EarthSci 1121
Two different distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula
True
Two distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula.
True
Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten.
True
Very early in earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten-True/False
True
scoria
vesicular ejecta that is the product of basaltic magma
Small holes and voids in extrusive igneous rocks that are left by escaping gasses are termed.
vesicular/ craters
volatile increases
viscosity increases
When contained within magma, compounds such as H20, CO2, CH4 and SO2 are termed ________ based on the relatively low temperature at which they become a gas.
volatile gases?
Substances that can be transformed to a gas at relatively low temperatures are termed
volatiles
Substances that can be transformed to a gas at relatively low temperatures are termed ____________. Volatiles
volatiles
When contained within magma, compouds such as H20, CO2, CH4 and SO2 are termed ______________based on the relatively low temperature at which they become a gas.
volatiles
define pyroclastic debris
volcanic ash and scoria that is thrown out of the volcano upon the eruption
intrusion formed within the magma chamber of volcano
volcanic neck
What was unusual about the 1986 disaster around Lake Nyos in Cameroon?
volcanically derived carbon dioxide gas bubbled from the lake and suffocated people and animals nearby
Ash, cinders, and blocks are all types of ____________.
volcaniclastic debris
The apparent polar wander path obtained from magnetite crystals in basalts on the North American continent is now interpreted to be the result of
wandering of the geomagnetic North Pole
What are the conditions that promote limestone formation?
warm water, shallow and sunlit water, clean/clear water without mud
Chemical weathering takes place most rapidly in environments that are ____________ and ____________.
warm; wet
Regions of the sea floor with positive magnetic anomalies were formed during times when Earth's magnetic field ____________.
was exceptionally strong
If a geologist found preserved mud cracks, he or she could conclude that the environment in which they formed
was once covered in wet mud was once covered in hexagonal plates with curled-up edges has been covered in sediment All of the above are correct.
In the atmosphere, carbonic acid forms from the reaction of carbon dioxide and ______.
water
Layer Z is most likely to be reservoir rock containing _______ in the pore space.
water
which is more dense, water or ice?
water
which is more dense, water or steam?
water
Important volatiles in magmas include ____________.
water and carbon dioxide
Welded tuff (ignimbrite)
Tuff that is deposited while hot -Hot pyroclastic flow material that fuses before cooling.
Gases that are abundantly emitted by volcanoes include ____________.
water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide
relative weak flows readily
Unlike lithosphere, the asthenosphere
As shown in the figure, different silicate minerals are grouped based upon how Si-O tetrahedra bond. In this grouping scheme, three-dimensional network silicate minerals have either no cleavage (quartz) or two planes of cleavage at 90 degrees (feldspar). What causes this difference within the same silicate group?
Unlike quartz, the feldspars have Al and some combination of Na, Ca, and K in their atomic structure, allowing cleavage.
Which of the following energy sources does not produce carbon dioxide?
Uranium
Seismic Waves
waves produced by earthquakes
In Mica each sheet contains chemical bonds that are very strong. However the bonds that hold the sheets together are very?
weak, so the sheets can be easily torn apart. this is an example of cleavage
What is the term for the general process by which rocks are broken down at the Earth's surface?
weathering
What is the primary processes of the formation of sedentary rock?
Weathering (breakdown), erosion (transport) and deposition (where everything ends up)
A pyroclastic deposit in which the particles are partially fused is termed a welded tuff.
welded
If particles are partially fused during the compaction of an ash or pyroclastic flow, then the resulting fused and compacted rock is said to be _________.
welded
Ash and lava fragments that cascade down the sides of a volcano eventually settle and lithify to form ____________.
welded tuff
Most of the metals currently in commercial use
were discovered during the last two centuries
Most of the metals currently in commercial use ____________.
were discovered during the last two centuries
Define hot spots and give an example
what areas with mantle plumes are dubbed, Hawaii and the Emperor Islands
Partial melting
When a rock is heated, certain minerals may begin to melt while other minerals remain solid
calcite
When in contact with hydrochloric acid, which mineral gives off bubbles of carbon dioxide gas?
Convergent
Where plate destruction occurs. When two plates collide and one of them is subducted back into the earth
Divergent
Where plates are separating and new oceanic lithosphere is forming. Most commonly form along the crests of oceanic ridges.
Transform
Where the plates slide laterally past one another
The internal ordering of mineral crystals is detected using
X-ray diffraction
The internal ordering of mineral crystals is detected using ____________.
X-ray diffraction
Which national park is home to a large volcanic caldera formed through a very large explosive eruption 630,000 years ago?
Yellowstone
Which national park is home to a large volcanic caldera formed through a very large explosive eruption 640,000 years ago?
Yellowstone
Intrusive
_____ igneous rocks commonly have large mineral crystals. The slow loss of heat allows the minerals in the cooling magma to form large, well-developed crystals.
Original Horizontality
______ ______ ///// ///// Material was once horizontal, must have been tilted. Not igneous rock, only sedimentary
An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed ____________. a. porphyritic b. phaneritic c. aphanitic d. necrotic
a
Basaltic lavas that solidify at the surface before flow ceases fracture irregularly, producing a sharp-surfaced lava rock named _________.
a a
magma
a body of molton rock found a depth including any disolved gasses and liquids
Fault
a break in earth's lithosphere along which earthquakes hav occurred
shield volcano
a broad gently sloping volcano built from the fluid basaltic lava
lava dome
a bulbous mass associated with an old-age volcano produced when thick lava is slowly squeezed from the vent, lava domes may act as plugs to deflect subsequent gaseous eruptions
Regional metamorphism
a change in the texture, structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to changes in temperature and pressure over a large area, generally as a result of tectonic forces
Contact metamorphism
a change in the texture, structure, or chemical composition of a rock due to contact with magma
concrete is ______. a) synonymous with the term 'cement' b) synonymous with the term 'Portland cement' c) a combination of cement, sand, and gravel d) powdered rock of any lithology mixed with water and allowed to set overnight
a combination of cement, sand, and gravel
Magmatic differentiation
a complex process whereby a single melt can produce a wide variety of different igneous rocks
Mica
a complex silicate has perfect one-directional cleavage occurs as two varieties: biotite and muscovite is formed of thin, elastic flakes
intermediate composition
a composistional group of igneous rocks indicating that the rock contains al least 25% dark silicate minerals, the other dominate mineral is plagioclase feldspar
mafic "basalt composistion"
a compositional group of igneous rocks indicating that the rock contains substantial dark silicate minerals and calcium rich plagioclase feldspar
felsic "granite composition"
a compositional group of igneous rocks indicating the rock is composed almost entirely of light colored silicates
ultramatic composition
a compositional group of igneous rocks that contain mostly olivine and pyroxene
Within the terminology of plate tectonics, an active margin is
a continental coastline that coincides with a plate boundary
in the terminology of plate tectonics, an active margin is
a continental coastline that coincides with a plate boundary
fissure
a crack in a rock along which there is a distinct separation
When a piece of quartz is broken it has?
a curved, shell-shaped fracture
obsidian
a dark colored glassy rock that usually forms when silica rich lava is quenched quickly , not composed of minerals in the sense that other rocks are
Describe and pyroclastin type of eruption?
a fast-moving current of extremely hot gas, moving away from the volcano.
basalt
a fine grained igneous rock of mafic compsition
Minerals are all naturally occurring solid substances with a definable chemical composition. They must also possess ____________.
a fixed crystalline structure (spatial arrangement of atoms and ions)
minerals are all naturally occuring solid substances with a definable chemical composition. they must also possess
a fixed crystalline structure (spatial arrangement of atoms and ions)
pyroclastic flow
a highly heated mixture, largely of ash and pumice fragments traveling down the flanks of a volcano or along the surface of the ground
Mount St. Helens killed a geologist studying the volcano because ____________.
a landslide produced a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one anticipated
Mt. St. Helens killed a geologist studying the volcano because ____________.
a landslide produced a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one anticipated
caldera
a large depression typically caused by collapse or ejection of the summit area of a volcano
batholith
a large mass of igneous rock that formed when magma was emplaced at depth, crystallized and subsequently exposed by erosion
pahoehoe flow
a lava flow with a smooth to ropey surface
Strata
a layer of material, naturally or artificially formed, often formed one upon another.
pumice
a light colored glassy vesicular rock commonly having granite composistion
Melting Point Line
a line on a plot of temperature and pressure showing where a substance transitions from solid to liquid
lacolith
a massive igneous body intruded between existing stradda
viscosity
a measure of a fluids resistance to flow
A unique substance with its own chemical composition and crystal structure is what?
a mineral
What is a naturally occurring , inorganic solid with a crystal structure and a characteristic chemical composition called?
a mineral
Minerals are homogeneous substances in that
a mineral's physical properties and geometry are spatially uniform (the material behaves much the same no matter where it is observed)
volcano
a mountain formed from lava and or pyroclastics
What is the definition of a mineral?
a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a crystal structure and a characteristic chemical composition
The structure of an atom is
a nucleus of protons and neutrons and an electron "cloud"
columnar joints
a pattern of cracks that forms during cooling of molten rock to generate columns
Seismic Discontinuity
a place where the velocities of seismic waves change abruptly
Foliated metamorphic rocks possess
a planar fabric consisting of mineral grains in preferred orientaions of preferred patterns of association (banding)
stock
a pluton similar to a batholith but smaller
An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed a. porphyritic b. phaneritic c. aphanitic d. necrotic
a porphyritic
welded tuff
a pyroclastic deposit composed of particles fused together by the combination of the heat still contained in the deposit after it has come to rest and the weight of overlying material
cinder cone
a rather small volcano built primarily of ejected lava fragments that consists of pea to walnut-sized lapilli
Shadow Zone
a region of earth where seismic waves cannot be detected by seismometers
What is a solid combination of minerals or mineral materials called?
a rock
A clastic rock is
a rock formed from the cementation of transported grains
Peridotite
a rock made up mostly of silicon, oxygen and the transition metals iron and magnesium that is denser than the basalt and granite that make up Earth's crust
A dike is ____________.
a sheetlike intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
A sill is ____________.
a sheetlike intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock
Asthenosphere
a soft, plastic, partially molten mechanical layer in earth located below the lithosphere
What is a rock?
a solid combination of minerals or mineral materials
pluton
a structure that results from the emplacement and crystallization of magma beneath the surface of Earth
Iceland rises above the Atlantic Ocean as a result of ____________.
a submarine hot spot located along a mid-ocean ridge
sill
a tabular igneous body that was intruded parallel to the layering of pre-existing rock
dike
a tabular shaped intrusive igneous feature that cuts through the surrounding rock
Cleavage in minerals refers to
a tendency to break along planes of weakness
Cleavage in minerals refers to ____________.
a tendency to break along planes of weakness
vesicular texture
a term applied to the aphanitic igneous rocks that contain many small cavities called vesicles
discordant
a term that used to describe plutons that cut across existing rock structures such as bedding planes
concordant
a term used t describe an intrusive igneous mass that formed parallel to the bedding of the surrounding rock
pegmatitic texture
a texture of an igneous rock in which the interlocking crystals are all larger than one centimeter in diameter
aphanatic texture
a texture of igneous rocks in which the crystals are too small for individual minerals to be formed distinguished without a microscope
What is cleavage?
a type of fracture in which the mineral tends to split along regular, well-defined plants(flat surfaces) were bonds are weakest
aa flow
a type of lava flow that has a jagged blocky surface
What is each mineral?
a unique substance with its own chemical composition and crystal structure
fumarole
a vent in a volcanic area from which fumes or gases escape
composite cone
a volcano composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material
29 Which type of magma has the greatest silica content
a, Felsic
7 Within the sea floor, the rate of geothermal heal flow is greatest
a, along mid-ocean ridges
23 Trace amounts of impurity in a mineral can commonly produce significant differences in ____ among individual crystals of this mineral
a, color
35 Basaltic lavas
a, contain more iron and magnesium than rhyoliticlavas
14 Deep-oceanic trenches are features of plate boundaries
a, convergent
15 The volcanoes of the Cascades Mountains are related to melting of rock associated with a plate boundary
a, convergent
17 At transform-plate boundaries
a, earthquakes are common but volcanoes are absent
54 What does pyroclastic debris consist of
a, fragments of solidified lava erupted into the air from a volcano
46 What type of rock is being formed in this picture
a, igneous
8 The age of oceanic crust____ with increasing distance from a mid-ocean ridge
a, increases
34 Hawaiian-style effusive cruptions are a greater threat to property than to human life
a, true
As compared to aphanitic igneous rocks, phaneritic rocks are ____________. a. coarser grained b. finer grained c. more mafic d. more felsic
a. coarser grained
Is a laccolith a. concordant or b. discordant as an intrusion?
