Which of the following minerals are built from the sheet silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)

(D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

Which of the following minerals are built from the framework silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)

(E) Quartz (SiO2)

Geological Time Scale- Numerical dating

(same as absolute) Obtained the numbers because of radiometric dating-date are obtained from the natural rates of decay of various radiometric elements.

Original continuity

--_____-- ---___--- --------- Once continuity but something eroded it like a river. Sediment extends laterally in all directions until it thins and pinches out against a depositional basin.

Pyroclastic Flows

-200oC - 450oC avalanches of hot ash that race downslope. -Moving up to 300 kph, they incinerate all in their path. -Immediately deadly; they kill everything quickly. -Many famous examples: Vesuvius, Mt. Pelée (1902), Augustine (1986).

3 components of magma

-Liquid portion is called melt -Solids, if any, are mainly silicate minerals that crystallized from the melt -Volatiles are dissolved gases in the melt, including water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Diorite

-Plutonic equivalent of andesite -Coarse grained

Hot-spot volcanoes ____________.

-can arise from the ocean floor -can arise on continents -may arise in the interior of lithospheric plates -all of the above

Obsidian ____________.

-is volcanic glass -possesses conchoidal fracture -typically is felsic in composition -all of the above

Magma

-rocks that are hot enough melt to form magma -Parent liquid of igneous rocks -Forms from partial melting of rocks; A body of molten rock found at depth, including any dissolved gases and crystals.

Whether an eruption will primarily produce lava flows or pyroclastic debris is influenced by ____________.

-the viscosity of the lava -the composition of the lava -the proportion of volatiles within the lava -all of the above

Below is a photograph of a piece of rock collected from a solidified lava flow. What kind of texture is displayed? Please write in the blank labels the technical terms for the large creamy colored crystals (A) and the brown areas (B) that are composed of crystals that are too small to detect with just the naked eye.

. porphyritic texture, (A) phenocrysts, (B) matrix

In the following illustration, label (A) points to holes or voids in an extrusive igneous rock. Please place in the blank label the technical term for these holes or voids which were the former sites of gas bubbles.

. vesicles

Continental crust is 5x as thick as oceanic crust

...

Decomposition of minerals by organic acids is an example of _____ weathering

...

How to calculate half lives?

...

Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere

...

copper, bronze, iron

...

discovered during last two centuries

...

framework silicates

...

glossopteris

...

guyots

...

pluton

...

regolith

...

rhyolitic lavas do not flow as far from vent as basaltic lavas

...

salt dome

...

welded tuff

...

Aphanitic texture

..., Rapid cooling at earth's surface results in tiny mineral crystals that can only be seen under a microscope.

Shield rocks & their age?

...Ask TA

crust

.5%mass, granite and basalt,

Carbon dioxide makes up about _______ of the Earth's atmosphere.

0.1%

How many silicon ions are involved in the formation of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron?

1

Since talc is the softest mineral what hardness does it have?

1

The hardness of a mineral is ranked on a scale of ?

1 to 10

tectonic plates move at rates that are approximately

1 to 15 cm/year

plates move at rate

1-15 cm/yr

What are the chemical/mineral physical characteristics of the Earth?

1-Core 2-Mantle 3-Core

What is the rigidity of ht earth based on physical characteristics?

1-Inner Core 2-Outer Core 3-Mesosphere 4-Asthenosphere 5-Lithosphere

What are the steps of decompression melting?

1. The asthenosphere rises 2. The heat content of the rock is enough to allow it to melt

What are the steps of the creation of clastic sedimentary rocks?

1. Transportation - (sorts things by size) the movement of sediment, either as particles or dissolved ions, from the site of weathering, primarily by streams 2. Deposition - (deposits in layers) sediment is deposited in horizontal layers through the process of sedimentation, commonly occurs in the ocean, streams and lakes 3. Burial and lithification - (only occurs when the earth is settling) the sediment is buried in a subsiding sedimentary basin, subjects the sediment to increased pressure and temperatures that cause the sediment to be heated and squeezed into sedimentary rock (the process called lithification)

Know how igneous rocks are classified and named.

1.Texture.-Coarse, Fine, Glassy 2.Chemical Compostion 3.Mineral content -Proportion of light mineral to dark minerals.

Since the diamond is the hardest mineral what hardness does it have?

10

A mid-ocean ridge is spreading at 2 centimeters per year. What's the age of the ocean floor 100 kilometers from the ridge? Enter your answer to the nearest millions of years.

10,000,000

About how many nuclear power plants are there in the US?

100

At the current rate of world use, the remaining oil will be depleted in approximately ______ years

100

What is the approximate temperature of a sediment that is buried to a depth of 3 km?

100 degrees C

Continental crust is typically 35 km thick, but may be up to ____________ thicker under mountain ranges.

100%

what's the average elevation of the Earth's Tropopause to the nearest kilometer above sea level?

12

Hydroelectric energy provides about _______ of the energy consumed annually in the United States.

12%

Describe the crystal structure of the mineral Garnet?

12-sided crystals

inner core

1200 km, 2%

Rounding to the nearest integer, the inner core is times more dense than the crust on average.

13

Researchers have determined that the Universe began expanding subsequent to the Big Bang. When did this event occur

13.7 Ga ago

Age of Universe

14.7 Billion years

What's the Earth's average atmospheric pressure at sea level to nearest pound per square inch?

15

continental lithosphere

150 km

the average thickness of continental lithosphere is about

150 km

The first oil well was drilled in the United States in ________.

1859

Order the following elements by abundance (1 = most, 4 = least) in the Earth's crust:

1=O, 2=Si, 3=Al, 4=Fe

order the clastic sedimentary rocks from largest to smallest grained

1=conglomerate, 2=sandstone, 3=siltstone, 4=shale

Ash is less than ______ mm in size.

2

Describe how magmatic differentiation changes the composition of magma during crystallization.

2 things change at very distinct levels, different rocks are formed from the same magma chambers.

If a 50-year flood occurs on the Mississippi River in 2010, what is the probability that a flood of at the same magnitude will occur in 2011?

2%

Lapilli tuff contains particles ranging from _____ and _____ mm in size.

2, 64

Gypsum can be scratched with your fingernail. Its hardness is less than ________.

2.5

The oldest basalts on the ocean floor are about ____________ years old

200 million

the oldest sediments on the ocean floor are about _____ years old

200 million

How many years does it take for the entire ocean crust to be replaced?

200 million years

oldest sediments on ocean floor

200 million years old

outer core

2300 km, 30%

Since Charles Keeling started measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations in the late the 1950's, the amount of CO2 has increased by about

25%

How many directions of cleavage are indicated in the diagram?

3

How many seismograph stations are needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake?

3

How many kilometers of volcanic rock are produced at ocean ridges every year?

3 kilometers

continental crust

30-70 km

Rounding to the nearest integer, the inner core is ______times more dense than the crust on average.

4

Age of Earth

4.5 Billion years

Of all of the energy produced in the United States, what % is lost in distribution and inefficient use?

40%

A histogram showing percentages of various types of energy used in the United States in 1997 is given above.

40% oil 23% coal 8% nuclear 1% solar

The circumference of Earth is most nearly

40,000 km

In the United States, coal resources should last approximately ______ years at the current rate of use.

400

How old is the Earth dawg?

5 bil yrs old

The Geysers produce enough electricity to meet what portion of the needs of San Francisco?

50%

Andesite Lava

57-63 wt% SiO2 contains minerals plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and hornblende erupts at 1000 degrees C

Describe the crystal structure of quartz crystals?

6-sided crystals

Dacite Lava

63-68 wt % SiO2 contains minerals potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, and biotite mica erupts at 900 degrees C more vicious and volatile than andesite

What is the radius of the Earth to the nearest 100 kilometers?

6400

To the nearest 100 km, the maximum depth of Earthquakes generated by fracturing of a subducting plate is ____ km.

670km?

The thickness of Earth's crust varies from ____________.

7 to 70 km

thickness of earths crust

7-70km

oceanic crust

7km, basalt

Oil, coal and natural gas supply approximately _______ % of the energy used in the United States

90

Approximately what percentage of earthquakes occur at plate boundaries?

90%

What is the porosity of newly deposited mud?

> 50%

Define pyroclastic cloud

A cloud of billowing ash that forms over the pyroclastic flow

Ultramafic

A compositional group of igneous rocks containing mostly olivine and pyroxene.

Felsic/Granitic composition

A compositional group of igneous rocks indicating the rock is composed almost entirely of light-colored silicates.

Intermediate

A compositional group of igneous rocks, indicating that the rock contains at least 25 percent dark silicate minerals. The other dominant mineral is plagioclase feldspar.

Describe decompression melting.

A decrease in pressure, just as a rise in temperature, can melt materials, specifically rocks in this case

Earthquake A has a Richter magnitude of 7 as compared with earthquake B's 6. The amount of ground motion is one measure of earthquake intensity.

A is 10X more intense than B

How to mantle plums and hot spots work together to create volcanoes?

A mantle plume rises from a fixed hot spot in the mantle, the rising plume undergoes decompression as it nears the earth's surface creating a volcano

MINERALS

A mineral has be naturally occurring, is inorganic (made by earth process) is has to be a solid, it has an specific structure. Not from biological process (ex animals) Ice is a mineral.

What is the difference between a "primary" diagnostic property and a "special" property of a mineral?

A primary property is one that all minerals possess, whereas a special property is found in only one or a few minerals.

What was unusual about the 1986 disaster around Lake Nyos in Cameroon?

A slurry of lava and lake water flowed rapidly outward from the lake and buried surrounding villages

glass

A solid in which atoms are not arranged in an orderly pattern

Glassy texture

A term used to describe the texture of certain igneous rocks, such as obsidian, that contain no crystals.

Vesicular texture

A texture common in extrusive igneous rocks - small holes on surface of flow where gas bubbles were trapped due to rapid cooling of lava.; A term applied to aphanitic igneous rocks that contain many small cavaties called vesicles.

Sea Trenches

A trench marks the position at which the flexed, subducting slab begins to descend beneath another lithospheric slab.

Disconformity

A type of unconformity above and below which the strata are parallel.

What makes one mineral different from another that allows us to distinguish them physically?

A unique set of physical properties

Which of the following is true?

A) minerals are the building blocks of rocks B) minerals grow and are destroyed by chemical reactions C) most minerals at Earth's surface are composed of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra D) a mineral species has a specific set of physical properties E) all of the above

Crystallization of a mineral from a liquid solution

A) requires a proper pressure. B) requires a proper concentration of specific atoms or ions. C) occurs by the addition of atoms to a crystal face. D) requires a proper temperature.

Air-fall tuff

Accumulations of ash that fall like snow.

What is another name for Decompression Melting?

Adiabatic melting

Distinctive rock sequences on South America terminate at the Atlantic Ocean but reappear on the continent of

Africa

Which of the following plate boundaries is an example of an advanced stage of continental rifting that is developing into a new ocean basin?

African Plate and Arabian Plate

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of aluminum

Al +3

What is an example of a shield volcano?

Aleutian islands, cascade range

Who came up with continental drift?

Alfred Wegner

normal mag polarity

All basalts younger than 700,000 years old

Pahoehoe ____________.