a. concordant
PeleOs hair a. consistes of thin strands of basaltic pyroclastic debris b. acquires aerodynamic torpedo like shapes during flight out of the volcanic cent c. forms only at the leading edge of basaltic lava flows d. was instrumental in scoring the winning goal to defeat Uruguay in the 1958 World Cup finals
a. consistes of thin strands of basaltic pyroclastic debris
Basaltic lavas a. contain more iron an d magnesium than rhyolitic lavas b. contain more silica than rhyolitic lavas c. are more biscous than rhyolitic lavas d. contain a greater proportion of trapped volatiles than rhyolitic lavas
a. contain more iron an d magnesium than rhyolitic lava
As compared to coarse grained igneous rocks, all fine grained igneous rocks a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temps d. solidify at lower temps
a. cool and solidify more quickly
As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, all fine-grained igneous rocks ____________. a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temperatures d. solidify at lower temperatures
a. cool and solidify more quickly
Rhyolitic lavas a. do not flow as far from the vent as basaltic lavas do b. cool much more slowly than basaltic lavas do c. are associated with volcanoes that almost never emit pyroclastic debris d. all of the above
a. do not flow as far from the vent as basaltic lavas
Which type of magma has the greatest silica content a. felsic b. intermediate c. mafic d. ultramafic
a. felsic
Which type of magma has the greatest silica content? a. felsic b. intermediate c. mafic d. ultramafic
a. felsic
At continental rifts, vast bodies of basaltic lava flow forth from fissures, forming a. flood basalt b. pyroclastic flows c. ash fall tufts
a. flood basalt
Large igneous provinces are formed by ___________, which can flow tens to hundreds of kilometers. a. flood basalts b. sills c. super plumes d. None of the above are correct.
a. flood basalts
If a body of magma becomes for felsic, its viscosity will a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same
a. increase
If a body of magma becomes more felsic, its viscosity will ____________. a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same
a. increase
When magma crystallizes, ____ are formed. a. intrusive igneous rocks, b. volatiles c. extrusive igneous rocks d. pyroclastic debris
a. intrusive igneous rocks
When magma crystallizes, ____________ are formed. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. extrusive igneous rocks c. volatiles d. pyroclastic debris
a. intrusive igneous rocks
Most terrestrial volcanic glass a. is highly silicic in composition b. is coarse grained c. consists of microscopic crystals d. freezes from lavas with low viscosity
a. is highly silicic in composition
A fast moving flow consisting of a mixture of water and volcaniclastic debris is termed a a. lahar b. glowing avalanche c. flood basalt d. stratovolcano
a. lahar
In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form
a. long one-dimensional chains b. extensive two-dimensional sheets c. massive three-dimensional frameworks
Due to fractional crystallization and assimilation of surrounding host rock, most magmas that rise slowly through the crust evolve chemically to become a. more felsic b. more mafic c. dominated by nonsilicate minerals
a. more felsic
Magma tends to _____________. a. move upward, away from where it formed b. move downward, away from where it formed c. move laterally d. stay in one place
a. move upward, away from where it formed
In Bowen's discontinuous reaction series, the first mineral to crystallize from a mafic melt is ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz
a. olivine
In Bowen's discontinuous reaction series, the first mineral to crystallize from a mafic melt is a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz
a. olivine
Stoping by magmas occurs when ____________. a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated b. the magma stops flowing and starts to solidify c. the magma becomes fully solidified to form intrusive rock d. the magma alters a thin rind of surrounding country rock
a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated
Stoping by magmas occurs when a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated b. the magma stops flowing and starts to solidify c. the magma becomes fully solidified to form intrusive rock d. the magma alters a thin rind of surrounding country rock
a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated
An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed ____________. a. porphyritic b. phaneritic c. aphanitic d. necrotic
a. porphyritic
A sill is a (an)____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock
Which of the following is a way crystals can form?
a. solidification of a melt b. precipitation from solution c. solid-state diffusion d. biomineralization e. precipitation from gas
Mt Fuji in Japan is an example of a a. statovolcano b. cinder cone c. shield volcano
a. stratovolcano
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ consist of alternating layers of tephra and solidified lava. a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes
a. stratovolcanoes
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ which sometimes referred to as composite volcanoes a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes
a. stratovolcanoes
An island volcanic arc occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Mt. St. Helens, Washington
a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska
Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten. a. true b. false
a. true
Ash, cinders, and blocks are all types of a. volcaniclastic debris b. lava flows c. Peleos hair d. volcanos
a. volcaniclastic debris
Gases that are abundantly emitted by volcanoes include a. water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide b. oxygen, ozone, and water vapor c. oxygen, hydrogen, and neon d. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxygen
a. water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide
With regard to minerals, hardness refers to ____________.
ability to resist being scratched by other substances
hardness
ability to resist being scratched by other substances
How often do magnitude 8 earthquakes occur?
about every 5 to 10 years
Since a glass plate has a hardness of 5.5 if a mineral can scratch it is its hardness above or below 5.5?
above 5.5
The rate of motion of a lithospheric plate with respect to a stationary hot spot is termed
absolute plate velocity
A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) to a solution is called a(n) ______.
acid
The coast of the northwestern United States is an example of a/an _____ margin
active
Earthquakes are most frequent near coastlines that are termed
active margins
Oceanic lithosphere thickens away from mid-ocean ridges primarily due to the
addition of new lithosphere mantle as a result of cooling.
The change in temperature that an air parcel experiences as it rises or falls in the atmosphere is called ______ heating and cooling.
adiabatic
Smaller earthquakes that occur after a major earthquake along the same fault that are termed
aftershocks
current idea continental drift
agree that continental drift occurs; the mechanisms that drive drift are at work in the ocean basins and upper mantle and were unknown in wegener's time
Plutonic rock
aka intrusive; Rocks formed from magma at depth
Around 1929, Hubble and other astronomers discovered that the light of distant galaxies displayed red shifts relative to the light of nearby stars. This means that
all distant galaxies are moving away from Earth at an immense velocity the whole Universe is expanding
Which one of the following features is NOT associated with sedimentary rocks?
all may be associated with sedimentary rocks (bedding, foliation, fossils)
Which of the following processes occurs during lithification?
all may occur (recrystallization,compaction,cementation)
Hot-spot volcanoes ____________.
all of the above
In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form
all of the above
The metallic content of Earth's core is ____________.
all of the above
The world faces an energy crisis because _________. a) world demand for energy will increase b) world oil production will peak and begin to decline c) shortages and the resulting escalation of prices can shock the economic and political order d) all of the above
all of the above
Whether an eruption will primarily produce lava flows or pyroclastic debris is influenced by ____________.
all of the above
In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form ____________.
all of the above (long one-dimensional chains, extensive two-dimensional sheets and massive three-dimensional frameworks)
During fractional crystallization
all of the above:iron, magnesium, and calcium is removed from the magma and the magma becomes enriched in silica, sodium, and potassium and the composition of the magma becomes more felsic
Carbonic acid, the primary agent of chemical weathering is produced by ________ .
all of these
Soil is composed of a) organic matter produced by organisms b) fragments of bedrock c) clay minerals formed by the chemical alteration of bedrock d) all of these
all of these
The physical and chemical weathering of a granite will produce a) ions dissolved in rainwater and soil water b) mineral fragments and granite fragments c) clays and iron oxides d) all of these
all of these
The physical and chemical weathering of a granite will produce __________.
all of these
Which of the following can be triggered by an earthquake?
all of these
Which of the following can trigger a tsunami?
all of these
Which of the following factors would increase the rate of weathering?
all of these
Which of the following observations may indicate a forthcoming destructive earthquake?
all of these
Which of the following problems is associated with the burning of coal? a) acid rain b) carbon dioxide emissions c) ash with toxic metal impurities d) all of these
all of these
Shallow earthquakes, less than 20 km deep, are associated with
all of these (convergent, divergent or transform plate boundaries)
Which of the following factors would increase the chemical weathering rate?
all of these (increasing rainfall, temperature, organic activity)
Which of the following types of currents can transport sand grains?
all of these (rivers, wind, ocean waves)
which of the following affect the rate of weathering? a) the soil type and extent b) the rock type c) the climate d) all of these affect weathering rates
all of these affect weathering rates
Ripples occur:
all of these can have ripples (on sand beneath the waves at beaches,on underwater sandbars in streams,on the surface of windswept dunes)
as compared to arkose, quartz sandstone
all the above
obsidian
all the above
unlike physically precipitated chert, biochemical chert
all the above
Earthquakes are likely to occur along
all three major types of plate boundaries
A mixture of copper and tin would be called
alloy
Which environment would most likely produce sedimentary deposits characterized by very well-sorted, very well-rounded grains that are nearly pure quartz?
alluvial fan
Within the sea floor, the rate of geothermal heat flow is greatest ____________.
along mid ocean ridges
Sea-floor spreading is driven by volcanic activity ________.
along mid-ocean ridges
The youngest sea floor occurs
along mid-ocean ridges
sea floor spreading is driven by volcanic activity
along mid-ocean ridges
Sea-floor spreading is driven by volcanic activity where?
along mid-ocean ridges. NOT folded mountain belts.
The metal ores that are found in veins within plutons typically occur _____
alongside abundant quartz
subduct zone over plate
always composed of continental lithosphere
subduct zone down plate
always composed of oceanic lithosphere
A hotspot is
an area of volcanic activity with a deep magma source
According to the United States Geological Survey, the term pyroclastic flow refers to a ground-hugging mixture of ash, pumice, rock fragments, and hot gas that rushes down the side of a volcano at speeds of 100 km/hour or more. The temperature within pyroclastic flows can reach 500° C or more. The picture below shows a ground hugging cloud of hot gases and ash (white arrow) rushing down the side of Mayon Volcano, Philippines, during an explosive eruption on 15 September 1984. What do geologists call a pyroclastic flow composed of hot gases and ash?
an ash flow
porphyritic texture
an igneous rock texture characterized by 2 distinctively different crystal sizes. the larger are called phenocrysts and the smaller matrix of crystals is called the groundmass
pyroclastic texture
an igneous rock texture resulting from the consolidation of individual rock fragments that are ejected from a violent volcanic eruption
phanertitic texture
an igneous rock texture that in which the crystals are roughly the same size and large enough so the indiviual mineral can be distinguished by the naked eye
All oil traps contain ___________.
an impermeable layer
xenolith
an inclusion of unmelted, country rock in an igneous pluton
volcanic neck
an isolated, steep sided, erosional remnant consisting of lava that once occupied the vent of a volcano
A volcanic island arc forms when
an oceanic plate subducts beneath another oceanic plate
Moving into the interior of Earth, temperature ____________.
and pressure both increase
Coarse-grained diorite is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________.
andesite
The form of small poorly developed crystals is termed
anhedral
The form of small, poorly developed crystals is termed
anhedral
A neutral atom that gains an electron becomes a/an ______________ .
anion
The oil trap shown here is a(n) ____________
anticline
Describe the six types of igneous textures (aphanitic, phaneritic, porphyritic, glassy, vesicular, and fragmental/pyroclastic)
aphanitic-Fine grain size, quick cooling Phaneritic-Coarse grain size- slow cooling Porphyritic-mixture of grain sizes, mixture of cooling times Glassy-instant cooling visicular-contains tine holes from gas bubbles in lava-spongelike Fragmental/Pyro-Pieces of rock or ash welded together by heat.
drift N America
apparent polar wandering from magnitite crystals and basalts found in N. America say
Extrusive
are composed of small mineral grains that cannot be seen by the unaided eye.
sill
are concordant and parallel the layers of surrounding rock
dikes
are discordant and cut across layers of surrounding rock
Igneous rocks
are formed through the freezing of melt can be produced at the surface of the Earth as well as deep below the surface are the most common type of rocks within Earth All of the above are correct.
Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks
are lighter in color than mafic rocks
Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks ____________.
are lighter in color than mafic rocks
majority mineral
are quite common and are rare
The vast majority of mineral types
are rare form under special conditions
A minerals crystal structure, color, streak, luster, density, hardness, fracture and cleavage are used to?
are the properties that identify what type of mineral
Transition Zone
area between upper and lower mantle of the earth
MORs
areas with the most (pulling) force that drives plate motion
subduct zones
areas with the most (pushing) force that drives plate motion
A clastic rock comprised of sand-sized grains derived from the physical weathering of granite and containing a sizable proportion of feldspar is termed ____________.
arkose
A feldspar-rich sandstone is called a(n) ________ .
arkose
Which of the following sandstone types is most likely to form by the mechanical weathering of a granite?
arkose
Pyroclastic debris consiting of glass shards and lava "froth" ejected from a volcano, with grain sizes less than 2 mm, is termed
ash
What rock makes up an ignimbrite sheet?
ash-flow tuff
The lithosphere lies atop the
asthenosphere
The lithosphere lies directly above the
asthenosphere
Most of the pulling force driving plate motion is produced
at subduction zones
Most of the pulling force driving plate motion is produced ________.
at subduction zones
Five trillion atoms can fit into the head of an atom. Which of the following is in the correct order of smallest to largest?
atom, electron, nucleus, proton
150 km
average thickness of continental lithosphere is about
41 All volcanic eruptions pass through the crater at the volcanic summit
b, False
48 Using radiometric dating of___ geologists conclude that the barth is about___years old
b, Meteorites, 4.56 BY
45 Which of the following would NOT be considered a rock
b, a pile of unconsolidated sand
39 Basaltic lavas that solidify at their surface fracture irregularly, producing a sharp-surface lava rock named
b, a'a'
55 if a volcano is erupting a gassy, felsic silica rich magma then it is more likely to be
b, an explosive eruption
24 Synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit a fracture pattern termed
b, conchoidal
13 Iceland is one of the few places in the world that is both above sea level and situated atop a ____ plate boundary
b, divergent
16 Mid-ocean ridges are
b, divergent-plate boundries
10 All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust
b, false
21 The most useful diagnostic property of minerals is their color in a hand sample
b, false
6 A compass today points directly to geographic north
b, false
47 Grabite is a type of rock that forms deep underground from magma that cools very slowly, what type of rock is granite
b, igneous
52 Pillow Basalts form by
b, injection of basaltic lava into water
33 Mafic lavas are distinguished by
b, low viscosity
37 Volcanoes that do not occur along present plate boundaries are associated with
b, mantle hot spots
12 At a divergent plate boundary, two opposed plates__
b, move away from one another
22 The most recently formed portion of any crystal always found
b, on the outer edges
38 The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is
b, plagioclase
19 Which of the following would NOT render the volcanos on Hawaii's big island inactive
b, the mantle plume below hawaii moving farther to the northwest
25 Which of the following would help distinguish continental hot spots from oceanic hot spots
b, the presence of both mafic and felsicmagmas
53 Volcanic ash consists of__ an avalanche of hot ash flowing down the flanks of a volcano is known as a
b, tiny shards of glass/pyroclastic flow
49 Why did most geologists initially oppose Wegener's hypothesis of continental drift
b, wegner could not explain how or why continents move
Olympus Mons, the largest known volcano in the Universe is found on a. Earth b. Mars c. Neptune d. Io, a moon of Jupiter
b. Mars
Basaltic lavas that solidify at the surface before flow ceases fracture irregularly, producing a sharp surfaced lava rock named a. pahoehoe b. aa c. pumice d. hyaloclasite
b. aa
Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks ____________. a. contain more iron and magnesium than intermediate rocks b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks c. are darker in color than mafic rocks d. are found in oceanic crust
b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks
Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks a. contain more iron and magnesium than intermediate rocks b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks c. are darker in color than mafic rocks d. are found in oceanic crust
b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks
Coarse grained gabbro is most similar in mineral composition to fine grained a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite
b. basalt
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ consist of a simple, conical pile of tephra. a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes
b. cinder cones
If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will ____________. a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same
b. decrease
If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same
b. decrease
Is a dike a. concordant or b. discordant as an intrusion?
b. discordant
Nonviolent eruptions characterized by extensive flows of basaltic lava are termed a. pyroclastic b. effusive c. explosive
b. effusive
Pillow basalts, shown below, attain their distinctive blob-like shapes because their parent lavas do not travel far prior to solidification. This is because the parent lavas ____________. a. are completely devoid of volatiles and thus travel slowly b. erupt underwater and thus cool very quickly c. are highly felsic and thus travel slowly d. are ultramafic and thus freeze at exceptionally high temperatures
b. erupt underwater and thus cool very quickly
All of the Earth's internal heat was acquired very early in its history through meteoric impact and differentiation of the core. The Earth's interior loses heat to space but does not currently receive heat through any known process. a. true b. false
b. false
Vesicles are a term used to describe a texture in __________ igneous rocks. a. crystalline b. glassy c. pyroclastic
b. glassy
The lithifiication of material from pyroclastic flow forms a rock called a. metabasalt b. ignimbrite c. migmatite d. tuff
b. ignimbrite
A majority of the melts in the Earth form through the partial melting of ultramafic mantle rock. These newly formed magmas are ____________. a. ultramafic b. mafic c. felsic d. intermediate
b. mafic
Volcanoes that do NOT occur along either present or emergent plate boundaries are associated with ____________. a. continental rifts b. mantle hot spots c. mid-ocean ridges d. subduction zones
b. mantle hot spots
In 1902, a famous, deadly volcaniclastic flow killed thousands of people on the Caribbean island of a. puerto rico b. martinique c. aruba d. jamaica
b. martinique
When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is a. more mafic than the original chemistry of the rock b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock c. identical to the original chemistry of the rock d. completely unpredictable
b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock
When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is ____________. a. more mafic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted c. identical to the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted d. completely unpredictable (it could be more mafic or more felsic)
b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted
If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be ____________. a. identical in chemical composition to the magma b. more mafic than the magma c. more felsic than the magma
b. more mafic than the magma
If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be a. identical in chemical composition to the magma b. more mafic than the magma c. more felsic than the magma
b. more mafic than the magma
Bowen's continous reaction series describes the crystallization behavior of a single mineral a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz
b. plagioclase
Bowen's continuous reaction series describes the crystallization behavior of a single mineral (with variable chemical composition), ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz
b. plagioclase
The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz
b. plagioclase
A blob like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is called a a. guyot b. pluton c. lava flow d. andesite
b. pluton
A blob-like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is ____________. a. guyot b. pluton c. lava flow d. andesite
b. pluton
Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they _ a. possess porphyritic texture b. possess exceptionally coarse grains c. are mineralogically identical to the extrusive rock basalt d. are glassy, cooling so rpaidly that crystals do not have time to form
b. possess exceptionally coarse grains
Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they ____________. a. possess porphyritic texture b. possess exceptionally coarse grains c. are mineralogically identical to the extrusive rock basalt d. are glassy, cooling so rapidly that crystals do not have time to form
b. possess exceptionally coarse grains
The geotherm is the rate of change of a. pressure with depth in Earth's interior b. temp with depth in earth's interior c. temp with altitude in earth's atmosphere d. temp with latitude on earth's surface
b. temp with depth in earth's interior
The geotherm is the rate of change of ____________. a. pressure with depth in Earth's interior b. temperature with depth in Earth's interior c. temperature with altitude in Earth's atmosphere d. temperature with latitude on Earth's surface
b. temperature with depth in Earth's interior
The difference between tephra and tuff is that a. tephra is created in ash falls, whereas tuff is created in pyroclastic flows b. tephra is unlithified, whereas tuff is lithified c. tephra is always silicic, whereas tuff is always basaltic d. all of the above
b. tephra is unlithified, whereas tuff is lithified
A continental volcanic arc occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Japan
b. the Andes Mountains
How do rock particles move during the passage of a P wave through the rock?
back and forth parallel to the direction of wave travel
Coarse-grained gabbro is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained
basalt
Coarse-grained gabbro is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________.
basalt
Give an example of a fine grained igneous rock
basalt
The extrusive compositional equivalent of gabbro is________.
basalt
The magma composition erupted by a hotspot beneath oceanic crust is
basalt
pillow lava "pillow basalts"
basaltic lava that solidifies underwater and develops a structure that resembles a pile of pillows
On a geologic map, if the contacts between sedimentary rock units form a bull's eye pattern of concentric circles, with the youngest unit in the center, the underlying structure is a(n)
basin
Most coal is mined from ____________, which develop and preserve the thick sedimentary sequences necessary for deep burial.
basins
most coal is mined from
basins
The major source of aluminum metal, _______, is a clay-rich ore composed of aluminum hydroxide.
bauxite
Radioactive isotopes, differentiation of Earth's iron core, gravity-driven compression, and meteoric bombardment all caused early Earth to ____________.
be much hotter at present
Because the velocity of sediment settling (deposition) is positively related to grain size for waterborne sediments, fluvial deposits are more likely than glacial deposits to ____________.
be well sorted
Because the velocity of sediment settling (deposition) is positively related to grain size for waterborne sediments, fluvial deposits are more likely than glacial deposits to
be well sorted
In which of the following environments would you expect to find oscillation ripples?
beach
In which of the following environments would you expect to find symmetrical ripples?
beach
Why is limestone considered a biochemical sedimentary rock?
because it was made of broken and ground shells of dead organisms
Why are silicate minerals the most common group of minerals in the crust?
because oxygen and silicon are the most common elements in the crust
With increasing altitude, the concentration of gases in our atmosphere ____________.
become less dense
WIth time, sediment transported by a fluvial system ___________.
becomes rounded and smaller
With time, sediment transported by glaciers ___________.
becomes smaller
Geologists call individual layers of sedimentary rocks _____________ , whereas several of them together are called _
beds; strata
What are the characterizations of shield volcanoes?
big, very hot, basalt, low viscosity, quiet eruptions, contains relatively fluid melt
Cemented shells of marine organisms form which kind of sedimentary rock?
biochemical
Solar energy stored in material such as wood, grain, sugar, and municipal waste is called __________.
biomass
The most common type of amphibole is
biotite
Which of the following minerals always appears to be darker in color than the other minerals in the list? (A)Quartz (B) Plagioclase (C) K-feldspar (D)Calcite (E) Biotite
biotite
Which of the following minerals display one direction of well developed cleavage? (A)Quartz (B) Calcite (C) Galena (D)Biotite (E) Pyroxene
biotite
Flint, once commonly used to form arrowheads, is a
black variety of replacement chert
Protoplanets
bodies approaching the size of todays planets.
____ waves pass through the interior of the Earth
body
From the following list what item represents the size class composed of the largest pyroclastic material?
bombs/blocks
Which of the following human activities has resulted in increased rates of weathering?
both A and B
Picture
both A and B are not minerals; however, C is a mineral
Which of the following is not a mineral?
both A and B are not minerals; however, C is a mineral
All other factors being equal. intrusive rocks that form deep within earth __ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface a. are more felsic b. contain a smaller proportion of volatiles c. cool more slowly d. cool more rapidly