All of the above

Orogenesis (mountain building) leads to the production of ____________. a. metamorphic rocks only b. igneous rocks only c. sedimentary rocks only d. All of the above are correct

All of the above are correct

____________ may help a geologist recognize a fault. a. Displacement b. Fault scarps c. Breccia d. All of the above are correct

All of the above are correct

Which of the following are a result of planetary differentiation?

All of the above: Light elements rose to form the crust; Heavy elements sank to form the core; Light lithosphere floating on denser asthenosphere

Minerals may form a crystal based upon their atomic structure. What controls the atomic structure in a mineral?

An array of atoms bonded together

Orogeny

An episode of mountain building involving deformation;usually accompanied by igneous activity, metamorphism, and crustal thickening.

What likely environment is implied by the presence of halite or gypsum in a sedimentary rock terrain

An evaporated lake

Porphyritic texture

An igneous rock texture characterized by two distinctively differetn crystal sizes. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts, whereas the matrix of smaller crystals is termed the groundmass.

Angular Unconformity

An unconformity below which strata dip at a steeper angle than those above.

Nonconformity

An unconformity is which stratified sedimentary rocks overlie and erosion surface cut into ingenious or metamorphic rocks.

Andesite

Andesite -Volcanic origin -Aphanitic texture

The closest galaxy to ours is ________________ , which is ___________ million light years away

Andromeda; 2.2

The form of small, poorly developed crystals is termed ________.

Anhedral

The metal alloy that makes up the core of Earth is ____________, as compared to the rocky mantle

Denser

Tephra

Deposits of pyroclastic debris.

Plate Tectonics & Sea Floor Spreadin= Continental drift

Answered the big question of how continents moved!

*Weathering

Any of the chemical or mechanical processes by which rocks exposed to the weather undergo changes in character and break down.

An extrusive igneous rock composed of crystals that are too small to see with the naked eye has a(n) texture.

Aphanitic

An extrusive igneous rock composed of crystals that are too small to see with the naked eye has a(n) texture.

Aphanitic

In addition to the two primary sources, plate motion may also be facilitated by convection occurring within the ________.

Asthenosphere

Number 64

B

Which of the following minerals belong to the halide group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Halite (NaCl) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH)) (E) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)

B) Halite (NaCl)

Which of the following minerals belong to the oxide group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Hematite (Fe2O3) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH))

B) Hematite (Fe2O3)

mafic silicate mineral

B) olivine C) pyroxene D) amphibole

Geological Time Scale- Relative dating

Discovered first!

What leads to explosive eruptions? Step 2

Disruption: magma gets so full of vesicles that it can no longer hold itself together

What makes one mineral different from another that allows us to distinguish them chemically?

Distinct crystal structure controlled by bonding. Distinct pressure and temperature conditions of formation. Distinct chemistry. All of these.

Causes of Pyroclastic Flows

Dome collapse, dome explosion, and column collapse

The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure?

Double Chain

Crystal settling

During the crystallization of magma, the earlier-formed minerals are denser than the liquid portion and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber.

Why does the ratio of Si to O vary from silicate mineral to silicate mineral?

Each tetrahedron bonded to another tetrahedron does so by sharing an O atom, so the more sharing, the lower the ratio of Si-O.

Foucault's experiment with a pendulum proved that

Earth rotates about an internal axis

Earth's interior is hot because

Earth's interior is hot because the process that formed Earth (accretion) generated large amounts of heat. Additional heat has been added through geologic time by radioactive decay of unstable isotopes (heat is a byproduct of the decay process). Molten rock or magma is actually rare in earth's interior - only the outer core is hot enough to be above the melting point for material of that composition under that amount of pressure.

Earth's surface is protected from solar wind and cosmic radiation by

Earth's magnetic field

Atoms that are not neutral are called ions. What happens to change an atom into an ion?

Electrons are either lost or gained in the atom's outermost energy shell

The Earth was first estimated to be a sphere with a radius of approximately 7000 km by

Eratosthenes in 200 BC

What leads to explosive eruptions? Step 3

Eruption: when the pressure of expanding vesicles exceeds the strength of the stretching magma, the magma fails violently

All of the earth's internal heat was acquired very early in its history through meteoric impact and differentiation of the core. The earth's interior loses heat to space but does not currently receive heat through any known process- True/False

False

All rock produced at the mid-ocean ridges consists of basalt

False

All volcanic eruptions pass through the crater at the volcanic summit-True/False

False

All volcanic eruptions pass through the crater at the volcanic summit.

False

Asbestos is a mineral

False

Cold air pushes underneath warm air at cold fronts and warm air pushes underneath cold air at warm fronts.

False

Diamond and graphite are both polymorphs of pure silicon.

False

Galena and halite have the same chemical composition and different crystalline structures.

False

Igneous rocks include rocks deposited on lava flows by running water-True/False

False

In a silicon-oxygen structural unit, silicon atoms occupy the corners of a tetrahedron. (See figure for question 1.)

False

In metamorphic rocks some melting is always required-True/False

False

It is rare for mineral crystals to display any sort of symmetry (invariance of pattern with respect to a transformation, such as rotation or mirror-image reflection).

False

Lithification is a metamorphic process-True/False

False

One of the reasons volcanic eruptions are so deadly is that there is no way to predict where an eruption will occur in the near future-True/False

False

Per capita energy use in the US has increased dramatically since the 1970's

False

Rocks are always made up of minerals.

False

Sliding motion along transform faults caused the segments of the mid-ocean ridges to become dislocated with respect to one another

False

Subducted slabs have never been detected below the Wadati-Benioff zone.

False

The 'texture' of a rock refers just to its feel-True/False

False

The colored strata layers of the Grand Canyon are said to be a form of foliation-True/False

False

The composition of a rock can be described as either being equant or inequant-True/False

False

The eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 was the greatest explosive eruption in the last two hundred years of world data.

False

The eruption of Mt St Helens in 1980 was the greatest explosive eruption in the last 200 years of world data - True/False

False

Until Columbus's voyage in 1492 most scientists thought the earth was much smaller than it actually was/

False

Virtually all of the sediment atop a downgoing plate becomes subducted into the mantle along with the plate

False

Wegener's evidence for a united Pangaea was so compelling that virtually all geologists agreed with the idea of continental drift during his lifetime

False

When rock is melted within Earth, typically the entire volume of rock is transformed from solid state to a liquid.

False

When rock is melted within earth, typically the entire volume of rock is transformed from a solid state to a liquid- True/False

False

Asbestos is a mineral. True or False?

False - Habit displayed by a group of minerals that goes into your lungs and gives you cancer

The strongest winds in a hurricane are found within the central eye.

False. In the eye wall

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation states of iron

Fe +2/+3

Which cations bond most often with Si-O tetrahedral structures in silicate minerals?

Fe, Mg, Ca, Na

Felsic

Felsic minerals are light colored: - Quartz (SiO2) - Potassium feldspar [KAlSi3O8] - Sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar [NaAlSi3O8] - Calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar [CaAl2Si2O8] - Muscovite mica [KAl3Si3O10(OH)2] Felsic magmas = high silica content and viscous

James Hutton

Founder of modern geology- uniformitarianism=the present is key to the past (lightning example)

gabbro

Gabbro: -Intrusive equivalent of basalt -Phaneritic texture consisting of pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase -Significant % of the oceanic crust

Who first discovered four moons belonging to Jupiter, proving conclusively that some bodies do not orbit around the Earth?

Galileo

Volatiles

Gaseous components of magma dissolved in the melt. Volatiles will readily vaporize (form a gas) at surface pressures.

coarse grained

Gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites, which are igneous rocks that are exceptionally --

Obsidian _____.

Glassy Igneous Rock; Felsic; An igneous rock consisting of a solid mass of volcanic glass; a mass of solid, felsic glass. I tends to be black or brown. Because it breaks conchoidally, sharp edged pieces split off its surface when you hit a sample with a hammer. Preindustrial peoples worldwide used such pieces for arrowheads, scrapers, and knife blades.

Which plant genus dominated glaciated regions during the Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic

Glossopteris

Which plant genus dominated glaciated regions during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic

Glossopteris

Euhedral

Good crystal faces; grown in open cavity.

The intrusive compositional equivalent of rhyolite is

Granite

Granite

Granite: -Phaneritic -Over 25% quartz, about 65% or more feldspar -May also contain biotite and/or muscovite mica -Very abundant - often associated with mountain building

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of hydrogen

H +1

Which common mineral is found in most kitchens?

Halite

Describe the physical properties that you would use to distinguish A) halite from calcite and B) galena from graphite.

Halite and calcite are both white to clear, but have different cleavages and crystal shapes. Halite has cubic cleavage, with three cleavage directions at 90 degrees, giving the mineral the shape of a cube. Calcite also has three cleavage directions, but they are not at 90 degrees so the mineral has a rhombic shape. Halite also has a distinct salty taste, while calcite while fizz if you put acid on it. Galena and graphite are both gray to black in color, but galena has a very bright metallic luster while graphite's luster is more dull, giving the minerals very different appearances. Galena also has three cleavage directions at right angles, while graphite has only one. While both graphite and galena are low in hardness, graphite is softer and is in fact the mineral with the lowest hardness on Moh's scale. (Please explain how the cleavage and habit is different for each pair of minerals. Also, galena is much denser than graphite and has a brighter metallic luster.)

Fiedrich Mohs is known for developing the Mohs Index of _______________.

Hardness

Properties used in mineral identification include

Hardness streak cleavage luster

A famous example of hot-spot volcanism occurs at ____________.

Hawaii

The extrusive compositional equivalent of gabbro is

Basalt

The picture below is most likely of which of these rocks? (black chunk of rock, no visible crystals)

Basalt

What magma composition does partial melting of peridotite produce?

Basalt

Composition of the Ocean Floor

Basalt rocks

Explain the relationships between magma composition, crustal thickness, fractional crystallization, and tectonic setting.

Basalt, which is low in silica like the mantle, can be produced in any setting where tectonic processes cause the mantle to melt - ocean ridges, continental rifts, or hot spots (melting by decompression) and also subduction zones (melting by addition of water). Andesite, with an intermediate amount of silica, is usually associated with subduction zones and rhyolite, with a high amount of silica, can only be found on continental crust. These higher silica compositions can be produced by melting of silica rich parent materials or by fractional crystallization or crustal contamination of basalt. This occurs where the crust is thicker - such as in subduction zones - where the basalt takes time to work its way through the overriding plate - resulting in fractional crystallization that produces enrichment in silica. Further enrichment in silica can occur where the crust is composed of high silica continental crust, which partially melts and adds high silica to the original mantle-derived basalt magma to produce andesite or rhyolite, such as a volcanic arc built atop continental crust (example: Cascades), or when a continental plate passes over a hot spot (example: Yellowstone). (Magmas originate in the mantle. Because the mantle is mafic (fe/mg rich, silica poor), melting of the mantle produces mafic magma - basalt. In tectonic settings where the crust is thin - oceanic ridges, continental rifts, oceanic hotspots, the magma erupts unchanged as basalt. Where the crust is thick, fractional crystallization produces more felsic magma compositions - andesite and rhyolite -- by the time the magma erupts at the surface. More felsic magma compositions are only seen where the crust is thick - subduction zones, continental hotspots.)

basalt

Basalt: -Volcanic origin -Mafic in composition -Aphanitic texture -Composed mainly of pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar -Most common extrusive igneous rock

Superposition

Basis for relitive dating of strata and their contained fossils. Oldest on bottom

How are biotite and muscovite different?