c cool more slowly
1 From the choices below, the best estimate of the age of the universe is____ Old.
c, 14 billion years
58 If the scale on a map is 1:24,000 then what is the length in centimeters of a field that measures 1 cm long on the map
c, 24000
11 Within the terminology of plate tectonics an active margin is___
c, a continental coastline that coincides with a plate boundary
9 A "stripe" of a particular magnetic orientation that has a very large width could be indicative of ___
c, both a and b are correct, a-a great deal of time spent in a particular magnetic regime, b-higher spreading rates than other points in time
51 in which of the following tectonic settings is magma formation NOT likely a consequence of decompression melting
c, convergent margin arc
28 All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth___ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface
c, cool more slowly
26 Gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites, which are igneous rocks that are
c, exceptionally coarse grained
36 Consult the figure below. if you found deposits of tuff at an __ igneous setting, you could conclude that the lava had a__ viscosity content
c, extrusive, high
43 The Hawaiian island chain is an example of a
c, hot-spot island chain
30 A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, new mexico is a
c, intrusion formed within a volcano
32 Mt. Kilimanjaro and the basin and range province are the result of
c, rifting
42 Of the three primary forms of subaerial vocanoes___ cover the largest areas
c, shield volcanoes
18 Hot spots can occur
c, within either continental or oceanic plates
A famous example of hot-spot volcanism occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Mt. St. Helens, Washington
c. Hawaii
The eruption of Mt St. Helens killed a geologist stuyding the volcano because a. the geologist disregarded orders to keep a safe distance from the vent b. the eruption produced a greater volume of ash than anyone predicted c. a landslide produced a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one had anticipated d. lahars swept down all sides of the volcano and buried all towns within 100 km
c. a landslide produced a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one had anticipated
Iceland rises above the Atlantic Ocean as a result of a. normal mid ocean ridge activity b. a submarine hot spot located within the interior of the plate c. a submarine hot spot located along a mid ocean ridge d. subduction of an oceanic plate underneath the continental Eurasian plate
c. a submarine hot spot located along a mid ocean ridge
Radioactive isotopes, differentiation of Earth's iron core, gravity-driven compression, and meteoric bombardment all caused early Earth to ____________. a. glow brighter than the Sun b. be much cooler than at present c. be much hotter than at present d. be much more oblong than at present
c. be much hotter than at present
Radioactive isotopes, differentiation of Earth's iron core, gravity-driven compression, and meteoric bombardment all caused early earth to a. glow brighter than the sun b. be much cooler than at present c. be much hotter than at present d. be much more oblong than at present
c. be much hotter than at present
Explosive or voluminous eruptions may cause the volcano to collapse on the floor of the now empty magma chamber, producing a broad depression termed a a. crater b. lahar c. caldera d. fissure
c. caldera
All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth ____________ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface. a. are more felsic b. contain a smaller proportion of volatiles c. cool more slowly d. cool more rapidly
c. cool more slowly
If you found tuff deposits at an ___________ igneous setting, you could conclude that the lava had a ___________ viscosity content. a. intrusive; high b. intrusive; low c. extrusive; high d. extrusive; low
c. extrusive; high
The smoky cloud that rises from the vent of an actively erupting volcano is composed of a. smoke from wildfires inside the volcano chimney b. smoke from wildfires on the outer slopes of the volcano that become funneled into the crater c. fine volcaniclastic debris suspended in the air d. a continouus fountain of dark, basaltic lava
c. fine volcaniclastic debris suspended in the air
As compared to subaerial basaltic lavas, submarine basaltic lavas differ in that they a. always produce violent pyroclastic debris flows b. produce large crystals of pyroxene and plagioclase c. form pillow like mounds because they cannot flow as far from their source d. all of the aboce
c. form pillow like mounds because they cannot flow as far from their source
Volatiles refer to substances that ____________. a. crystallize most rapidly out of a melt b. melt immediately upon contact with a hot body of magma c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases
c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases
Volatiles refer to substances that a. crystallize most rapidly out of a melt b. melt immediately upon contact with a hot body of magma c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases
c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases
The Hawaiin island chain is an example of a a. island volcanic arc b. continental volcanic arc c. hot spot island chain d. stratovolcano assembly
c. hot spot island chain
A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, New Mexico (below), is a (an) ____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano
The difference between lava and magma is that magma ____________. a. is light in color, whereas lava is dark b. usually has mafic composition, whereas lava usually has felsic composition c. is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface d. flows more quickly than lava
c. is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface
Geologically, melts are equivalent to both a. felsic and mafic magmas b. felsic and mafic lavas c. lavas and magmas d. fine grained and coarse grained igneous rocks
c. lavas and magmas
Geologically, melts are equivalent to both ____________ and ____________. a. felsic magma; mafic magma b. felsic lava; mafic lava c. lavas; magmas d. fine-grained igneous rocks; coarse-grained igneous rocks
c. lavas; magmas
The difference between lava and magma is that a. magma is light in color and lava is dark b. magma usually has mafic composition an lava usually has felsic composition c. magma is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface d. magma flows more quickly than lava
c. magma is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava usually has reached the surface
The difference between magma and lava is ____________. a. magma cools more rapidly than lava b. magma is found at the surface, whereas lava is found below the surface c. magma is found beneath the surface, whereas lava is found at the surface d. There is no difference; the two terms mean the same thing.
c. magma is found beneath the surface, whereas lava is found at the surface
Injecting hot fudge into ice cream is an appropriate analogy for which cause of magma melt? a. Melting due to a decrease in pressure b. melting due to an addition of volatiles c. melting due to heat transfer from rising magma d. All of the above are correct.
c. melting due to heat transfer from rising magma
If a body of igneous (source) rock is subjected to partial melting, the magma that is produced is expected to be ____________. a. identical in chemical composition to the source rock b. more mafic than the source rock c. more felsic than the source rock
c. more felsic than the source rock
In 79 CE, the citizens of Pompeii in the Roman Empire were buried by pyroclastic debris derived from an eruption of a. mt. olympus b. olympus mons c. mt. vesuvius d. mt. st. helens
c. mt. vesuvius
Mt. Kilimanjaro and the Basin and Range Province are the result of _____________. a. converging plates b. subducting plates c. rifting d. None of the above are correct.
c. rifting
Olympus Mons, the largest known Volcano in the Universe, is an example of a a. stratovolcano b. cinder cone c. shield volcano
c. shield volcano
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ have the most gently sloping sides, due to the low viscosity of the basaltic lavas which form them. a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes
c. shield volcanoes
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _ are the largest in area a. stratovolcanoes b. cinder cones c. shield volcanoes
c. shield volcanoes
A volcano emits ash, which falls from the sky, settles in layers and is eventually cemented. The resultant rock is termed a. pumice b. granite c. tuff d. ignimbrite
c. tuff
A volcano emits ash, which falls from the sky, settles in layers, and is eventually cemented. The resulting rock is termed ____________. a. pumice b. granite c. tuff d. ignimbrite
c. tuff
What was unusual about the 1986 disaster around Lake Nyos in Cameroon a. a volcanic eruption involved a lateral blast of volcaniclastic debris that no one anticipated b. pyroclastic flows buried surrounding villages, reminiscent of the burial of Pompeii 1900 years earlier c. volcanically derived carbon dioxide gas bubbled from the lake and suffocated people and animals nearby d. a slurry of lava and lake water flowed rapidly outward form the lake and buried surrounding villages
c. volcanically derived carbon dioxide gas bubbled from the lake and suffocated people and animals nearby
Important volatiles in magmas include ____________. a. iron- and magnesium-rich minerals, such as olivine b. potassium and aluminum c. water and carbon dioxide d. trinitrotoluene and nitroglycerin
c. water and carbon dioxide
Important volatiles in magmas include a. iron and magnesium rich minerals b. potassium and aluminum c. water and carbon dioxide d. ricrinitrotoluene and nitroglycerin
c. water and carbon dioxide
Ash and lava fragments that cascade down the sides of a volcano eventually settle and lithify to form ____________. a. basalt b. andesite c. welded tuff d. ash-fall tuff
c. welded tuff
The major mineral found in limestone is
calcite
When in contact with hydrochloric acid, which mineral gives off bubbles of carbon dioxide gas?
calcite
Which of the following common minerals is most easily dissolved in water?
calcite
Biochemical limestones are dominated by carbonate mud and fragments of
calcitic and aragonitic skeletons of marine invertebrates
Most shells of marine organisms are composed of ________ .
calcium carbonate
Explosive or voluminous eruptions may cause the volcano to collapse on the floor of the (now empty) magma chamber, producing a broad depression termed a ___________.
caldera
deserts
caliche
Rhyolite magma
can be formed by fractional crystallization of basalt magma (Silica content is positively correlated with magma viscosity. This means that high silica rhyolite (65-75% silica) is also high in viscosity. This causes it to erupt explosively if gases are present in the magma because the high viscosity nature of the magma (thick, pasty) makes it difficult for gases to be released from the magma. High silica magma compositions can be produced from basalt (the magma composition produced by melting of the upper mantle) through fractional crystallization. As the magma cools, mafic minerals high in Fe, Mg, and Ca are crystallized first by virtue of their higher melting points. This results in a smaller volume of more felsic magma - magma enriched in silica, Na, and K - such as andesite and rhyolite. The amount of silica enrichment depends on the amount of fractional crystallization that has occurred.)
Limestone reefs and salt deposits are important rocks in earths history because they
can be used to infer the ancient climate of the earth; they are deposited in environments that are restricted to warm climates
Marine sediments deposited in water depths greater than about 12,000 feet usually lack ________ .
carbonate shells
The rate of chemical weathering is increased by acids. The most common natural acid on the Earth's surface is ________
carbonic
A neutral atom that loses an electron becomes a/an ______________ .
cation
block and ash flows
caused by collapse of lava dome that became too tall or too steep to support itself usually andesite to dacitic are reversely graded
tuff
cemented ash
According to the figure below, the Earth's magnetic reversals are likely due to
changes in circulation patterns in the outer core
Metamorphism, in broadest terms, involves
changes in mineralogy and texture in response to heat and stress
Some minerals can be identified by a?
characteristic color
Gypsum is an example of a ______ sedimentary rock.
chemical
Petrified wood is an example of a______sedimentary rock.
chemical
The way a rock breaks apart tells us where the ?
chemical bonds are the weakest
Polymorphs are two or more minerals that have the same ______ but different ______.
chemical composition, atomic structure
Spheroidal weathering occurs when
chemical weathering attacks corners and edges of rock more rapidly than its interior
This limestone grave marker is hard to read due to ____ weathering.
chemical? not physical
The distinction between the crust and mantle is primarily on the basis of a difference in ________; the distinction between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is primarily on the basis of a difference in ________.
chemistry (mineral content); degree of physical rigidity
The distinction between crust and mantle is primarily on the basis of a difference in_____; the distinction between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is primarily on the basis of a difference in____.
chemistry (mineral content); degree of physical rigidity.
Minerals are classified into groups primarily on a basis of ____________.
chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula
minerals are classified into groups primarily on the basis of
chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula
asteroid vs. meteor vs. meteorite:
chunks of rock and metal vs. object moving into earth's atmosphere vs. object from space hitting earth
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ consist of a simple, conical pile of tephra.
cinder cones
What is the sediment present in deep oceans, lakes, etc?
clay
Shale refers to a rock formed from
clay minerals
What minerals form by the breakdown and weathering of rock-forming silicate minerals and are important constituents of soils?
clays kaolinite
Minerals that split evenly when they break apart form what type of fracture?
cleavage
The tendency of crystals to break along regular planes of weakness is termed________.
cleavage
The way halite breaks apart in small cubes is an example of ?
cleavage
The way mica breaks apart in sheets is an example of ?
cleavage
Weak atomic bonding in one direction in a mineral will result in
cleavage
Which of the following is a nonrenewable energy resource?
coal
Which one of the following is a biochemical sedimentary rock?
coal
A coal deposit that is not economical to mine today would be considered part of our __________ .
coal resources
Phaneritic texture
coarse-grained, crystals are large enough to be seen w/out a microscope, formed by slow cooling (intrusive) ROUGHLY EQUAL SIZED CRYSTALS
As compared to aphanitic igneous rocks, phaneritic rocks are ____________.
coarser grained
What micro-fossil makes up the limestone chalk?
coccolithophores, which are single celled marine plants
Which of the following conditions promotes slow chemical weathering?
cold temperatures
When two bodies of continental lithosphere are pulled together at a convergent boundary, the result is
collision and mountain formation
Which of the following is not a reliable physical property of minerals
color
trace amounts of impurity in a mineral can commonly produce significant differences in _____ among individual crystals of this mineral
color
streak
color of a mineral in powdered form
Wegners continental drift
combined form super-continent - Pangaea - late Paleozoic to Mesozoic
Wegener proposed continental drift after he observed evidence from fossils, glacial deposits, and the fit of the continents that suggested all of the continents were once
combined to form a supercontinent (he termed pangaea) in the late paleozoic through the mesozoic
wegener proposed continental drift after he observed evidence from fossils, glacial deposits, and the fit of the continents that suggested all of the continents were once
combined to form a supercontinent (he termed pangaea) in the late paleozoic through the mesozoic
Magnetic Field
comes from poles, which change over time, and protects us from solar wind.
The most common lithification process for fine clastics is _______ .
compaction
Which of the following is an example of a physical, as opposed to a chemical, diagenetic process?
compaction
wider
compared to a slowly spreading mid-ocean ridge, a rapidly spreading ridge is
Why do composite volcanoes consist of alternating lava and pyroclastic layers?
composite cones are created by a mixture of explosive activity and lava flows
Mineral groups are classified based on their dominant
composition
The development of a preferred orientation of large, flaky mica crystals within metamorphic rock is termed
compositional binding
Waves in which particles of material move back and forth parallel to the direction in which the wave itself moves are called
compressional waves
P-Waves
compressional waves by an earthquake. travel the fastest in earth and so are the first to arrive at seismic wave detectors
Most glasses and some minerals (like quartz, shown in the figure) exhibit a type of fracture characterized by nested and curved, cracked surfaces. What term describes this property
conchoidal
Synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit______fracture
conchoidal
synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit a fracture pattern termed
conchoidal
Where does conglomerate and breccia occur?
conglomerate - gravel beds in streams and glaciers breccia - alluvial fans and deserts
Which of the following lists is written in order of decreasing particle size?
conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone
When the streak mark created by a mineral is the same color as the mineral, the streak is termed ______________ .
congruent
tectonic plates
consist of oceanic or continental lithosphere or a combination of both
Consult the figure below. As compared to the amphibolite metamorphic facies, the greenschist facies
consists of lower grade rocks
Ashfall
consists of tephra that rains down from the eruption column
Pelé s hair ____________.
consists of thin strands of basaltic pyroclastic debris
phenocryst
conspicuosly large crystal embedded in the matrix of finer grained minerals
The metamorphic process by which high pressure and temperature "sqeeze" and elongate mineral grains is termed ______ (two words)
contact metamorphism
Metamorphism may be induced by
contact with hot pluton, contact with hot groundwater, or heat and pressure associated with deep burial
Basaltic lavas ____________.
contain more iron and magnesium than rhyolitic lavas
According to Wegener, puzzle pieces are to a jigsaw puzzle as ____________ is/are to Pangaea
continents
Which of the following is part of the process that leads to the exhumation of metamorphic rocks?
continents squeezing together, mountain belts collapsing, erosion
Large, think,non volcanic mountain belts like the Himalayas are features associated with plate boundaries
convergent
The lithosphere of the earth is generally thickest at or near ________ plate boundaries.
convergent
The volcanoes of the Cascades Mountains are related to melting of rock associated with a ____________ plate boundary.
convergent
Consult the figure below. Subduction zones are
convergent plate boundaries
subduction zone
convergent plate boundaries also known as
As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, all fine-grained igneous rocks
cool and solidify more quickly
All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth ____________ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface
cool more slowly
All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth ____________ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface.
cool more slowly
As compared to the asthenosphere, the lithosphere is ____________.
cooler and less able to flow
The first ores which were widely smelted by humans to produce metal were those of
copper
Of the three primary chemical layers of the Earth (crust, mantle, core), which is the thickest layer
core
Of the three primary chemical layers of the Earth (crust, mantle, core), which is the thickest layer?
core
Which of Earth's layers has the greatest density?
core
What kind of a bond forms when one or more electrons are shared by two atoms?
covalent
The difference between covalent and metallic bonds is
covalent bonds are when atoms share the same electron(s), but metallic bonds are special types of covalent bonds where an electron is shared among several atoms in sequence
Define mantle plumes
create intraplate volcanism, areas of upwelling in the mantle, originate in parts of the deep mantle where the rock is unusually warm and therefore rises buoyantly by convection
Consult the figure below. Distinct internal laminations that are inclined at an angle to the boundary of the main sedimentary layer are called _
cross beds
The geothermal gradient is largest in the:
crust
The lithosphere is composed of the ____________.
crust and upper most part of the mantle
Atoms that are arranged in a particular geometric shape are called?
crystal structure
Name the 8 properties that can be used to identify minerals?
crystal structure, color, streak, luster, density, hardness, fracture and cleavage
The growth of mineral crystals from a melt is the process of
crystallization
Name some types of crystal structure?
crystals with six sides, crystals shaped like cubes, sheets, needles, or threads.
Describe the crystal structure of the mineral Halite(table salt)?
cubic crystals
Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of ____________. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. hot spots c. volatiles d. pyroclastic debris
d
Viscosity depends on ____________. a. temperature b. volatile content c. silica content d. All of the above are correct.
d
Which of the following is NOT a factor controlling the cooling rate of magma? a. depth of intrusion b. shape and size of magma body c. presence of circulating groundwater d. All of the above are factors.
d
Igneous rocks ____________. a. are formed through the freezing of melt b. can be produced at the surface of the Earth as well as deep below the surface c. are the most common type of rocks within Earth d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Large igneous provinces can cause ______________. a. sea level rise b. climate change c. extinction d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Viscosity depends on ____________. a. temperature b. volatile content c. silica content d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Which of the following is NOT a factor controlling the cooling rate of magma? a. depth of intrusion b. shape and size of magma body c. presence of circulating groundwater d. All of the above are factors.
d. All of the above are factors.
Which national park is home to a large volcanic caldera formed through a very large explosive eruption 630,000 years ago? a. Acadia b. Carlsbad Caverns c. Great Smoky Mountains d. Yellowstone
d. Yellowstone
A dike is a. a sheetlike intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. a cooled layer of lava c. an intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. a sheetlike intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
d. a sheetlike intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
Hot spot volcanoes a. can arise form the ocean floor b. can arise on the continents c. may arise in the interior of lithospheric plates d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Igneous rocks a. are formed through the freezing of a melt b. can be produced at the surface of the earth as well as deep below the surface c. are the most common type of rocks within earth d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Obsidian a. is volcanic glass b. possesses conchoidal fracture c. typically is felsic in composition d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Pahoehoe a. forms when basaltic lava flows cease flowing and solidify simultaneously b. has a smoother texture than aa c. is easier to walk on than aa is d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Whether an eruption will primarily produce lava flows or pyroclastic debris is influenced by a. the viscosity of the lava b. the composition of the lava c. the proportion of volatiles within the lava d. all of the above
d. all of the above
The formation of magma within earth is not caused by which of the following processes? a. decompression b. addition of volatiles c. transfer of heat from adjacent magma or very hot rocks d. loss of volatiles to the atmosphere
d. loss of volatiles to the atmosphere
Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of ____________. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. hot spots c. volatiles d. pyroclastic debris
d. pyroclastic debris
The greatest hazard to human life associated with volcanoes is a. flowing lava b. volcanic gas c. falling ash d. pyroclastic flows
d. pyroclastic flows
Coarse grained granite is most similar in mineral composition to fine grained a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite
d. rhyolite
Coarse-grained granite is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________. a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite
d. rhyolite
A dike is a (an) ____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
The hot spot track associated with the Hawaiian Islands and Emperor Seamounts a. shows that the Pacific plate has been stationary of the last 30 million years b. occurs along a divergent plate boundary c. occurs along a convergent plate boundary d. shows that the Pacific Plate has been moving northwest for the last 30 million years
d. shows that the Pacific Plate has been moving northwest for the last 30 million years
In regard to the cooling of molten rock, a __________ volume and a __________ shape cools faster. a. larger; spherical b. larger; pancake c. smaller; spherical d. smaller; pancake
d. smaller; pancake
As compared to mafic igneous rocks, all felsic igneous rocks ____________. a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temperatures d. solidify at lower temperatures
d. solidify at lower temperatures
As compared to mafic igneous rocks, all felsic igneous rocks a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temps d. solidify at lower temps
d. solidify at lower temps
Pillow lavas are associated with a. continental rhyolitic eruptions b. continental basaltic eruptions c. submarine rhyolitic eruptions d. submarine basaltic eruptions
d. submarine basaltic eruptions
lahar
debris flows on the slopes of volcanoes that result when unstable layers of ash and debris become saturated and flow down slope, usually flowing stream channels
The angle between the direction that a compass needle points and a line of longitude at a given location is the magnetic
declination
If a P wave were to go from a solid to a liquid - what would happen to its velocity?
decrease
If only density increases with increasing depth within the Earth, the velocity of a P wave should
decrease
If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will
decrease
If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will ____________.
decrease
If an S wave were to go from a solid to a liquid - what would happen to its velocity?
decrease to 0.0
If the pressure increases, what happens to the melting point of ice?
decreases
What happens to the boiling point of water as the pressure decreases?
decreases
Diagenesis requires
deep burial warm groundwater high temperatures and pressures All of the above are correct.
In which of the following sedimentary environments would you least expect to find gravel?
deep marine
Where does chert form?
deep oceans where sediment accumulates very slowly because they are isolated from continents
Mercalli intensity scale
defines the intensity of an earthquake by the amount of damage it causes—that is, by its destructiveness
Which of the following environments is an example of a shoreline/transitional environment?
deltaic
Which of the following sedimentary environments is dominated by waves and tidal currents?
deltaic
Topset, foreset, and bottomset beds are indicative of
deltas
As compared to continental crust, the rocks that make up oceanic crust are
denser
As compared to continental crust, the rocks that make up oceanic crust are ____________.
denser
Felsic
describes magma or igneous rock that is rich in feldspars and silica and that is generally light in color
Mafic
describes magma or igneous rock that is rich in magnesium and iron and that is generally dark in color
Normal faults assume a more shallow dip angle with depth; when the fault plane becomes nearly horizontal, these faults are termed
detachments
What effect would plants have on a sand dune environment?
deter sand movement
reverse faults or thrust faults
develop in response to squeezing (compression) and shortening of the crust
The hardest mineral is __________.
diamond
What is the hardest mineral?
diamond
Which of the following is not a reason why calcite and halite both have the same number of cleavage planes (3), but at different angles
different conditions of formation
If you look at our granite kitchen counter what does each different-colored particle represent?
different mineral crystals
How is Bowen's Reaction Series used to predict the order in which different minerals melt?
different minerals form at different temps. The solid minerals left behind may interact with new minerals, and create a new one.
A vertical magma intrusion that spreads apart the country rock is
dike
7. The intrusive compositional equivalent of andesite is ____________.
diorite
The intrusive compositional equivalent of andesite is
diorite
Normal, reverse, and thrust are all examples of ____________ faults. a. dip-slip b. strike-slip c. oblique-slip
dip-slip
Where is the focus with respect to the epicenter?
directly below the epicenter
The apparent polar-wander paths for continents that were not connected over some span of geologic history will likely ____________ concerning the positions of the ancient magnetic pole.
disagree
Under the theory of plate tectonics, the plates themselves are
discrete pieces of lithosphere at the surface of the solid earth that move with respect to one another
under the theory of plate tectonics, the plates themselves are
discrete pieces of lithosphere at the surface of the solid earth that move with respect to one another
Chemical weathering in which water bonds with, and removes, ions from crystal faces is termed
dissolution
decomposition of minerals by organic acids is ____ weathering
dissolution
weathering through decomposition by rxn with water ___ weathering
dissolution
Wave
disturbance that transmits energy from one point to another by causing periodic motions.
Deep oceanic trenches are features of plate boundaries
divergent
Iceland is one of the few places in the world that is both above sea level and situated atop a ____ plate boundary
divergent
mid ocean ridges are
divergent
mid-ocean ridges are _____ plate boundaries
divergent
The boundary between watersheds is called the drainage
divide
Rhyolitic lavas ____________.
do not flow as far from the vent as basaltic lavas do
Natural glass is NOT considered a mineral because it
does not have a fixed crystalline structure
Natural glass is not considered a mineral because it ____________.
does not have fixed crystalline structure
When limestone becomes chemically altered so that half of the calcium atoms are replaced by magnesium, the resultant rock is termed
dolostone
A fold shaped like an upside-down bowl is a
dome
A fold shaped like an upside-down bowl is a(n)
dome
the apparent polar-wander path obtained from magnetite crystals in besalts on the north american continent is now interpreted to be the result of
drifting of the north american continent
A body of rock under high pressure is more likely to exhibit ____________ than is a body of rock at low pressure. a. brittle behavior b. ductile behavior
ductile behavior
crystal settling
during the crystallization of magma, the earlier formed minerals are denser than the liquid portion and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber
Which type of metamorphism affects the greatest volumes of rock?
dynamothermal metamorphism
2 The main effect that the Earth's magnetic field has on the Earth's habitability is___
e, both a and c are correct, a. solar wind, cosmic rays
transform plate have
earthquakes common, volcanoes absent
A mineral that has a rough crumbly surface is said to have an?
earthy luster
Nonviolent eruptions characterized by extensive flows of basaltic lava are termed ____________.
effusive
Chemical reactions triggered by _______ transform organic material into hydrocarbons.
elevated temperatures
Point B is called the earthquake
epicenter
Differential stress will cause crystals to align in a preferred orientation unless the crystals are
equant
At high altitude within the troposphere, the global pattern of air flow is from the
equator to the horse latitudes
Which of the following processes is not an important cause of subsidence during the development of a sedimentary basin?
erosion of sediments
Pillow basalts attain their distinctive blob-like shapes because their parent lavas do not travel far prior to solidification. This is because the parent lavas ____________.
erupt underwater and thus cool very quickly
The form of large, well developed crystals is termed________.
euhedral
How often do magnitude 8 earthquakes occur?
every 5-10 years
Gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites, which are igneous rocks that are ____________.
exceptionally coarse grained
gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites which are igneous rocks that are
exceptionally coarse-grained
What type of jointing is shown in this picture of a Granite outcrop?
exfoliation
In agreement with the Big Bang theory, our Universe is
expanding
Phreatomagmatic eruptions are ____________.
explosive (pyroclastic)
Plinian Eruptions
explosive intermediate volcanism can produce ash fallout, pyroclastic surges, pyroclastic flows and block and ash flows
Consult the figure below. If you found tuff deposits at an ___________ igneous setting, you could conclude
extrusive; high
If you found tuff deposits at an ___________ igneous setting, you could conclude that the lava had a ___________ viscosity
extrusive; high
60 Contour lines on a topographic map that are close together indicate flat terrane
f- False
The diamonds we see today do not display their natural crystal faces, but rather ____________, a typical engagement ring bearing 57 of them.
facets
Asbestos a mineral
fale
A single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures.
false
All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust. FALSE
false
All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust.
false
All minerals are chemical compounds (composed of more than one element).
false
All minerals are held together by ionic bonds.
false
All of the Earth's internal heat was acquired very early in its history through meteoric impact and differentiation of the core. The Earth's interior loses heat to space but does not currently receive heat through any known process.
false
All portions of the mid-ocean ridge system have a well-defined axial trough (central rift)
false
All volcanic eruptions pass through the crater at the volcanic summit.
false
Before the discovery of coal, humans did not produce or consume energy
false
Diamond and graphite are both polymorphs of pure silicon.
false
In a hot-spot volcanic island chain, such as the Hawaiian Islands, all islands possess active volcanoes simultaneously and therefore the risks of volcanic hazards are about the same for all islands
false
It is rare for mineral crystals to display any sort of symmetry (invariance of pattern with respect to a transformation, such as rotation or mirror-image reflection)
false
Metamorphism brings changes in mineral arrangement and the texture of rocks, but it never leads to new mineral assemblages.
false
Nearly all of the present mountain ranges are the products of single orogenic events. a. false b. true
false
One of the reasons volcanic eruptions are so deadly is that there is no way to predict where an eruption will occur in the near future.
false
Rocks are always made up of minerals
false
Sedimentary deposition is a continuous process: rivers, lakes, and the ocean deposit sediments nonstop at a fairly constant rate.
false
Similar sediment and depositional thickness can be found in all sedimentary basins.
false
Sliding motion along transform faults caused the segments of the mid-ocean ridges to become dislocated with respect to one another.
false
Tectonic foliation, such as elongation of quartz grains, always occurs parallel to the original bedding plane of a body of rock. a. false b. true
false
That the Earth is a sphereoid is a relatively new discovery, not widely accepted until the 15th Century when it was confirmed by Columbus's voyage.
false
The Earth's mantle is made up mostly of melted peridotite.
false
The eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 was the greatest explosive eruption in the last two hundred years of world data.
false
Until Columbus's voyage in 1492, most scientists thought the Earth was much smaller than it actually is
false
Within a platform, sedimentary rocks always have a horizontal orientation. a. true b. false
false
a single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures. true or false?
false
diamond and graphite are both polymorphs of pure silicon. true or false?
false
Most minerals and rocks on Earth are classified as _____ based on their elemental composition.
family, group, silicate?