Biotite contains Fe and Mg in addition to K, while muscovite has only K

Planetesimals

Bodies whose diameter exceeds 1 km.

All silicate minerals have the same fundamental building block, the SiO4 tetrahedron (see figure). Which of the following is not a way in which this building block makes silicate minerals?

Bonds into diamond shapes to form minerals like quartz.

Because earth is a closed system:

Both A and B: there is a finite supply of resources and all waste and pollutants generated on Earth stay on Earth

Earth's atmosphere was once very similar in composition to the atmosphere of

Both B and C: Venus and Mars

How do blocks differ from bombs?

Both bombs and blocks are similar in size. However, bombs typically have a spindle shape reflecting their origin as lava is aerodynamically streamlined as it moves through the air while blocks are angular reflecting their origin as solid pieces blown out of a volcano.

KNOW THIS!

Both continental and oceanic crusts can form a plate

Weatering

Breaks down bigger to smaller A-a. Same content.

A sedimentary rock composed of angular gravel is called a _____

Breccia

What would you call the name of the glassy black rock shown below? Hint: It has been used in the past to make arrow heads.

obsidian

Topographically, most of the ocean floor is made up of

ocean plains

The pulling forces that produce the most rapid plate velocities are concentrated at

ocean trenches

Which choice best describes the age distribution of oceanic crust?

oceanic crust is youngest at the ridge and gets older with increasing distance from the ridge

at a subduction zone, the downgoing (subducting) plate is always composed of

oceanic lithosphere

Tectonic plates might consist of

oceanic or continental lithosphere or a combination of both

tectonic plates might consist of

oceanic or continental lithosphere or a combination of both

Laterite solis: a) are red in color b) are formed in tropical climates c) often contain high concentrations of aluminum d) all of the above

often contain high concentrations of aluminum

Layer Y is most likely to be reservoir rock containing _______ in the pore space.

oil

The world has the least amount of which of the following fuel types

oil

A permeable rock that contains hydrocarbon fluids and gasses is called a(n) _________

oil reservoir

What is the leading source of energy used in the United States today?

oil resources

200 mil yrs

oldest sediments on the ocean floor (age) are about

In Bowen's discontinuous reaction series, the first mineral to crystallize from a mafic melt is ____________.

olivine

How many silicon ions are involved in the formation of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron?

one

tuff

one of the most common pyroclastic rocks, composed mainly of tiny ash-sized fragments that were later cemented together

Minerals utilized by humans as a source of metal are termed

ore minerals

minerals utilized by humans as a source of metal are termed

ore minerals

Rocks made up of the carbon-rich remains of plants are classified as______sedimentary rocks.

organic

Two major sources of energy, coal and oil shale, are considered ____________ sedimentary rocks

organic

the deepest earthquakes occur at subduction zones due to change in

organization

Assimilation

In igneous activity, the processs of incorporating country rock into a magma body.

Fault scarps

In places where an active normal or reverse fault intersects the ground, one side of the fault moves vertically with respect to the other, creating a small step called a fault scarp.

Fossiliferous Limestone without ripples form where?

In the ocean-limestone was once alive!

Where do the valence electrons occur?

In the outermost electron shell.

The deep red color of solis found in Georgia and other warm, humid regions in caused by ______ .

oxidized iron oxides

The most abundant element group in Earth's crust is

oxygen

The silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all the silicate minerals is composed of silicon and what other element?

oxygen

The two most common elements in the crust of Earth are ____________

oxygen and silicon

A poryphyritic texture indicates an igneous rock that

partially cooled underground and was then erupted on the surface

Broad, sediment-covered continental shelves are found along

passive margins

Continental coastlines that occur within the interior of a tectonic plate are called

passive margins

broad sediment-covered continental shelves are found along

passive margins

Is granite intrusive or extrusive rock?

Intrusive igneous rock

What makes the two major atomic bond styles different?

Ionic bonds are "attractive" (electrical), but covalent bonds are "sharing" electrons. Ionic bonds involve missing and gained electrons, but covalent bonds share electrons between atoms Ionic bonds are between positively-charged and negatively-charged atoms, but covalent bonds do not involve charges. All of these.

What is the core composed of? How do the inner and outer core differ?

Iron-Nickel Alloy. It is solid whereas the outer core is liquid.

Magma

It is called lava when it is exposed at Earth's surface.

What is the space within the mid-ocean ridges called and how is it created?

It's called the asthenosphere, and is created when two plates move apart and the asthenosphere rises

You would use a magnet to determine what property of a mineral?

It's magnetic property

Prof Skinners favorite plate?

Jaun de Fuca

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of calcium

Ca +2

What is the formula for calcite?

CaCO3

What is the special property that allows one to identify calcite versus dolomite, the very similar carbonate minerals

Calcite effervesces (fizzes) readily when HCl is applied.

Graded Bedding=Turbidity current(Water flow)

Just know.

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of potassium

K +1

What is the formula for K-feldspar?

KAlSi3O8

Volcanic agglomerate

Lapilli and bombs near the vent.

Phenocryst

Large crystals in fine grained surrounding

pumice

Lava rich in gas bubbles quench to form a frothy glass

obsidian

Lava without gasses quench to form a dense glass

Stratification

Layering of sedimentary rock

Red Shift

Light emitted from distant galaxies that shows that the universe is expanding. Velocity increases with increasing distance (Raisin Bread example)

What is the dominant chemical sedimentary rock?

Limestone

Tuff

Lithified ash with or without lapilli.

Plate Tectonics

Lithospheric plates move with respect to one another at divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundaries.

What does limestone metamorphose into?

MARBLE (on test)

Mafic

Mafic minerals are dark colored: - Biotite mica [(K, Mg, Fe, Al)Si3O10(OH)2] - Amphiboles [(Mg, Fe, Ca, Na)Si8O22(OH)2] - Pyroxenes [(Mg, Fe, Ca, Al)SiO3] - Olivine [(Mg, Fe)2SiO4] Mafic magmas = much lower silica content and more fluid-like behavior

What are the outward characteristics of mafic and felsic rocks?

Mafic rocks tend to be black or grey and felsic rocks tend to be white or pink

Lava

Magma the reaches the surface; ABOVE

How did the discovery of magnetic reversals confirm the sea floor spreading hypothesis?

Magnetic reversals are the periodic change in the orientation of earth's magnetic field. For reasons not fully understood, the magnetic field occasionally flips polarity, in other words, magnetic north becomes magnetic south and vice versa. When rocks containing iron minerals crystallize from lava, the iron mineral crystals align themselves with the polarity of the ambient magnetic field at the time of crystallization. This orientation is locked in place and will not change. When the seafloor was mapped in detail, it was discovered that the oceanic exhibits "stripes" of normally and reversely magnetized rocks that are symmetric on either side of the mid-ocean ridge system. In other words, rocks at the ridge axis today show normally polarity, and then as you move away from the ridge on either side you enter a belt of reversely magnetized rocks, and so on. This pattern indicates that rocks along the ridge today formed in today's interval of normal polarity. Rocks in reversely magnetized belt formed in the last period of reserved polarity, and then moved away from the ridge due to seafloor spreading.

Which of the following is not considered a primary diagnostic property of minerals?

Magnetism

What is the name for soils that are rich in calcium

pedocals

If non-silicate minerals account for only about 8% of the crust, what makes them considered important minerals?

Many non-silicates have economic importance due to their occurrence as metallic ores.

magnetic polarity reversals

Marine magnetic anomalies result from sea-floor spreading in conjunction with

MORs

Marine magnetic anomaly belts run parallel to

sea floor spreading, rates relatively rapid

Marine magnetic anomaly belts widest at

Olympus Mons, the largest known volcano in the Universe, is found on ___________.

Mars

Aside from Earth, the terrestrial planets are

Mars, Mercury, and Venus

In 1902, a famous, deadly volcaniclastic flow killed thousands of people on the Caribbean island of ____________.

Martinique

carribean volcano

Martinique

Lava with low viscosity is found at which volcano?

Mauna Loa, Hawaii

Why isn't the Earth Homogeneous?

Melting and Planetary Differentiation

Terrestrial Planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars

The metamorphic process by which high temperatures cause mineral crystals to change their size and shape, but not composition or structure, is termed ______ facies.

Metamorphic

Contact Metamorphism

Metamorphism taking place adjacent to a body of magma or beneath a lava flow from heat and chemically active fluids (INTRUSION)

Which of the world's major cities has suffered tremendous earthquake damage in the past not because it is located at a plate boundary (it is not), but rather because it is built atop a basin of ancient lake bed sediments that rhythmically rock back and forth when agitated by seismic waves of a characteristic frequency?

Mexico City

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of magnesium

Mg +2

fixed crystal structure

Minerals are all naturally occurring solid substances with a definable chemical composition. They must also possess

Which of the following is not true about minerals?

Minerals can be liquid, solid, or glass

Why are the non-silicate minerals subdivided into classes based upon anion or anion complex that the members have in common

Minerals in each class have similar properties

fracture

Minerals that do not possess cleavage are said to possess

ore minerals

Minerals utilized by humans as a source of metal

Major categories of materials constituting the Earth?

Minerals, Rocks, Soil, and Water.

Which of the following measures an earthquake's intensity based on the observed effects on people and structures?

Modified Mercalli scale

The ranking of hardness of a mineral is called?

Mohs hardness scale

Magma

Molten rock material BELOW the surface

If there are nearly 4000 minerals identified to date, why is the crust dominated by only a few dozen "common" minerals

Most of these minerals include the 5 highest percentage elements found in the crust. These minerals include the most abundant elements in the crust. These minerals are "rock-forming" and are found in common rocks.

How does the CO2 levels on earth stay balanced and what is it called?

Mountains and continents erode sediment into the sea, the sea takes CO2 from the air and calcium from from the sediments to make limestone. This is called the carbonate-silicate cycle

stratovolc

Mt. Fuji

What is an example of a stratovolcano?

Mt. Shasta in northern California and Mt. Rainer in Seattle

Which rock composes the Earth's mantle?

peridotite

basalt comes from...

peridotite Most basaltic magmas originate from partial melting of an ultramafic rock called peridotite •Where formed: -Beneath mid-ocean ridges -Melting of mantle above subduction zone -Mantle plumes

mantle

peridotites, 2900 km, 51% mass, 82% vol

In 79 C.E., the citizens of Pompeii in the Roman Empire were buried by pyroclastic debris derived from an eruption of ____________.

Mt. Vesuvius

How do rock particles move during the passage of a S wave through the rock?

perpendicular to the direction of wave travel

volcanic

pertaining to the avtivities, structures, or rock types of a volcano

Which of the following is not a mineral?

petroleum

Which of the following is NOT a mineral?

petroleum (oil), which is a liquid cubic zirconia, which is a synthetic diamond substitute that is not found in nature ice, which is water in the solid state d. Neither A nor B are minerals; however, C is a mineral.

An intrusive igneous rock composed of crystals that are large enough to see with the naked eye is said to exhibit a ______________________ texture.

phaneritic

An intrusive igneous rock composed of crystals that are large enough to see with the naked eye exhibits a______texture.

phaneritic

granite

phanetitic rock composed of about 25% quartz and 65% feldspar, mostly potassium and sodium rich, there is an abundance of it in the continental crust

The deepest Earthquakes occur at subduction zones due to a change in the______ of the minerals within the subducting slab

phase?