As compared to warm fronts, cold fronts move
faster
A fracture in the crust, where rocks slide past one another, is termed a ________.
fault
Point C is called the
fault scarp
The distinction between joints and faults is that
faults are fractures along which displacement has occurred; displacement does not occur along joints
The most abundant mineral group in Earth's crust is
feldspar
felsic mineral
feldspar muscovite quartz
Magma that is high in silica, Na, and K; and low in Fe, Mg, and Ca, is said to have what composition?
felsic
Which type of magma has the greatest silica content a. felsic b. intermediate c. mafic d. ultramafic
felsic
Which type of magma has the greatest silica content?
felsic
Fe3+ refers to ________.
ferric iron
How old is the universe?
fifteen billion years old
Which of the following types of sediments are most abundant?
fine clastics
The smoky cloud that rises from the vent of an actively erupting volcano is composed of ____________.
fine volcaniclastic debris (ash) suspended in the air
Nuclear energy is derived by ___________.
fission of atoms of U 235
On average, continental crust is approximately ____________ as oceanic crust
five times as thick
at continental rifts, vast bodies of basaltic lava flow forth from fissures forming
flood basalt
At continental rifts, vast bodies of basaltic lava flow forth from fissures, forming ____________.
flood basalts
Define Lahars
floods of mud and muddy water produced during and after an explosive eruption
flood basalt
flows of basaltic lava that issue from numerous cracks or fissures and commonly cover extensive areas with thickness of hundreds of meters
Point A, where slip initiated during the earthquake, is called the
focus
The point where movement occurred which triggered the earthquake is the
focus
Slaty cleavage, schistosity, and compositional banding are all examples of
foliation
In metamorphic rocks, alternating bands of minerals with differing compositions and/or grain fabrics are termed
foliations
Which of the following statements regarding the nuclear accident at Chernobyl in the Ukraine in 1986 is false?
food supplies in many countries had to be purified in order to be consumed
Normal faults
form in response to stretching or extension of the crust
*Crystallizing
form or cause to form crystals. (Sometimes cooling of magma)
As compared to subaerial basaltic lavas, submarine basaltic lavas differ in that they ____________.
form pillow-like mounds because they cannot flow as far from their source
Strike-slip faults
form where one block of crust slides past another laterally; have near-vertical planes on which slip occurs parallel to an imaginary horizontal line, called a strike line, on the fault plane. No up or down motion takes place here
Igneous Rocks
formed when magma or lava cools and crystalizes and when pyroclastic materials become consolidated.
Relative ages expressed on the geologic time scale primarily resulted from the study of _____.
fossil content and spatial relationships among sedimentary rocks
Energy resources derived from natural organic materials are called ________.
fossil fuels
halite
found in most kitchens
How many oxygen ions are involved in the formation of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron?
four
Minerals that do not possess cleavage are said to possess
fracture
Minerals which do not possess cleavage are said to possess ____________.
fracture
The way in which a minerals crystalline structure or the bonds formed between the atoms in the crystals will determine how a mineral will?
fracture
minerals that do not possess cleavage are said to possess
fracture
How a mineral breaks is how it?
fractures
The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure?
framework
In which type of silicate are the greatest proportion of oxygen atoms shared by pairs of adjacent tetrahedra?
framework silicates
The intrusive compositional equivalent of basalt is
gabbro
oceanic crust
gabbro and basalt
beneath a blanket of sediments, oceanic crust is primarily composed of two rocks
gabbro and besalt
Which list of igneous rocks is in order of increasing silica content?
gabbro, andesite, rhyolite (Mafic igneous rocks such as basalt (effusive) and gabrro (intrusive) have the lowest silica (50%) and most iron/magnesium. Intermediate rocks like andesite (extrusive) and diorite (intrusive) have more silica (60%) and a more even mix of Fe/Mg/Ca and Na/K. Felsic rocks like rhyolite (effusive) and granite (intrusive) have the most silica, the least Fe, Mg, and Ca, and the most Na and K.)
Beneath a blanket of sediments, oceanic crust is primarily composed of two rocks, ____________ and ____________.
gabbro; basalt
volaties
gaseous components of magma dissolved in the melt volatiles will readily vaporize (form gas) at surface pressures
Luster refers to its?
general appearance of the mineral, or how shiny it is
The velocities of seismic waves traveling from earthquake foci
generally increase with depth, occasionally making abrupt jumps termed seismicvelocity discontinuities.
hat type of energy is derived from heated groundwater?
geothermal energy
In which of the following sedimentary environments would you expect the sand deposits to be poorly sorted?
glacial
Which of the following sedimentary environments is characterized by sand, gravel and mud?
glacial
Glass is not a mineral because
glass lacks an internal atomic structure
Vesicles are a term used to describe a texture in __________ igneous rocks.
glassy
Pyrite (fool's gold) is identified by its?
golden color
Clastic sedimentary rocks are primarily classified on the basis of
grain size
What does the rate of cooling (of rock) effect?
grain size
Give an example of a coarse grained igneous rock
granite
The intrusive compositional equivalent of rhyolite is __________.
granite
Order the following igneous rocks by their relative silica content
granite: 70% andesite: 52%-63% peridotite: < 45% basalt 45%-52%
As compared to ultramafic rocks, mafic rocks have a
greater proportion of silica
Consult the figure below. Compared to low-grade metamorphic rocks, high-grade rocks
greater temperature and pressure
Pyroclstaic Flows
ground hugging avalanche of hot tephra, rock fragments, and volcanic gasses that rushes down the side of the volcano. 500 degrees C
minerals classified
grouped by chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula
Volcanoes that have submerged beneath the surface of the sea are termed
guyots
volcanoes that have submerged beneath the surface of the sea are termed
guyots
The ideal shape of a mineral's crystal face is termed its crystal
habit
The ideal shape of a mineral's crystal face is termed its crystal ______________ .
habit
Which of the following minerals is most susceptible to chemical weathering?
halite
Which of the following rocks is deposited only by non-biological, chemical precipitation ?
halite
weathering fastest to slowest
halite, olivine, feldspar, quartz
In the Mohs hardness scale the higher the number the ?
harder the mineral
The resistance of a mineral to scratching tells us the minerals?
harness
Wegener's idea of continental drift was rejected by American geologists because
he could not conceive of a valid mechanism that would cause continents to shift positions
Wegners idea rejected
he could not concieve of valid mechanism that would cause continents to shift postions
The region of space that contains the material of our solar system is termed the
heliosphere
contains solar system
heliosphere
Which of the following minerals is most stable at the Earth's surface?
hematite
The Crystal shape and atomic structure of the minerals galena (see figure above) and halite are related by which of the following
hey have the same structure, but by different elements
extrusive
high
What are the characteristics of extrusive rock?
high cooling rate, small crystals, fine-grained texture
Minerals with higher atomic masses have?
higher densities
What's the name of the non-foliated metamorphic rock that results from contact metamorphism?
hornfels
In which of he following climates will chemical weathering be most rapid?
hot and humid
Lava
hot molten or semifluid rock erupted from a volcano or fissure, or solid rock resulting from cooling of this.
Hot spots are caused by
hot plumes of mantle material that rises up through cooler, denser surrounding rock
The Hawaiian island chain is an example of a
hot spot island chain
The Hawaiian island chain is an example of a(n) ____________.
hot spot island chain
The Hawaiian island chain is an example of a(n) ____________.
hot-spot island chain
What is the fracture of a mineral?
how a mineral breaks
Rock typically found in extremely humid environments that is heavily decomposed by chemical weathering is called
humus
Chemical weathering in which water bonds with, and removes, ions from crystal faces is termed
hydration?
2 type polarity bonds
hydrogen bonds; van der Waals bonds
The characteristic 'rotten egg' smell of many active volcanoes is derived from ____________.
hydrogen sulfide gas
Chemical weathering in which water breaks apart bonds in silicate minerals to produce clay is termed
hydrolysis
The point within Earth where an earthquake takes place is termed the
hypocenter (focus)
Which transport medium carries the largest particles
ice
Some minerals have unusual properties that help?
identify them
Decompression melting
if the pressure affecting hot rock decreases while the temperature stays the same, a magma forms; Melting that occurs as rock ascend due to a drop in confining pressure.
A body of gneiss is subjected to heat and forms a melt. Later the melt cools and crystallizes to form a(n)
igneous rock
A body of gnelss is subjected to heat and forms a melt. Later the melt cools and crystallizes to form a(n)
igneous rock
Porphyry
igneous rock with large crystals (PHENOCRYSTS) set in a matrix of fine-grained crystals (GROUNDMASS)
glassy texture
igneous rocks that contain no crystals, such as obsidian
plutonic
igneous rocks that form at depth, after the god of the lower world in classical mythology
intrusive
igneous rocks that formed below the Earth's surface
Any rock formed from a pyroclastic or ash flow is called an __________________.
ignimbrite
The lithification of material from a pyroclastic flow forms a rock called ___________.
ignimbrite
the lithification of material from pyroclastic flow forms a rock called
ignimbrite
What is the general name for a rock formed from a pyroclastic flow deposit?
ignimbrite?
Siliceous environments, named for the silica-rich shells deposited in them, occur ________.
in a deep-sea environment
Thermal (contact) metamorphism occurs
in areas surrounding igneous intrusions
One expects talus cones to be most abundant in areas
in high mountains that have many days of sub-freezing temperatures
Which of the following statements is true? a) in the US oil production is greater than oil consumption b) in the US oil production equals oil consumption c) in the US oil production is less than oil consumption
in the US oil production is less than oil consumption
nuee ardente
incandescent volcanic debris buoyed up by hot gases that moves down-slope in an avalanche fashion
angle between mag field line and surface of earth
inclination
If a body of magma becomes more felsic, its viscosity will ____________.
increase
As a rock breaks into smaller pieces, the surface area to volume ratio ______ .
increases
The age of oceanic crust ____________ with increasing distance from a mid-ocean ridge
increases
The age of oceanic crust ____________ with increasing distance from a mid-ocean ridge.
increases
With increasing travel time the difference in arrival times between the P and the S waves
increases
the age of oceanic crust _____ with increasing distance from mid-ocean ridges
increases
water can be heated to higher temperatures by
increasing the pressure
Why such thick flows?
intermediate flows very viscous
A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, New Mexico, is a(n)
intrusion formed within the magma chamber of volcano
A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, New Mexico, is a(n) ____________.
intrusion formed within the magma chamber of volcano
When magma crystallizes, ____________ are formed.
intrusive igneous rocks
The atoms of most rock-forming minerals are held together by______chemical bonds.
ionic
The atoms of most rock-forming minerals are held together by___covalent___chemical bonds.
ionic
What kind of bond is formed when sodium and chloride combine to form halite?
ionic
The difference between ionic and covalent bonds is
ionic bonds are when atoms are attracted electrostatically due to positive and negative charges, whereas covalent bonds are when atoms share the same electron(s)
The range in chemical composition in a mineral typically results from
ionic substitution.
In the whole Earth, the four most common elements are oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and
iron
What mineral is integral to paleomagnestim?
iron
Which of the three most commonly used metals must be smelted from its ore minerals in the presence of carbon monoxide gas (from the burning of carbon-based charcoal)?
iron
Unlike the lithosphere, the asthenosphere ________.
is able to flow over long periods of time
At a subduction zone, the downgoing (subducting) plate
is always composed of oceanic lithosphere
Regional metamorphism __
is another name for dynamothermal metamorphism
Unlike physically precipitated chert, biochemical chert
is bedded
The Moho
is found deeper underneath continents than under oceans
Most terrestrial volcanic glass ____________.
is highly silicic in composition
thickness oceanic lithosphere
is least near mid-ocean ridges and thickens away from the ridges
Continental lithosphere
is thicker than oceanic lithosphere
The lithosphere of Earth can be bent and broken, but will not flow because it
is too cool
Why does the density of a mineral vary?
it depends on what elements the mineral contain
natural glass is not considered a mineral because it
it does not have a fixed crystalline structure
When liquid water freezes
it expands by 9% in volume
Within a single mountain range, ____________.
it is possible to find a variety of metamorphic rocks produced in distinct facies, including high, low, and intermediate grade rocks
What does transport do?
it makes rocks smaller and round
Define composition of sedimentary rock
it's mineral content
The density of a mineral depends on what?
its chemical composition
Each mineral has a characteristic set of properties that results from what?
its chemical composition and crystal structure
Define texture of sedimentary rock
its grain size, sorting, and the degree of rounding (angularity) experienced by individual grains
The most recently formed portion of any crystal is always found on
its outer edges
magnetic field Earth geologic past
known to have been constant through geologic time, due to remnant magnetization of iron-rich minerals in rocks
the magnetic field of earth in the geologic past is
known to have experienced numerous polarity reversals, due to remnant magnetization of iron-rich minerals in rocks
A fast moving flow consisting of a mixture of water and volcaniclastic debris is termed a ____________.
lahar
A fast-moving flow consisting of a mixture of water and volcaniclastic debris is termed a ____________.
lahar
What would you call a particle blown out of a volcano if it ranges in size from 2 to 64 mm?
lapilli
Define volcanic bombs
largely molten rocks that are thrown from volcanoes during an eruption
If the interior of the Earth was mostly liquid instead of solid, tides would be
larger than they are
tropical soil
laterite
The distinct, three-d arrangement of atoms within a mineral is called the crytal
lattice
The distinct, three-dimensional arrangement of atoms within a mineral is called the crystal ________.
lattice
Silicate liquids that flow out at the Earth's surface or seabed are called _________.
lava
Eruption of rhyolite magma tends to produce
lava domes (rhyolite magma is high in viscosity (meaning it is thick and pasty) by virtue of its high silica content and low temperature (compared to basalt). The high viscosity of rhyolite prevents it from flowing away from the vent where it is erupted. Instead, rhyolite piles up are the vent forming a steep, dome shaped structure - a lava dome. Meanwhile, shield volcanoes and cinder cones are associated with eruptions of low viscosity basalt, either effusively when little gas is present (shield) or a foamy or frothy manner when large amounts of gas are present (cinder cones). Intermediate viscosity andesite produces composite volcanoes that erupt both explosively (when the magma is gas charged) and effusively (after the magma has de-gassed).)
Extrusive igneous rocks form from the crystallization and consolidation of _________ or the eruption and accumulation of _____________ material.
lava, pyroclastic
Geologically, melts are equivalent to both ____________ and ____________.
lavas and magmas
for the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is _____ variable than the color in hand sample
less
A mineral that has a lighter mass is?
less dense
ash
less than 2mm
For the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is
less variable than the color in a hand sample among crystals
For the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is
less variable than the color in hand sample among crystals
For the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is ____________.
less variable than the color in hand sample among crystals
Define Pumice
light enough to float on water, is formed when gas escapes from melt that has felsic composition
So the less dense a mineral the ?
lighter mass it has
The metallic content of Earth's core is
likely similar to what has been found in metallic meteorites partly liquid and partly solid an iron alloy (mostly iron with a few other elements mixed in) All of the above are correct.
Caves are most lively to form in which of the following rock types?
limestone
Sinkholes are a concern primarily for residents whose dwellings are constructed atop
limestone
What biochemical sedimentary rock is composed of lithified calcium carbonate shells deposited in shallow, warm ocean water?
limestone
What is the most abundant biochemical precipitate in the oceans?
limestone
What is the most common sedimentary rock?
limestone
____________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of marble
limestone
Melt
liquid portion of magma
A sandstone with abundant rock fragments and clay minerals is a(n) ______ .
litharenite
Compaction and cementation of grains occurs during
lithification
tuff
lithified
Tectonic plates of rigid and brittle __________ move over a softer and ductile ___________ below.
lithosphere; asthenosphere
What does it mean to say that a mineral is inorganic?
living things did not produce the minerals.
What causes the formation of an alluvial fan?
load capacity decreased velocity friction All of the above are correct.
In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form
long one-dimensional chains massive three-dimensional frameworks extensive two-dimensional sheets All of the above are correct.
The formation of magma within Earth is NOT caused by which of the following processes?
loss of volatiles to the atmosphere
The formation of magma within Earth is not caused by which of the following processes?
loss of volatiles to the atmosphere
What are the characteristics of intrusive rock?
low cooling rate, relatively large crystals, coarse-grained texture
Minerals with lower atomic masses have?
lower densities
A minerals appearance or how shiny it is is referred to its?
luster
The shininess of a mineral is a helpful diagnostic property termed
luster
The terms metallic, earthy, dull, glassy, silky, pearly, resinous, or brilliant are used to describe a minerals
luster
The way in which a mineral reflects light is called its?
luster
The way that the surface of a mineral reflects light is called?
luster
the shininess of a mineral is a helpful diagnostic property termed
luster
Eruptive Columns
made of volcanic ash and small lapilli that are shot into the air at high velocity and form a cloud over the volcano
A majority of the melts in the Earth form through the partial melting of ultramafic mantle rock. These newly-formed magmas are ____________.
mafic
An oceanic hot spot volcano is most likely to produce _____ lava in terms of relative silica composition.
mafic
An oceanic hot spot volcano is most likely to produce______lava in terms of relative silica composition.
mafic
Intrusive igneous rocks form from the crystallization and consolidation of _________.
magma
Silicate liquids existing beneath the Earth's surface are called
magma
Lava
magma erupted at surface
The difference between lava and magma is that ____________.
magma is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface
marine magnetic anomalies result from sea-floor spreading in conjunction with
magnetic polarity reversals
Name some unusual properties of minerals?
magnetite is strongly attracted to a magnet, fluorite glows under an ultraviolet light, Quartz and tourmaline become electrically charged when heated and cooled that is why quartz are used in electronic equipment like watches, Iceland Spar you can see double images when you look through it so this property is useful in certain optical instruments
The maximum amplitude of ground motion recorded by seismograph and the distance from the epicenter provide a measure of the Earthquake's ______ such as its number on the Richter Scale.
magnitude
Which boundary marks a change from 100% solid to 100% liquid?
mantle ... outer core
Volcanoes that do not occur along either present or emergent plate boundaries are associated with ____________.
mantle hot spots
Swamps, channels, floodplains, and submarine slopes all play a role in the development of
marine deltas
MORs
marine magnetic anomaly belts run parallel to
Density is the ratio of________to________.
mass to volume
Groundmass
matrix of similar crystals , the matrix of fine-grained crystalline material in which larger crystals are embedded
At a subduction zone, the overriding plate
may be composed of either oceanic or continental lithosphere
The protolith subjected to metamorphism
may belong to any of the three primary rock types
What is the meaning of inorganic?
means not living
Bathymetry
measuring the depths of the oceans
decompression melting
melting that occurs as rock acsends due to the drop in confining pressure
What is the name of the atmospheric layer above the stratosphere, in which temperature decreases with altitude?
mesosphere
How would you describe the luster of galena, pyrite, silver, and gold?
metallic
What kind of a bond is represented in an aggregate of copper atoms?
metallic
What's the luster of galena, pyrite, silver, and gold?
metallic
Both Galena and Pyrite have what kind of luster?
metallic luster but different colors
What are some descriptions of luster?
metallic, earthy, dull, glassy(vitreous), silky, pearly, greasy , resinous, or brilliant
A buried body of shale is subjected to differential stress, causing clay minerals to realign and produce slate; this is an example of
metamorphism
Which of the following processes does not occur during diagenesis?
metamorphism
Net chemical change in metamorphic rock induced by reaction with hot groundwater is termed
metamotism
Stony Achondrites
meteorites from small planetary bodies that ha differentiated into layers and then were broken up
Iron Meteorites
meteorites the type of material found in Earth's core
Stony Chondrites
meteorites thought to represent material from small planetary bodies that had differentiated into layers and then were broken up
Cleavage is most conspicuous in
mica
Which of the following minerals would be most likely to form a clay mineral during chemical weathering?
mica
What type of plate boundary would you expect decompression melting to occur? What magma composition is produced within this environment?
mid ocean ridge Basalt magma
Consult the figure below. Most of the pushing force driving plate motion is produced
mid ocean ridges
marine magnetic anomaly belts run parallel to
mid-ocean ridges
Most of the pushing force driving plate motion is produced ________.
mid-oceanic ridges
The highest grade peltic metamorphic rock that shows signs of partial melt is called ______.
migmatite
highest grade peltic metamorphic rock
migmatite
Chemical and biochemical rocks are classified primarily on the basis of
mineral composition
What two things does the composition of a rock refer to?
mineral content of a rock and the chemical content of a rock
specific gravity
mineral property defined by the density of the mineral sample divided by the density of water
What are the building blocks of rocks?
minerals
The main difference between minerals and rocks is
minerals are composed of atoms bonded together, whereas rocks are generally composed of aggregates of minerals
Silicates
minerals that contain silicon and oxygen bonded together
Dense Oxides
minerals that form deep in earth's mantle due to the enormous pressures
Due to fractional crystallization and assimilation of surrounding host rock, most magmas that rise slowly through the crust chemically evolve to become ____________.
more felsic
When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is
more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted
When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is ____________.
more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted
If a body of igneous (source) rock is subjected to partial melting, the magma that is produced is expected to be
more felsic than the source rock
If a body of igneous (source) rock is subjected to partial melting, the magma that is produced is expected to be ____________.
more felsic than the source rock
If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be
more mafic than the magma
If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be ____________.
more mafic than the magma
Evidence Late Paleozic
more readily accept Wegners Pangea than modern continental config
What are the characterizations of stratovolcanoes?
more viscous, extreme violence, more steam, formed from a mixture of lava and pyroclastic debris, local lava source, erupt different types of melt over thousands of years
on outer edges
most recently formed portion of any crystal is always found
Which of the following minerals is most susceptible to chemical weathering?
most to least susceptible: halite, potassium feldspar, olivine, quarts
at a convergent plate boundary, two opposed plates
move toward one another
Magma tends to
move upward, away from where it formed
if we mentally align the continents to fit wegeners concept of pangaea, evidence of late paleozoic glacial deposits is
much more readily explained than in the modern continental configuration
Lahar
mudflow with volcanic origin density of wet concrete usually cold
Which of the following groups represent the most abundant sedimentary rocks?
mudstones and shales
The single property that can be used to identify any mineral is ____________.
multiple properties must be used to diagnose a mineral
shear stress at sufficient depth within a fault plane can induce ductile shear, forming fine-grained metamorphic rock named
mylonite
Burning of which of the following fuels produces the least amount of carbon dioxide per unit of energy?
natural gas
Layer X is most likely to be reservoir rock containing _______ in the pore space.
natural gas
In an oil trap formed by an anticline, ________ accumulates on top, _____ in the middle, and _________ at the bottom.
natural gas, oil, groundwater
An anion carries a _____ charge.
negative
Presently, Earth's atmosphere is dominated by which two gases?
nitrogen & oxygen
Presently, Earth's atmosphere is dominated by which two gases?
nitrogen and oxygen
Can a softer mineral scratch a harder mineral?
no
Is coal an inorganic material?
no coal is not inorganic because it was created from plant remains which was once a living thing
Is the color of a mineral's streak the same color as the mineral itself?
no not always
Is brick and concrete an inorganic material?
no they are human made and are made from natural materals
picture
none of the above; multiple properties must be used to diagnose a mineral
Burial metamorphism produces
nonfoliated rocks only
Burial metamorphism produces ____________
nonfoliated rocks only
Thermal (contact) metamorphism produces
nonfoliated rocks only
How would you describe the luster of calcite, K-feldspar, and plagioclase?
nonmetallic
positive
normal
regions of the sea floor with positive magnetic anomalies were formed during times when earths magnetic field had _____ polarity
normal
When the hanging wall slips down the slope of the fault
normal fault
Earthquakes can occur with _________ faulting.
normal, reverse, or thrust
A continental volcanic arc occurs at ______.
not Hawaii
the lithosphere is rising under Canada due to
not buoyancy
The geothermal gradient is largest in the
not mantle or outer core
The________ is the location within the crust where slip along a fault releases seismic energy.
not subduction zone. Wadati-Benioff zone?
natural gas a) consists of longer carbon chains as compared to oil b) is denser than oil c) is produced at higher temperatures than oil d) is produced at higher temperatures than graphite
not: A answer: b or c
Which layer of the atmosphere is chemically stratified, with the lightest molecules riding above heavier molecules?
not: troposphere
A paleomagnetic record from one location shows increasing inclination with time. This indicates:
nothing
Isotopes of an element differ by
number of neutrons
The atomic number and atomic weight of an atom are determined by which of the following, respectively?
number of protons, number of protons plus neutrons
luster streak B. the color of a mineral in its powdered form B. the color of a mineral in its powdered form 11.3 Incorrect cleavage C. the non-planar manner in which a mineral breaks A. the tendency of a mineral to break along smooth planar surfaces 11.4 Incorrect fracture A. the tendency of a mineral to break along smooth planar surfaces
D. appearance or quality of reflected light from the surface of a mineral
stravo volcano
"composite cone"
Which of the following minerals belong to the sulfide group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Halite (NaCl) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH)) (E) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
(A) pyrite FeS2
Which of the following minerals are built from the independent silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)
(A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4)
Which of the following minerals are built from the single chain silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)
(B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6)
Which of the following minerals are built from the double chain silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)
(C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2)
Which of the following minerals belong to the carbonate group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Halite (NaCl) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH)) (E) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
(C) Calcite (CaCO3)
What is the formula for plagioclase?