Dacite Rocks

phenocysts of plagioclase and hornblende visible

All of the following are factors that determine the atomic structure of a mineral except

physical properties

Stoping by magmas occurs when

pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated

Bowen's continuous reaction series describes the crystallization behavior of a single mineral (with variable chemical composition), ____________.

plagioclase

The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is

plagioclase

The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is ____________.

plagioclase

Evidence for a united Pangaea comes from the fossil record of which type(s) of organisms?

plants freshwater animals large terrestrial animals All of the above are correct.

active margin

plate techtonics; anywhere on Earth where earthquakes are especially frequent

Without plate tectonics, we would not have

plates in constant motion formation of new oceans mountain building All of the above are correct.

Which of the following farming practices helps to prevent the erosion of topsoil?

plowing a field parallel to the contour lines

A blob-like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is

pluton

A blob-like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is ____________.

pluton

What is another name for intrusive igneous rock?

plutonic rocks

Two minerals with disinct atomic structures but the same chemical composition are termed

polymorphs

Two minerals with distinct atomic structures but the same chemical composition are termed___________ .

polymorphs

An igneous rock composed of phenocrysts within a groundmass or matrix has a______texture.

porphyritic

An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed

porphyritic

An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed ____________.

porphyritic

A cation carries a _____ charge

positive

Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they

possess exceptionally coarse grains

Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they ____________.

possess exceptionally coarse grains

Coal is formed from ______.

preserved plant material

Exfoliation domes form from

pressure release

metamorphic process by which grains partially dissolve at points of contact

pressure solution

The phase of oil extraction using the initial reservoir pore pressure is callled______recovery

primary

physical state

primary difference between lithospheric and asthenospheric mantle; gives man divergent patterns (physical behavior); the lithosphere is solid; and the asthenosphere is liquid

The phase of oil extraction using the initial reservoir pore pressure is called _____ recovery.

primary?

The preexisting rock that is subsequently altered to form a metamorphic rock is termed a

protolith

The preexisting rock which is subsequently altered to form a metamorphic rock is termed a

protolith

All atoms are elements. All atoms of the same element (e.g., oxygen or silicon) have the same number of

protons

The number of electrons in a neutral atom is balanced by the number of ___________.

protons

The number of electrons in a neutral atom is balanced by the number of ____________ .

protons

The number of electrons in a neutral atom is balanced by the number of________.

protons

For an ideal atom, what determines its mass in "atomic mass units" (AMU)? The number of:

protons plus neutrons

All isotopes of a given element would have the same number of __________, but a different number of ______________. Hence, their atomic _______________ differ.

protons, neutrons, weights

Which group of igneous rocks is all extrusive?

pumice, basalt, andesite

The general term for fragmental material erupted from a volcano is _________.

pyroclast or tephra

Igneous rocks produced by explosive volcanic activity will have what kind of texture?

pyroclastic

Volcanic bombs are ____________.

pyroclastic blocks that acquire aerodynamic shapes during flight out of the volcanic vent

Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of

pyroclastic debris

Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of ____________.

pyroclastic debris

The general term for fragmental material erupted from a volcano is

pyroclastic debris

Soufriere Hills

pyroclastic flows began in 1995 and continue today

A mineral shows conchoidal fracture

quartz

A mineral that commonly shows conchoidal fracture is

quartz

What common framework silicate breaks along conchoidal fractures, has no cleavage, and is commonly translucent

quartz

Which of the following minerals can occur in a multitude of colors, but always exhibits conchoidal fractures, and is commonly translucent? (A)Hornblende (B) Pyroxene (C) Olivine (D)Quartz (E) K-feldspar

quartz

Which of the following minerals found in a granite is not altered by chemical weathering?

quartz

Which of the following minerals has a low solubility and therefore is least susceptible to chemical weathering at the Earth's surface?

quartz

Which of these is least likely to form a clay mineral during weathering? feldspar quartz amphibole olivine

quartz

conchoidal

quartz

Which of the following sandstone types is most likely to form by the mechanical and intense chemical weathering of a granite?

quartz arenite

What makes up the rock granite?

quartz, feldspar, mica, and hornblende minerals

least susceptible to chemical weather to most susceptible to chemical weathering

quartz, olivine, orthoclase and plagioclase, pyroxene and amphibole, dolomite, calcite, biotite, muscovite (hardest to softest)

Some minerals can have different colors like?

quartz. because of whether the quartz has pure silicon dioxide which is white or if it has slight impurities that produce a range of colors like quartz (amethyst) which is violet

what's the name of the non-foliated metamorphic rock with a sandstone protolith, that consists almost entirely of quartz

quartzite

Numerical ages for boundaries between time units on the geologic time scale primarily resulted from the study of _____, in conjunction with relative age data.

radiometric dating of igneous rocks

Geothermal Gradient

rate of change in temperature with depth

3 factors that affect crystal size

rate, silica %, dissolved gas

summed over the entire surface of the earth

rates of lithospheric production and consumption are equal

Although hematite is silver-gray it can be identified by its?

red-brown streak

Define scoria

referred to as cinder, formed as gases escaped from melt that has mafic to intermediate composition

Define intermediate

refers to everything that has compositions that lie between mafic and felsic

Define Mafic

refers to rock that has high Fe and Mg and low Si, Na, and K

Define Felsic

refers to rocks with relatively high Si, Na, and K and low Fe and Mg

Low Velocity Zone

region of the upper mantle where seismic waves travel slower than expected

petroleum

NOT a mineral? quartz--diamond--petroleum--gold

The distinction between the crust and mantle is primarily on the basis of a difference in ____________; the distinction between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is primarily on the basis of a difference in ____________.

NOT: degree of physical rigidity; chemistry (mineral content)

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of sodium

Na +1

What is the formula for halite?

NaCl

no fixed crystal struct

Natural glass is NOT considered a mineral because it

An explanation for the origin of planets, moons, asteroids, and comets is the

Nebular theory

Which of the following did not occur at a plate boundary?

New Madrid, Missouri, 1812

Which of the following did not occur at a plate boundary? a) Anchorage Alaska, 1964 b) San Francisco, 1906 c) New Madrid, Missouri, 1812 d) Loma Prieta, California, 1989

New Madrid, Missouri, 1812

Earths Atmosphere Components

Nitrogen and Oxygen

KNOW THIS

No cleavage=fractures

Anhedral

No crystal faces; grown in tight space

. Which of the following is NOT a way crystals can form?

None of the above are correct.

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of oxygen

O -2

Which of the following set of elements account for >98% of the Earth's crust, in descending order of abundance?

O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg

Eratosthenes was the first person to accurately estimate the size of Earth. He accomplished this feat by

Observing shadows simultaneously cast at two different cities that were separated by a known distance.

addition new crust by sedimentation

Oceanic lithosphere thickens away from the mid-ocean ridge primarily due to

Which is not a felsic mineral?

Olivine

Order the following minerals by their melting temperature, from highest to lowest.

Olivine 1 Biotite4 Quartz 2 Pyroxene 3

shield volc

Olympus Mons

picture

On the outer edges

To a geologist, each of the following is why the orderly internal structure of a solid's atoms is used to determine whether the solid is a mineral, except which one?

Ordered atoms bonded into a structure determine the mineral's composition

specific gravity

Ore minerals, such as galena and hematite, tend to be distinct in their very

The layer of the Earth that is thought to be a liquid is the:

Outer core

What is the term geologists use for the layer of loose, heterogeneous weathered material lying on top of the bedrock?

regolith

In which of the following phenomenon are sediment records NOT preserved?

regression

Andesite Rocks

relatively crystal free but a few plagioclase phenocysts

Unlike the lithosphere, the asthenosphere

relatively weak and flows readily

unlike the lithosphere the asthenosphere is

relatively weak and flows readily

An impermeable rock, regardless of lithology, is a good candidate to serve as a ____________ in an oil producing scenario.

reservoir rock

Most of the natural gas used in the United States is consumed by _______.

residential use

What type of luster does the mineral sulfur have?

resinous to greasy luster

The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is a relative scale of

resistance to abrasion (scratching)

The amount of oil that may become available for use is called oil ________.

resources

A caldera

results from the collapse of a volcano after its magma chamber empties

The process of high-grade metamorphic rocks being altered to form low-grade metamorphic rocks is termed ____________ metamorphism.

retrograde

If, during an earthquake, a hanging wall slides upward relative to a footwall, the fault is termed ____________ if the fault is shallow (much closer to horizontal than vertical).

reverse

During motion along a ____ fault, the hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall at an angle of less than 30 degrees from horizontal

reverse fault

Which type of faulting would be least likely to occur along the mid-Atlantic ridge?

reverse faulting

Whereas the crust-mantle boundary represents a change in rock type, the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary is due to a change in the ______of the material

rheology

Coarse-grained granite is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________.

rhyolite

granite

rhyolite

cause MORs above sea level

ridge rocks are mafic, whereas the ocean basin crust consists of ultramafic rock

Pulling a block of clay apart, resulting in the middle portion thinning and sinking, is an adequate analogy for

rift basins and subsidence

mt. Kilimanjaro

rifting

A well-sorted sandstone with asymmetric ripples was most likely deposited as sand by a

river

Dynamothermal (regional) metamorphism occurs when ____________

rock becomes buried deeply during continental collision and mountain building

Igneous rock

rock that forms when magma cools and solidifies

Minerals are building blocks for?

rocks

Glass

rocks lacking crystals

extrusive

rocks that form at the Earth's surface that are usually fine grained

Define composite textures

rocks that have large crystals called phenocrysts that lie in small crystals

What is beach sand?

rounded quartz/ SiO2

Which of the following rock types would most likely be the best oil reservoir?

sandstone

____________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of quartzite

sandstone

a medium grained peltic rock with pophyroblasts

schist

The silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all the silicate minerals is composed of silicon and what other element?

Oxygen

According to geological evidence and computer models based upon that evidence, which statement about the concentration of oxygen in our atmosphere is correct?

Oxygen levels have generally risen during the Phanerozoic, but peaked during the Mesozoic ('age of dinosaurs') and declined sharply in the early Cenozoic.

____ waves travel faster than both S waves and Surface waves

P

Body waves consist of the

P and S waves

Which of the following sequences correctly lists the different arrivals from first to last?

P waves ... S waves .... Surface waves

Seismic waves that cause particles to move in the same direction of travel are termed

P-waves

Deep ocean trenches are found predominantly along the perimeter of the _____________ and can reach depths up to ____________, deep enough to swallow Mount Everest

Pacific Ocean; 8-12 km

Wegener proposed that, in the distant past, the continents were connected to form one super-continent he named

Pangaea

What is an example of a cinder cone volcano?

Paricutin, located in Mexico

Which of the following statements best describes the state of earthquake prediction?

scientists can characterize the seismic risk of an area, but can not yet accurately predict most earthquakes

MORs

sea floor rate heat greatest

was exceptionally weak

sea floor regions with (negative) anomalies; formed during times when earths mag field

was exceptionally strong

sea floor regions with (positive) anomalies; formed during times when earths mag field

How did seafloor spreading revive Alfred Wegener's ideas about continental drift?

sea floor spreading provided a viable mechanism for moving the continents

MORs

sea floor spreading volcanic happens

Most continental topography lies within a range of altitude between

sea level and 1 km above sea level

Continental topography

sea level-1 km above

Marine magnetic anomaly belts are widest when and where

sea-floor spreading rates are relatively rapid

Shale, salt, and fine-grained limestone that is not fractured are all good candidates to serve as ____________ within an oil field.

seal rock

What is the most common rock at the surface?

sedimentary rock

Organic sedimentary rock

sedimentary rock that forms from the remains of plants or animals

Clastic sedimentary rock

sedimentary rock that forms when fragments of preexisting rocks are compacted or cemented together

Chemical sedimentary rock

sedimentary rock that forms when minerals precipitate from a solution or settle from a suspension

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ have the most gently sloping sides, due to the low viscosity of the basaltic lavas which form them.

shield volcanoes

Large regions of continental interiors where high-grade metamorphic and igneous rocks are exposed at the surface are termed

shields

luster

shininess of a mineral

The hot-spot track associated with the Hawaiian Islands and Emperor Seamounts ____________.

shows that the Pacific Plate has been moving northwest for the last 30 million years

silicon and oxygen

silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all the silicate minerals is composed of

what is the mantle composed of and is there any melt within?

silicate rocks, (magnesium, silicone, olivine, garnet, spinel and pyroxene) there is probably partial melting within.

framework

silicate with greatest proportion of oxygen atoms shared by pairs of adjacent tetrahedra

Most minerals and rocks on Earth are classified as ______ based on their elemenal composition

silicates

The most abundant minerals belong to chemical group termed the

silicates

The most common minerals within Earth are

silicates

Describe partial melting. How does the composition of a melt produced by partial melting compare with the composition of the parent rock?

Partial melting occurs in rocks because the different minerals that compose rocks have different melting points. The melt take the compostion of the heated minerals, while the solid parent rocks remains with the solid minerals that did not melt.

Volcanic

Pertaining to the activites, structures, or rock types of a volcano.

Geological Time Scale-Today

Phanerzoic-Cenozoic-Quaternary-Holocene

Why are physical properties such as hardness useful to geologists to identify minerals?

Physical properties are controlled by the mineral's chemical composition and atomic structure, This combination is distinct in each mineral.

Each mineral in the feldspar group is very similar to each other in terms of physical properties. What is the only reliable visible difference between potassium feldspar and plagioclase?

Plagioclase has characteristic "striations." Other than that, they can look identical, and they have the same physical properties.

What does Venus lack that earth has?

Plate techtonics

In 2006, the International Astronomical Union produced a major announcement concerning Pluto. What was it?

Pluto has been officially demoted from its former status as one of nine major planets in our solar system.

An igneous rock composed of phenocrysts within a groundmass or matrix has a texture.

Porphyritic

Geological Time Scale Era's

Precambrian-Paleozoic- Mesozoic- Cenozoic

Inorganic chemical sedimentary rock

Precipitates from water

How does scoria differ from pumice?

Pumice is highly vesiculated siliceous volcanic rock while scoria is commonly highly vesiculated basalt.

A mineral that has a golden color is called?

Pyrite (fool's gold)

pyroclastic rocks

Pyroclastic rocks: •Composed of fragments ejected during a volcanic eruption •Varieties: -Tuff = ash-sized fragments (< 2mm) -Volcanic breccia = particles larger than ash

What are the characteristics of sandstone? Give examples of the environments it exists in.

Sandstone consists of sand-sized particles and there is a wide variety of sandstone with different compositions and textures. Often occur in beach or dune environments.

Sedimentary rocks

Sediment is carried away and deposited by water, ice, and wind. When sediment deposits are compressed, cemented together, and harden, ___form.

Which type of rock is most common on the surface? Interior?

Sedimentary;Igneous

In magma chambers, sulfide materials typically

sink to the bottome

What is the difference between sediment deposited on a beach vs an alluvial fan?

Sediments on beaches have been carried great distances from their source by stream transport, the sediment is well rounded, Sediment on alluvial fans are from brief flood-like events, and are not as well rounded particles

As lithosphere cools to the sides of a mid-ocean ridge, it begins to

sink with respect to material located closer to the ridge axis

What are the characteristics of shale rock? Give examples of the environments it exists in.

Shale has silt and clay sized particles. This rock occurs in places without significant currents and turbulence. It occurs in deep oceans, lagoons, lakes, and the floodplains of rivers.

The silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons in silicate minerals are linked to form larger structures by?

Sharing of oxygen atoms between tetrahedral units

What are the three types of volcanoes and their relative sizes?

Shield (very big), cinder cones (small), and stratovolcanoes (medium)

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of silicon

Si +4

Why are silicate minerals the most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust?

Si and O are the most abundant elements in the crust

What is the formula for quartz?

SiO2

Which mineral group is most common?

Silicates

The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure?

Single Chain

Steps in formation of the Universe according to the Big Bang.

Singularity explodes. Rocks and Dust clump together and begin to pull each other in and growing with gravity to form planets. Nebulae (gas and dust clouds) begin to clump together and and react and generate heat. Stars form. Stars gravity form solar system.

Which list properly orders metamorphic rocks from lowest to highest grade?

Slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss

3 rate of coolings that affect crystal size

Slow rate = fewer but larger crystals -Fast rate = many small crystals -Very fast rate forms glass

The growth of mineral crystals from a melt is the process of ________. (one word)

Solidification

____________ is a mineral property defined by the density of the mineral sample divided by the density of water (1g/cm3).

Specific gravity

The color of a mineral in powdered form is termed

Streak

Which property can be used to distinguish hematite from magnetite?

Streak

Incongruent streak

Streak color different than mineral.

Congruent streak

Streak color same as mineral

What does streak refer to?

Streak is the color of powder derived from a mineral that has been dragged across a porcelain plate

Stellar Wind

Stream of atoms emitted from a star during its lifetime

Buoyant materials are added to the edge of continents by:

Subduction of the surrounding oceanic crust

A mineral that has a yellow color is identified as?

Sulfur

In general, the most destructive earthquake waves are the

Surface waves

Why aren't synthetic diamonds considered minerals

Synthetic minerals are not naturally occurring

conchoidal

Synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit a fracture pattern

F

T/F -- A single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures.

F

T/F -- All minerals are chemical compounds (composed of more than one element).

F

T/F -- Diamond and graphite are both poly-morphs of pure silicon.

F

T/F -- all minerals are held by ionic bonds

F

T/F-----All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust.

T

T/F---Two different distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula.

Describe the different factors that affect magma composition (crystal settling, magma mixing, assimilation, melting of different source rocks, etc.).

Temperature, Pressure, Water Content, And Mineral Composition.

Describe how the doppler effect works

The Doppler Effect is an observed change in the frequency of any wave when the source of the wave is moving. When it is moving away it is red and sounds low. Moving closer creates a blue shift and high pitched sound.

3. Our Sun belongs to a galaxy known as

The Milky Way

Bowens reaction series

The Order In Which Minerals Melt With Increasing Temperature Can Be Predicted Using Bowen's Reaction Series

Texture

The ____ of an igneous rock is determined by the size of the crystals in the rock.

What about a mineral would control its property to cleave or fracture?

The alignment of ionic bonds into planes or not in the atomic structure.

Magnetic Field

The area in which magnetic substances are affected by lines of magnetic force emanating from the Earth. (Magnetism is caused by the spin of electrons)

Gravity

The attractive force that one object exerts upon another

Which of the following properties is NOT useful in identifying a mineral? size, density, cleavage, or hardness?

size

Because it can be split easily into thin sheets and is impermeable, ____________ is commonly used to make roofing tiles.

slate

________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of phyllite

slate

at a transform plate boundary, two opposed plates

slide past one another

The amount of ground displacement in a earthquake is called the

slip

Define volcanic ash

small pieces of pumice and scoria which were ground up during an eruption, essentially ground up glass

Mechanical weathering produces

smaller particles

In regard to the cooling of molten rock, a __________ volume and a __________ shape cools faster.

smaller; pancake

A hard mineral can scratch a?

softer mineral

In the Mohs hardness scale the lower the number the?

softer the mineral

talc

softest mineral

Clay minerals are important constituents of

soils

The primary barrier to using solar energy in the United States is that _______

solar power is not economically competitive with other energy sources

An aurora is produced when

solar wind particles are directed toward the poles and excite atmospheric gases

Density

solid is denser than liquid is denser than gas

mineral

solid natural substance whose atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern

The growth of mineral crystals from a melt is the process of

solidification

As compared to mafic igneous rocks, all felsic igneous rocks

solidify at lower temperatures

The tendency for variations in current velocity to segregate sediments on the basis of particle size is called _____.

sorting

As seismic (earthquake-generated) waves travel downward and reach the Moho, they ___________.

speed up

Which of the processes is not an example of chemical weathering?

splitting of a rock along a fracture

The theory of Neptunism

states that rocks precipitate from water

Valleys and hillsides carved by glaciers are generally more ____________ in comparison to those produced by rivers and streams.

steep sided

Define calderas

steep sided, often lake filled depressions, formed by the collapse of land following a large eruption and an outpouring of pyroclastic materials

What are the characterizations of cinder cone volcanoes?

steep sides and crater at summit, ash and cinders, small, no liquid lava, high viscosity

The attached picture shows hydrocarbon systems labelled A through E. Match the label to the type of trap.

stratigraphic=D, combination=E, Anticline=A, Fault Trap=B, Salt Dome=C

Mt. Fuji in Japan is an example of a ____________.

stratovolcano

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ are sometimes referred to as "composite volcanoes."

stratovolcanoes

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ are sometimes referred to as 'composite volcanoes.'

stratovolcanoes

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ consist of alternating layers of tephra and solidified lava.

stratovolcanoes

The color of a finely powdered mineral is called its

streak

The color of a mineral's powder is called its?

streak color

less variable

streak plate color in most minerals is --- than hand sample mineral color

Force per unit area is termed

stress

What type of faulting would be most likely to occur along transform faults?

strike-slip faulting

Differentiation

structural adaptation for a particular function; in a forming planet iron sinks to core and lighter rock floats

Composite volcanoes are found only in which tectonic setting?

subduction zone

Pillow lavas are associated with ____________.

submarine basaltic eruptions

Death Valley, part of the Basin and Range Province, has been sinking due to the weight of continuously accumulating sediment shed from the Black and Panamit Mountains that border the valley. What phenomenon is this an example of and what depositional environment is created by the sediment deposition?

subsidence and alluvial fans

____ waves travel along the Earth's surface

surface

A fold shaped like an elongate trough is a

syncline

Which of the following is least likely to contain an oil trap?

syncline

Oil derived from coal, oil shales or tar sands is called ________.

syncrude

56 The external structure form of crystals reflects the internal atomic

t, true

57 Rocks are mineral aggregates

t, true

59 Divergent plate margins are characterized by frequent, but smell earthquakes

t- True

As compared with metamorphism, diagenesis

takes place at lower temperatures and pressures

The mineral having the lowest hardness on the Mohs scale is

talc

The softest mineral is __________.

talc

What is the softest mineral?

talc

Which of the following is a mineral? coal, brick, talc, or granite?

talc

The metamorphic process by which high pressure and temperature "squeeze" and elongate mineral grains is termed

tectonic foliation?

the primary difference between lithospheric and asthenospheric mantle that gives rise to numerous divergent patterns of physical behavior is

temperature (the lithosphere is cooler than the asthenosphere)

Viscosity of magma is controlled by

temperature and silica content of the magma

cleavage

tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weakness

The difference between tephra and tuff is that ____________.

tephra is unlithified, whereas tuff is lithified

Air-fall deposits are produced by _________ falling from the sky.

tephra or pyroclasts

What is the classification of igneous rock dependent on?

texture and composition

Detailed studies of what earthquake allowed researchers to develop the elastic rebound theory?

the 1906 San Francisco earthquake

An island volcanic arc occurs at

the Aleutian Islands of Alaska

An island volcanic arc occurs at ____________.

the Aleutian Islands of Alaska

A continental volcanic arc occurs at

the Andes Mountains

The development of cyclones and anticyclones about high- and low-pressure regions is a result of deflection of air currents by _______.

the Coriolis effect

An important contribution made by Copernicus is his (correct) assertion that

the Sun was the center of the Earth's orbit

With regard to minerals, hardness refers to

the ability to resist being scratched by other substances

with regard to minerals, hardness refers to

the ability to resist being scratched by other substances

If a geologist discovered coal in a modern-day cold, snowy location, he or she could conclude that

the area was once covered with swamps and/or jungles

What is a crystal structure?

the atoms that are arranged in a particular geometric shape, or crystal structure

Tectonic Plate

the brittle, rigid but thin outer part of earth is divided into sections

What is a minerals streak?

the color of a mineral's powder

Olivine and augite minerals are mostly found in the oceanic crust and the mantle, they have more mass and more density than Quartz, muscovite, and hornblende that are mostly found in the continental crust. Can you tell why the continental crust floats higher on the mantle than the oceanic crust?

the continental crust floats higher on the mantle than the crust because the minerals found in the continental crust have less density and lighter mass so it floats higher than the more dense and heavier mass of minerals found in the oceanic crust

Minerals in geodes form spectacular euhedral crystals because

the crystals have abundant room to grow in their hollow surroundings

How a mineral breaks reflects its?

the cubic structure of its crystals

Core

the deepest or central composition layer of Earth. mostly made of iron

crater

the depression at the summit of a volcano, or that which was produced by a meteorite impact

Define sorting and the two categories

the distribution of grain sizes in a sediment or sedimentary rock, well sorted contains a narrow range of particle sizes, while poorly sorted sediment contains a wide range of particle sizes

How is sediment formed?

the effects of ice, wind and groundwater break down rock at the earth's surface through the process of mechanical and chemical weathering

Which of the following describes the build up and release of stress during an earthquake?

the elastic rebound theory

The intersection between a fault and the ground surface is a line we called

the fault line

Earth's magnetic field is generated by ____________.

the flow of the liquid outer core

crystallization

the formation and growth of a crystalline solid from a liquid or gas

Which country contains about 50% of the world's coal resources?

the former Soviet Union

geothermal gradient

the gradual increase in temperature with depth in the crust, the avg is 30C per km in the upper crust

gabbro

the intrusive equivalent of basalt, makes up most of the oceanic crust

melt

the liquid portion of magma excluding solid crystals

Hot Spots

the location on Earth's surface where a stationary column or magma has slowly risen to the surface and formed a volcano. The hot spot remains stationary and leaves a trail of extinct volcanoes. CAUSED BY: Rising mantle plume or lava

Inner Core

the lower part of the core that is made of solid iron

define evaporites

the main form of chemical sedimentary rock that is formed primarily from evaporation in enclosed basins in dry/arid regions. They are the salts that are left behind.

groundmass

the matrix of smaller crystals within an igneous rock that has porphyritic texture

Mesosphere

the mechanical layer between the asthenosphere and the outer core, it is solid but still plastic and able to flow

How are composite texture rocks created?

the melt was cooling at depth and growing phenocrysts and then erupted onto the surface before it completely solidified, resulting in the rapid cooling of the rest of the rock and developing the small crystals

Foilation

the metamorphic rock texture in which mineral grains are arranged in planes or bands

Mantle

the middle compositional layer of Earth. thick layer made up of peridotite in upper part and higher density rocks of peridotite composition in the lower part

Two-thirds of the world's known oil reserves are located in ________.

the middle east

What is limestone mostly composed of?

the mineral calcite

The boundary between the crust and mantle is marked by a seismic-velocity discontinuity called ____________.

the moho

Sea Floor Spreading

the origin of new oceanic crust at spreading ridges that then moves away from ridges and is eventually consumed t subduction zones

Focus

the place inside earth where an earthquake originates

Elastic Rebound

the point at which stress in earth's lithosphere is strained to a point where it can bend no further and the lithosphere ruptures and rebounds somewhat like a rubber band that has just been pulled apart

Epicenter

the point on earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake

According to the figure below, every plate boundary can be recognized by

the presence of an earthquake belt

every plate boundary can be recognized by

the presence of an earthquake belt

Which of the following statements about weathering is false?

the presence of soil slows down the weathering of the underlying bedrock

Explain why geologists believe that the Earth's core is made mostly of iron.

The average density of the Earth, as shown by its gravitational field, is significantly higher than the density of the mantle, which is known from a few direct observations of materials erupted from volcanoes and exposures of mantle rock at the surface. This is despite the fact that the mantle makes up most of the earth by volume. Therefore, the core must be very dense to explain the earth's average density. Iron is one element that would provide the needed density, and iron is known to be abundant in the solar system from studies of meteorites, making iron a likely candidate for the composition of the core.

partial melting

the process by which most rock melt, since individual minerals have different meling points most igneous rocks melt over a temperature range of a few hundred degreesif the liquid is squeezed out after some melting has occured, a melt with a higher silica content results

Cementation

the process in which minerals precipitate into pore spaces between sediment grains and bind sediments together to form rock

Metamorphism

the process in which one type of rock changes into a metamorphic rock because of chemical processes or changes in temperature and pressure

Compaction

the process in which the volume and porosity of a sediment is decreased by the weight of overlying sediments as a result of burial beneath other sediments

magma mixing

the process of altering the composition of a magma through the mixing of material from another magma body

Why are rocks of intermediate (andesitic) and felsic (granitic) compositions generally not found in ocean basins?

they are found on the oncean basins, they are formed from partial melting of the earths crust.

How is gas measured above volcanoes?

they are measured from an aircraft using a correlation spectrometer

What is the role of volatiles in generating basaltic magma within subduction zones?

they cause the temp to change and creating mantle plumes

continental lithosphere is ______ than oceanic lithosphere

thicker

continental lithosphere

thicker than oceanic lithosphere

If a mineral is salty and composed of NaCl, then how many cleavage directions does it exhibit?

three

In a ____________ fault, the fault plane is less than 35° from horizontal and the hanging-wall block moves upward relative to the footwall block.

thrust

Due to the Coriolis effect, air which is spread northward from the equator is deflected

to the east

The San Andreas Fault zone in southern California is an example of a ____________ plate boundary.

transform

Segments of the mid-ocean ridge system are offset. Between the offset segments we observe

transform faults

What does the process of lithification do?

transforms sediment into sedimentary rock

Grains become rounded primarily during

transportation

Most sorting of detrital grains takes place during

transportation

Earth's geothermal gradient is the rate of temperature change incurred by

traversing down within Earth's interior

Most of the mass of the Earth's atmosphere is found within what atmospheric layer?

troposphere

A warm air mass may hold more moisture (water vapor) than a cold air mass of the same volume, and yet may have lesser relative humidity.

true

Hawaiian style effusive eruptions are greater threat to property than to human life - True/False

true

Hawaiian-style effusive eruptions are a greater threat to property than to human life.

true

In nature most examples of minerals do NOT grow as large, well-formed, euhedral crystals.

true

Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten

true

Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten.

true

two distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula. true or false?

true

Which of the following waves is the slowest?

tsunami

A volcano emits ash, which falls from the sky, settles in layers, and is eventually cemented. The resultant rock is termed ____________.

tuff

When ash is lithified it is called ________.

tuff

ash settles in layers and eventually cemented

tuff

lava tube

tunnel in hardened lava that acts as a horizontal conduit for lava flowing from a volcanic vent. lava tubes allow fluid lavas to advance great distances

Coarse clastic material can be transported into a deep marine environment by ______ .

turbidity currents

Mt build and collison

two bodies; continental lithosphere; pushed together at convergent boundarys; creates?

divergent boundary

two opposed plates, move away from one another

transform boundary

two opposed plates, slide past one another

convergent boundary

two opposed plates,move away from one another

Which type of magma has the greatest iron and magnesium content?

ultramafic

the magnetic field of earth in the geologic past is

unknown, but it is assumed to have been identical to todays

tephra

unlithified

texture

used to describe the overall appearance of a rock based on the size, shape, and arrangement of interlocking minerals

What is a streak plate?

used to identify a mineral's streak that is a piece of unglazed porcelain

On 10 to 100 million year time scales, variations in the Earth's climate are predominantly due to

variations in solar insolation.

On 10 to 100 million year time scales, variations in the Earth's climate are predominantly due to

variations in the Earth's orbit and axial tilt (i.e. Milankovitch Cycles).

If water is the transport mechanism of sediment, the grain size of sedimentary deposits most closely indicates the ___

velocity of the water at the moment the sediment settled to the bottom

If water is the transport medium of sediment, the grain size of sedimentary deposits most closely indicates the

velocity of the water at the moment the sediment settled to the bottom

Define Chemical and Biochemical sediments and give an example

The sediments formed by the precipitation of dissolved ions through chemical and biochemical processes, ex. calcite and halite

Define Clastic sediment and give an example

The solid particles that survive the weathering process or that are created by the weathering process, ex. clay and oxide minerals

How are Igneous rocks formed?

The solidification of magma at the earth's surface or at some depth within the earth

What controls a mineral's property of hardness

The strength of the atomic bonds within the mineral

Cosmology

The study of the origin, evolution, and nature of the universe

Nebula Theory

The sun and all other objects formed from material that had been swirling around the nebula for ages.

Heliocentric vs. Geocentric model of the universe

The sun is at the center of the Heliocentric model, and the earth is at the center of the Geocentric model.

Identify the three basic types of plate boundaries and describe the major geologic and tectonic processes occurring at each.

The three types of plate boundaries are convergent, divergent, and transform. At convergent plate boundaries, two plates are colliding with each other. This results in subduction and destruction of old, dense oceanic crust, volcanism, mountain building, and earthquakes. At divergent plate boundaries, two plates are moving away from each other. This allows magma from the mantle to rise towards the surface and form new oceanic crust. This process is known as seafloor spreading. At transform plate boundaries, two plates are sliding past each other in different directions. No crust is being created or destroyed at transform plate boundaries, but earthquakes do occur.

Which of the following statements is false?

The time and location of most major earthquakes can be predicted several days in advance

Non-silicate minerals (including gold and pyrite) make up only about 8% of the crust. However, they tend to be economically important minerals. Which of the following is not a reason why these minerals are economically important?

These minerals are widespread in the crust, but occur mostly in sedimentary rocks.

How does magma differ from lava?

They are different because lava is magma when it hits earth's atmosphere; magma turns to lava. Magma is when its inside the volcano.

Which statement about recharge areas is incorrect?

They are the same as discharge areas.

Why are "light" silicates much less dense than the "dark" silicates?

They do not have Fe or Mg in them

Though both are polymorphs, diamond and graphite are different minerals because of each of the following except

They have different chemical compositions.

Many silicate minerals, like olivine and plagioclase, are actually a family of minerals within the silicate mineral group. What about them makes them that way?

They have nearly identical chemical compositions and identical physical properties.

Why do we not use carbon-14 dating?

Too short of a half life-only 70,000 years

Transgression

Top to bottom: Limestone, Shale, Sand

Regression

Top to bottom: Sand, Shale, Limestone

color

Trace amounts of impurity in a mineral can commonly produce significant differ among individual crystals of this mineral.

Erosion

Transport removes sediment. From source carries it elsewhere. Running water, glaciers, wind, waves.

What are the spheres, in order, of earth?

Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere.

"All lava is magma is truer than "all magma is lava"-True/False

True

Bedrock covered in oil is not an outcrop of rock-True/False

True

Compaction and cementation is a sedimentary process-True/False

True

Hawaiian style effusive eruptions are greater threat to property than to human life - True/False

True

Hawaiian-style effusive eruptions are a greater threat to property than to human life.

True

In nature most examples of minerals do not grow as large, well-formed, euhedral crystals.

True

Sand is not a rock-True/False

True

The number of lithospheric plates on the Earth has been variable through geologic time. Hundreds of millions of years ago, there were plates that no longer exist today.

True

Olympus Mons, the largest known volcano in the Universe, is an example of a ____________.

shield valcano

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ are the largest in area.

shield valcanoes

Igneous vs. Metamorphic and Melting

Igneous=melt and crystalize Metamorphic= any rock altered in the solid state from preexisting rocks by any combination of heat and/or pressure.

The largest geothermal power plant in the United States is located near which city?

San Francisco

The deep ocean floor is flat and nearly featureless

Fale

A compass today points directly to geographic north

False

A single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures.

False

All crystaline rocks are igneous-True/False

False

All discovered faults are likely to experience earthquakes in the next few hundred years.

False

All minerals are held together by ionic bonds.

False

Stratification

The layering in sedimentary rocks; Layers less than 1 cm are laminations, bedding is thicker.

*Deposition

The process by which sediment settles out of the water or wind that is carrying it, and is deposited in a new location.

Magma mixing

The process of altering the composition of a magma through the mixing of material from another magma body.

Some minerals have crystal structures with distinct weaknesses. These minerals tend to break in certain directions along planes of weakness in their structure. These types of minerals are said to possess good ______.

Cleavage

Define limnic eruption

The rapid overturn and degassing of a lake

What are conglomerates and breccias?

Coarse grained and poorly sorted sedimentary rock

What is a good indicator of composition within rocks?

Color

Most of the uranium ore in the United States is located in the _____

Colorado Plateau

Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ are the largest in area.

shield volcanoes

Marble and quartzite are nonfoliated rocks because

they are dominated by minerals that produce equant grains

What are the principal layers of the earth?

Crust. Lithosphere. Asthenosphere. Upper Mantle. Lower Mantle. Outer Core. Inner Core.

Define ignimbrites

sheet like deposits of pyroclastic flows that cover a large distance

A sill is a (an)____________.

sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock

Organic chemical

Carbon-containing compounds that either occur in living organisms or have characteristics that resemple living organisms.

What are the 7 mineral groups?

Carbonate, Halide,Phosphate, Oxide, Silicate, Sulfate, Sulfide.

Slab Pull

Causes subduction. The subducting cold slab of lithosphere is denser than the surrounding warmer asthenosphere and pulls the rest of the plate as it descends into the asthenosphere.

Who developed the procedure used to measure the size of an earthquake?

Charles Richter

chloride differ chlorine

Chloride is chlorine's anion.

What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of chlorine

Cl -1

Lithified detritus (breakdown products of preexisting rocks) forms which kind of sedimentary rock?

Clastic

What are the two categories of sediment?

Clastic sediment and Chemical and Biochemical sediments

The division of Earth's interior into core, mantle, and crust is used to describe differences in

Composition. (We use the crust-mantle-core terminology to describe differences in chemical composition in Earth's interior. We use the lithosphere- asthenosphere terminology to describe differences the physical state and behavior. Note that the boundaries between layers with different compositions do not occur at the same depths as the boundaries between layers with different physical properties. For example, there is a change in composition when passing from crust into mantle. But there is no change in physical state or behavior at this boundary- the uppermost part of the mantle behaves in the same way that the crust does because it is still far enough below its melting temperature to be a rigid, brittle solid. The transition to a softer, more pliable solid occurs further down within the mantle and this change in behavior occurs with no change in composition.)

Classifying sedimentary rocks

Contain evidence of their formation: Fossils, Bedding, grain size. Clastic, Chemical/Biochemical

passive margin

Continental coastlines that occur within the interior of a tectonic plate are called

In what ways does continental crust differ from oceanic crust?

Continental crust differs from oceanic crust in all of the following ways: its thicker, less dense, more buoyant, richer in light elements like Na, K, and Si, and poorer in dense elements like Fe and Mg relative to oceanic crust

Heat transfer that occurs through the movement of a fluid, driven by temperature differences among various points within the fluid, is termed

Convection

What type of boundary to volcanoes occur at?

Convergent boundaries

What is the ultimate limestone building environment?

Coral reefs

What types of volcanoes are associated with eruptions of basaltic magma? Name one example of each of these types of volcanoes, and explain how their shapes are related to their eruptive style.

Eruptions of basaltic magma produce shield volcanoes, such as Mauna Loa in Hawaii and cinder cones, such as Sunset Crater in Arizona. Basaltic magma is low in silica and so has a low viscosity, is very fluid, and flows easily. Eruptions of thin, fluid basaltic lavas produce broad, gently sloping shield volcanoes like Mauna Loa. If the basaltic magma is charged with gases, it produces a different style of eruption and type of volcano called a cinder cone. Gas rich basaltic magmas have frothy eruptions which hurl material through the air, which cools and piles up around the erupting vent. This forms a conical pile of loose cinders around the vent called a cinder cone.

vesicles

Escaping gasses can leave behind holes

How is a mineral such as quartz physically different from all other minerals based upon the combination of its crystalline structure and chemical composition?

Every mineral has a unique set of physical properties.

Phreatomagmatic eruptions are

Explosive

What are extrusive and intrusive intermediate rocks called?

Extrusive - andecites and dacites Intrusive - diorites and granodiorites

What are extrusive and intrusive Mafic rocks called?

Extrusive - basalts Intrusive - gabbros

What are the two categories of igneous rock formation?

Extrusive - cooled at the earth's surface intrusive - cooled at depth below the earth's surface

What are extrusive and intrusive Felsic rocks called?

Extrusive - rhyolites Intrusive - granites

How do you metamorphose something?

Heat and pressure-burry it deeper and deeper/layer.

Give an example of a mineral that is a different color than its streak?

Hematite

What color is the mineral Hematite and what color is its streak?

Hematite mineral looks black or silvery, but has a red-brown streak

Describe the classification of igneous rocks.

Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of composition and texture. Composition refers to the types and relative abundances of minerals present. Felsic igneous rocks are those with lots of light colored minerals and are rich in elements like silica, sodium, and potassium. Mafic igneous rocks are rich in dark minerals containing iron and magnesium, while intermediate igneous rocks have more equal proportions of light and dark minerals. Texture refers to the size and arrangement of mineral crystals in the rock and reflects how the rock formed. There are two basic types of igneous rock textures: intrusive, also called phaneritic, igneous rocks have larger mineral crystals because they cooled slowly underground. Extrusive (aphanitic) igneous rocks are fine grained because they cooled quickly at the surface. Other igneous textures include pyroclastic (explosive), vesicular (bubbly), and vitreous (glassy).

Chemical weathering in which water breaks apart bonds in silicate minerals to produce clay is termed

Hydrolysis?

Extrusive

Igneous activity that occurs at Earth's surface.

Intrusive

Igneous rock that formed below Earth's surface.

Andesitic

Igneous rocks created from cooled magma or lava that is a blend of basaltic and granitic magma or lava

Why does quartz have a higher hardness than calcite

Quartz has a higher proportion of covalent bonds than ionic bonds than does calcite.

How do we absolute date?

Radiometric dating

Melting of rocks to produce magma can be caused by

Raising the temperature Adding water Lowering the pressure

The metamorphic process by which high temperatures cause mineral crystals to change their size and shape, but not composition or structure, is termed

Recrystallization

METAMORPHOSIS

Recrystallization of a mineral

Rhyolite

Rhyolite -Felsic rock -May contain glass fragments and vesicles -Aphanitic texture -Minerals mostly quartz and potassium feldspars

*Metamorphic rock

Rock that was once one form of rock but has changed to another under the influence of heat, pressure, or some other agent without passing through a liquid phase.

Silicate Rocks

Rocks composed of silicate minerals (most common minerals, compound of silicon and oxygen).

Pyroclastic

Rocks formed from ejected rock fragments and other particles

What are the roles of pressure and heat in generating magma from solid rock?

Rocks in the lower crust and upper mantle are near their melting points An increase in confining pressure causes an increase in a rock's melting temperature or conversely, reducing the pressure lowers the melting temperature

What is the exemption to the rock color and composition rule, and what is an example?

Rocks that are made mostly of glass, obsidian is an example

Sediment

Rocks, mineral crystals, and organic matter that have been broken into fragments

Seismic waves that cause particles to move back and forth perpendicular to the direction of travel, such as Secondary waves, are termed ____ waves

S-waves

tetrahedron

SILICATE+OKYGEN main elements on Earth crust

Describe the Earth's internal structure in terms of both chemical composition and physical properties.

The earth is divided into three layers, a crust, a mantle and a core, that differ in their chemical composition. The crust is the thin outer layer, consisting primarily of oxygen, silicon and aluminum. It is further subdivided into continental and oceanic crust. The oceanic crust is thinner and denser, and is similar in composition to basalt (Si, O, Ca, Mg, and Fe). The continental crust is thicker and less dense, and is similar to granite in composition (Si, O, Al, K, and Na). The mantle is made of magnesium, iron and silicon. The core is almost exclusively iron and nickel. The outer core is liquid iron and the inner core is solid iron. The mantle and crust are further divided into the lithosphere, asthenosphere and mesosphere, depending on their physical properties, namely how close the material is to its melting point. The lithosphere is cold and rigid and includes the curst and uppermost part of the mantle where rocks are far below their melting point. Further down in the mantle is the asthenosphere where rocks are weak and can flow because they are close to their melting point. The deepest part of the mantle is the mesosphere where rocks are gain strong and below their melting point due to the high pressure.

What is Lake Nyos in Africa and example of?

The effects of CO2 gas

The study of a silicate mineral's atomic structure and chemical composition permits geologists to draw inferences upon which of the following?

The environment in which it was formed.

Big Bang Theory

The evolution of the universe came from a dense, hot state followed by expansion, cooling and a less dense state.

Crystallization

The formation and growth of a crystalline solid from a liquid or gas.

Continental Drift

The hypothesis that all continents were once joined together in a single land mass that broke apart, and moved. Named land= Pangea

How does the lithosphere differ from the asthenosphere?

The lithosphere is a rigid and brittle solid while the asthenosphere is a soft and ductile solid. (The terms crust and mantle are used to denote differences in chemical composition; while the terms lithosphere and asthenosphere are used to denote differences in physical state (for example, rigid, brittle solid vs.. soft, ductile solid). Because the boundaries between layers with different chemical compositions do not occur at the same depth as boundaries between layers with different physical properties, lithosphere cannot be considered synonymous with crust, not can asthenosphere be considered synonymous with mantle. For example, a large change in chemical composition occurs as you move from crust to mantle. However, there is no change in physical properties at boundary between crust and mantle because uppermost mantle is still cold enough relative to its melting point to behave in the same manner as the crust- as a rigid brittle solid. The transition to a soft ductile solid- the asthenosphere- does not occur until we get further down into the upper mantle - where temperature approaches the melting point of the mantle at that depth.)

What is the most common reason that melting occurs within the earth?

The lowering of pressure on hot rock

Rock

The material that makes up the solid parts of Earth

Muscovite and biotite are in the same silicate mineral group due to their extreme similarity (the micas; sheet silicates). What is the only significant difference between them?

The mineral's major cations.

According to the Periodic Table of the Elements, the atomic weight of silicon (Si) is listed as 28.0855. If the atomic weight is supposed to be equal to the total number of protons plus neutrons, why isn't this a whole number?

The number is the average value of all silicon isotopes, weighted by abundance.

When two oceanic plates collide:

The older plate will subduct

What is the oxidation state of an element?

The oxidation state of an element is the charge that it would have if it were an ion

Suppose you are given two mineral samples that have the same color and luster, what tests could you conduct to determine whether the two samples are the same mineral?

Use a streak plate to see if it has different streak colors, or see if one can put a scratch mark on the other to measure differences in hardness or you could measure its density

How is Venus different than the earth?

Venus is dry and has sulfuric acid rain, it is 860 degrees fahrenheit, and has 96% CO2 (in comparison to earth's 0.03%)

What leads to explosive eruptions? Step 1

Vesiculation: as magma rises to the surface and the pressure decreases, volatiles dissolved in the magma begin to be released forming vesicles

The idea that the facies we see in a vertical sequence will also replace each other laterally is refered to as?

Walther's Law

A sill is a. a sheetlike intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. a cooled layer of lava c. an intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. a sheetlike intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers

a. a sheetlike intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock

Coarse grained diorite is most similar in mineral composition to fine grained a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite

a. andesite

Oceanic crust is produced by seafloor spreading. How is continental crust produced?

both of the above (Continental crust is produced at subduction zones as buoyant materials on the subducting plate are accreted to the leading edge of the overriding plate, while the remainder of the plate (due to its higher density) is subducted into the mantle. Introduction of water into the mantle by the subducting plate causes melting in the upper mantle producing magmas that are richer in silica and more like the continental crust than they are the mantle or the subducting plate. These magmas may erupt at the surface but most crystallize within the crust of the overriding plate as intrusion. Either way, more material is added to the continental plate. Both terrane accretion and partial melting makes continental crust by separating out buoyant materials from the subducting plate.)

The mineral assemblage within metamorphic rock is

both the minteral content of the prolith and the temperature and pressure of formation

What is the moho?

boundary between the Earth's crust and the underlying mantle

What is the difference between a breccia and a conglomerate?

breccias have angular fragments and conglomerates have rounded fragments

Erosion

broken up pieces of rock are carried by water, wind, or ice and deposited as sediments elsewhere.

the first widely used alloy in ancient civilizations was

bronze

The first widely used alloy in ancient civilizations was a) bronze b) copper c) gold d) iron

bronze? next comes iron

lithification

burial

The most abundant elements found in the Earth's rocks (such as oxygen, silicon, iron) were formed ________.

by fusion reactions within stars

How could you distinguish a sample of galena from a sample of pyrite?

by its different color since they have the same metallic luster

How can a minerals streak be found?

by scraping the mineral on a piece of unglazed porcelain called a streak plate

What determine how a mineral fractures?

by the crystalline structure of the mineral or the bonds between the atoms in the crystals

As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, all fine-grained igneous rocks ____________. a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temperatures d. solidify at lower temperatures

c

Ash and lava fragments that cascade down the sides of a volcano eventually settle and lithify to form ____________. a. basalt b. andesite c. welded tuff d. ash-fall tuff

c

Important volatiles in magmas include ____________. a. iron- and magnesium-rich minerals, such as olivine b. potassium and aluminum c. water and carbon dioxide d. trinitrotoluene and nitroglycerin

c

Which list below places important pure metals and alloys in chronological order from first to last (most recent) in terms of their widespread use by humans?

d) copper, bronze, iron

Commercial ore deposits are most likely to be found associated with a) thick basinal sandstones and shales b) blueschists c) evaporite sequences d) igneous rocks

d) igneous rocks

27 Igneous rocks

d, all of the above

4 Without plate tectonics, we would not have____

d, all of the above are correct

5 Evidence for a united Pangaea comes from the fossil record of which types(s) of organisms

d, all of the above are correct

3 If the outer core was not liquid, which of the following would be true about Earth

d, all of the above are correct,

31 Pahoehoe

d, all of the above are correct.forms when a basaltic lava flow ceascs flowing and solidifies simultaneously, has a smoother texture than a'a, is easier to walk on than a'a is

40 The characteristic "rotten egg" smell of many active volcanoes is derived from

d, hydrogen sulfide gas

44 The hot-spot track associated with the Hawaiian islands and emperor seamounts

d, shows that the pacific plate has been moving northwest for the last 30 million years

50 Based on the definition of a mineral, which of the following is a mineral or is composed of minerals

d, snow

20 The new age practice of surrounding one's self with crystals has a strong positive effect on

d, the bank accounts of rock shop owners

At a passive continental margin the primary geologic process occuring is

sedimentation (Passive continental margins are places where the crust changes from thick continental crust to thin oceanic crust, but functioning as one plate- moving at the same direction and speed - and as such do not coincide with a plate boundary. When that area of continental crust first started breaking up by continental rifting, it was at a new divergent boundary, but is now far from the plate boundary due to addition of new oceanic crust to the edge of each plate by seafloor spreading- with the plate boundary remaining at the ocean ridge. As the edge of the continental crust gets further and further from the divergent plate boundary where hot mantle rock is rising, the continental crust cools and subsides (having been heated and elevated during the rifting stage). Since the crust was also thinned by the rifting process, its not as thick as it once was and drops below sea level as it cools, forming a broad continental shelf. This provides a place for large amounts of sediment to accumulate - this sedimentation is the primary geologic process occurring in a passive margin setting.)

Which of the following lists is written in the order of increasing temperature ?

sedimentation, diagenesis, metamorphism

The deflections traced by a seismograph provide a record of the earthquake called a

seismogram

A fine-grained clastic rock that splits into thin sheets is

shale

What two type of rocks make up old salt marsh?

shale and sandstone

Consult the figure below. Spreading peanut butter on bread is an application of

shear stress

Waves in which particles of material move back and forth perpendicular to the direction in which the wave itself moves are called

shear waves

S-Waves

shear waves produced by an earthquake, slower than p-waves and so arrive later at seismic wave detectors

The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure

sheet

The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure?

sheet

The locations and ages of islands in the Hawaiian Island chain can be used to show

the rate of movement of the Pacific Plate. (The Hawaiian Islands have been built by the passage of the Pacific plate over a mantle hotspot. The location and ages of the islands show the direction of movement of the Pacific plate as it passed over the hotspot. This is called a hot spot track. Because the Hawaiian islands are on the Pacific Plate they tell us nothing about the direction or rate of movement of the North American plate - the North American plate moves independently of the Pacific plate. They also don't tell us anything about the size of earthquakes to be expected in the Pacific Ocean - while passage of the plate over the hotspot, and subsidence as it moves off the hot spot results in earthquake activity, the largest earthquakes occur on the subduction zones that ring the Pacific basin.)

What does the term density mean?

the ratio of a material's mass to its volume

What is a minerals hardness?

the resistance of a mineral to scratching

The shear modulus measures

the resistance to change in shape

The bulk modulus measures

the resistance to change in volume

Lithosphere

the rigid outer shell of earth, consists of the crust and the outermost part of the mantle that is too cool to be partially molten

What is Mohs?

the scale used to rank the hardness of a mineral

Moho

the seismic discontinuity at the base of earth's crust

Rock cycle

the series of processes in which rock forms, changes from one type to another, is destroyed, and forms again by geological processes

One of the most important factors in limiting ionic substitution in a mineral is

the size of the ions

texture

the size, shape, and distribution of the particles that colectively constitute a rock

Surface waves

the slowest of all the waves;

vent

the surface opening of a conduit or pipe

Curie Temperature

the temperature at which a material loses it magnetism

The moment magnitude of an earthquake depends on all of the following except

the type of faulting

Outer Core

the upper part of the core that is made of liquid iron

Curst

the uppermost composition layer of Earth. very thin, composed of granitic continental crust and basaltic oceanic crust

Lithosphere

the uppermost mechanical layer of earth, brittle and is only layer in which earthquake can occur

What is the luster of a mineral?

the way in which its surface reflects light

What determines the crystal shape of a mineral?

the way the atoms are arranged in a particular crystal structure or geometric shape

The term "aeolian" refers to transport and deposition by:

the wind

Elements are arranged in the periodic table by

their number of protons the filling of electrons in different orbitals and energy levels their atomic number

Subduction zones were discovered when

when it was noticed that deep earthquakes are found only near ocean trenches, and that earthqauakes increase in depth with distance from the trench (Remember from Lecture 3 that earthquakes are not randomly distributed across the globe. Earthquakes are concentrated along plate boundaries. In particular, deep earthquakes (earthquakes that originate below the crust) are found only in association with ocean trenches. Further, earthquakes get deeper with distance from the trench, but only to one side of the trench (the "inland" side). These earthquakes mark the descent of cold, rigid oceanic lithosphere into the asthenosphere. Normally earthquakes are not possible in the asthenosphere because the asthenosphere is a soft solid close to its melting temperature. But where subduction occurs, cold, rigid oceanic lithosphere (the subducting plate) is sinking into the asthenosphere. The subducting plate remains cold enough and rigid enough to produce earthquakes to depths up to 700 km. This is how the process of subduction, and the places it occurs, was discovered - by the relationship of deep earthquakes to trenches.)

When does lithification happen?

when unconsolidated sediment is deposited in a sedimentary basin and buried beneath younger sediments, the heat and pressure of the burial is what causes the sediment to be lithified into sedimentary rock

Define intraplate/within plate volcanism and give an example

when volcanism does not occur at a plate boundary, Hawaii

Where the chemical bonds are the weakest will tell us?

where the mineral will break

It is unusual for ____________ to carry grains larger than sand.

wind

Which of the following is a renewable resource? a) coal b) oil c) wind d) natural gas

wind ***oil, coal, and gas are nonrenewable resources

Ash Dispersal

wind disperses the ash locally but if the ash cloud is tall enough to carry ash into the upper atmosphere global wind patterns can carry ash around the world

increases

with increasing distance from mid ocean ridges, age of oceanic crust _____

Hot spots can occur

within either continental or oceanic plates

Crystals of sulfur are always what color?

yellow

Is cleavage a type of fracture?

yes

MORs

youngest sea floor occurs at