(Ca,Na)(Al,Si)AlSi2O8
Which of the following minerals belong to the phosphate group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Halite (NaCl) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH)) (E) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
(D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH))
Which of the following minerals are built from the sheet silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)
(D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Which of the following minerals are built from the framework silicate structure? (A)Olivine ((Mg, Fe)2SiO4) (B) Pyroxene ((Mg, Fe)Si2O6) (C) Amphibole (NaCa2(Mg, Fe, Al)5(Si, Al)9)O22(OH)2) (D)Biotite (K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 (E) Quartz (SiO2)
(E) Quartz (SiO2)
Geological Time Scale- Numerical dating
(same as absolute) Obtained the numbers because of radiometric dating-date are obtained from the natural rates of decay of various radiometric elements.
Original continuity
--_____-- ---___--- --------- Once continuity but something eroded it like a river. Sediment extends laterally in all directions until it thins and pinches out against a depositional basin.
Pyroclastic Flows
-200oC - 450oC avalanches of hot ash that race downslope. -Moving up to 300 kph, they incinerate all in their path. -Immediately deadly; they kill everything quickly. -Many famous examples: Vesuvius, Mt. Pelée (1902), Augustine (1986).
3 components of magma
-Liquid portion is called melt -Solids, if any, are mainly silicate minerals that crystallized from the melt -Volatiles are dissolved gases in the melt, including water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Diorite
-Plutonic equivalent of andesite -Coarse grained
Hot-spot volcanoes ____________.
-can arise from the ocean floor -can arise on continents -may arise in the interior of lithospheric plates -all of the above
Obsidian ____________.
-is volcanic glass -possesses conchoidal fracture -typically is felsic in composition -all of the above
Magma
-rocks that are hot enough melt to form magma -Parent liquid of igneous rocks -Forms from partial melting of rocks; A body of molten rock found at depth, including any dissolved gases and crystals.
Whether an eruption will primarily produce lava flows or pyroclastic debris is influenced by ____________.
-the viscosity of the lava -the composition of the lava -the proportion of volatiles within the lava -all of the above
Below is a photograph of a piece of rock collected from a solidified lava flow. What kind of texture is displayed? Please write in the blank labels the technical terms for the large creamy colored crystals (A) and the brown areas (B) that are composed of crystals that are too small to detect with just the naked eye.
. porphyritic texture, (A) phenocrysts, (B) matrix
In the following illustration, label (A) points to holes or voids in an extrusive igneous rock. Please place in the blank label the technical term for these holes or voids which were the former sites of gas bubbles.
. vesicles
Continental crust is 5x as thick as oceanic crust
...
Decomposition of minerals by organic acids is an example of _____ weathering
...
How to calculate half lives?
...
Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere
...
copper, bronze, iron
...
discovered during last two centuries
...
framework silicates
...
glossopteris
...
guyots
...
pluton
...
regolith
...
rhyolitic lavas do not flow as far from vent as basaltic lavas
...
salt dome
...
welded tuff
...
Aphanitic texture
..., Rapid cooling at earth's surface results in tiny mineral crystals that can only be seen under a microscope.
Shield rocks & their age?
...Ask TA
crust
.5%mass, granite and basalt,
Carbon dioxide makes up about _______ of the Earth's atmosphere.
0.1%
How many silicon ions are involved in the formation of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron?
1
Since talc is the softest mineral what hardness does it have?
1
The hardness of a mineral is ranked on a scale of ?
1 to 10
tectonic plates move at rates that are approximately
1 to 15 cm/year
plates move at rate
1-15 cm/yr
What are the chemical/mineral physical characteristics of the Earth?
1-Core 2-Mantle 3-Core
What is the rigidity of ht earth based on physical characteristics?
1-Inner Core 2-Outer Core 3-Mesosphere 4-Asthenosphere 5-Lithosphere
What are the steps of decompression melting?
1. The asthenosphere rises 2. The heat content of the rock is enough to allow it to melt
What are the steps of the creation of clastic sedimentary rocks?
1. Transportation - (sorts things by size) the movement of sediment, either as particles or dissolved ions, from the site of weathering, primarily by streams 2. Deposition - (deposits in layers) sediment is deposited in horizontal layers through the process of sedimentation, commonly occurs in the ocean, streams and lakes 3. Burial and lithification - (only occurs when the earth is settling) the sediment is buried in a subsiding sedimentary basin, subjects the sediment to increased pressure and temperatures that cause the sediment to be heated and squeezed into sedimentary rock (the process called lithification)
Know how igneous rocks are classified and named.
1.Texture.-Coarse, Fine, Glassy 2.Chemical Compostion 3.Mineral content -Proportion of light mineral to dark minerals.
Since the diamond is the hardest mineral what hardness does it have?
10
A mid-ocean ridge is spreading at 2 centimeters per year. What's the age of the ocean floor 100 kilometers from the ridge? Enter your answer to the nearest millions of years.
10,000,000
About how many nuclear power plants are there in the US?
100
At the current rate of world use, the remaining oil will be depleted in approximately ______ years
100
What is the approximate temperature of a sediment that is buried to a depth of 3 km?
100 degrees C
Continental crust is typically 35 km thick, but may be up to ____________ thicker under mountain ranges.
100%
what's the average elevation of the Earth's Tropopause to the nearest kilometer above sea level?
12
Hydroelectric energy provides about _______ of the energy consumed annually in the United States.
12%
Describe the crystal structure of the mineral Garnet?
12-sided crystals
inner core
1200 km, 2%
Rounding to the nearest integer, the inner core is times more dense than the crust on average.
13
Researchers have determined that the Universe began expanding subsequent to the Big Bang. When did this event occur
13.7 Ga ago
Age of Universe
14.7 Billion years
What's the Earth's average atmospheric pressure at sea level to nearest pound per square inch?
15
continental lithosphere
150 km
the average thickness of continental lithosphere is about
150 km
The first oil well was drilled in the United States in ________.
1859
Order the following elements by abundance (1 = most, 4 = least) in the Earth's crust:
1=O, 2=Si, 3=Al, 4=Fe
order the clastic sedimentary rocks from largest to smallest grained
1=conglomerate, 2=sandstone, 3=siltstone, 4=shale
Ash is less than ______ mm in size.
2
Describe how magmatic differentiation changes the composition of magma during crystallization.
2 things change at very distinct levels, different rocks are formed from the same magma chambers.
If a 50-year flood occurs on the Mississippi River in 2010, what is the probability that a flood of at the same magnitude will occur in 2011?
2%
Lapilli tuff contains particles ranging from _____ and _____ mm in size.
2, 64
Gypsum can be scratched with your fingernail. Its hardness is less than ________.
2.5
The oldest basalts on the ocean floor are about ____________ years old
200 million
the oldest sediments on the ocean floor are about _____ years old
200 million
How many years does it take for the entire ocean crust to be replaced?
200 million years
oldest sediments on ocean floor
200 million years old
outer core
2300 km, 30%
Since Charles Keeling started measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations in the late the 1950's, the amount of CO2 has increased by about
25%
How many directions of cleavage are indicated in the diagram?
3
How many seismograph stations are needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake?
3
How many kilometers of volcanic rock are produced at ocean ridges every year?
3 kilometers
continental crust
30-70 km
Rounding to the nearest integer, the inner core is ______times more dense than the crust on average.
4
Age of Earth
4.5 Billion years
Of all of the energy produced in the United States, what % is lost in distribution and inefficient use?
40%
A histogram showing percentages of various types of energy used in the United States in 1997 is given above.
40% oil 23% coal 8% nuclear 1% solar
The circumference of Earth is most nearly
40,000 km
In the United States, coal resources should last approximately ______ years at the current rate of use.
400
How old is the Earth dawg?
5 bil yrs old
The Geysers produce enough electricity to meet what portion of the needs of San Francisco?
50%
Andesite Lava
57-63 wt% SiO2 contains minerals plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and hornblende erupts at 1000 degrees C
Describe the crystal structure of quartz crystals?
6-sided crystals
Dacite Lava
63-68 wt % SiO2 contains minerals potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, and biotite mica erupts at 900 degrees C more vicious and volatile than andesite
What is the radius of the Earth to the nearest 100 kilometers?
6400
To the nearest 100 km, the maximum depth of Earthquakes generated by fracturing of a subducting plate is ____ km.
670km?
The thickness of Earth's crust varies from ____________.
7 to 70 km
thickness of earths crust
7-70km
oceanic crust
7km, basalt
Oil, coal and natural gas supply approximately _______ % of the energy used in the United States
90
Approximately what percentage of earthquakes occur at plate boundaries?
90%
What is the porosity of newly deposited mud?
> 50%
Define pyroclastic cloud
A cloud of billowing ash that forms over the pyroclastic flow
Ultramafic
A compositional group of igneous rocks containing mostly olivine and pyroxene.
Felsic/Granitic composition
A compositional group of igneous rocks indicating the rock is composed almost entirely of light-colored silicates.
Intermediate
A compositional group of igneous rocks, indicating that the rock contains at least 25 percent dark silicate minerals. The other dominant mineral is plagioclase feldspar.
Describe decompression melting.
A decrease in pressure, just as a rise in temperature, can melt materials, specifically rocks in this case
Earthquake A has a Richter magnitude of 7 as compared with earthquake B's 6. The amount of ground motion is one measure of earthquake intensity.
A is 10X more intense than B
How to mantle plums and hot spots work together to create volcanoes?
A mantle plume rises from a fixed hot spot in the mantle, the rising plume undergoes decompression as it nears the earth's surface creating a volcano
MINERALS
A mineral has be naturally occurring, is inorganic (made by earth process) is has to be a solid, it has an specific structure. Not from biological process (ex animals) Ice is a mineral.
What is the difference between a "primary" diagnostic property and a "special" property of a mineral?
A primary property is one that all minerals possess, whereas a special property is found in only one or a few minerals.
What was unusual about the 1986 disaster around Lake Nyos in Cameroon?
A slurry of lava and lake water flowed rapidly outward from the lake and buried surrounding villages
glass
A solid in which atoms are not arranged in an orderly pattern
Glassy texture
A term used to describe the texture of certain igneous rocks, such as obsidian, that contain no crystals.
Vesicular texture
A texture common in extrusive igneous rocks - small holes on surface of flow where gas bubbles were trapped due to rapid cooling of lava.; A term applied to aphanitic igneous rocks that contain many small cavaties called vesicles.
Sea Trenches
A trench marks the position at which the flexed, subducting slab begins to descend beneath another lithospheric slab.
Disconformity
A type of unconformity above and below which the strata are parallel.
What makes one mineral different from another that allows us to distinguish them physically?
A unique set of physical properties
Which of the following is true?
A) minerals are the building blocks of rocks B) minerals grow and are destroyed by chemical reactions C) most minerals at Earth's surface are composed of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra D) a mineral species has a specific set of physical properties E) all of the above
Crystallization of a mineral from a liquid solution
A) requires a proper pressure. B) requires a proper concentration of specific atoms or ions. C) occurs by the addition of atoms to a crystal face. D) requires a proper temperature.
Air-fall tuff
Accumulations of ash that fall like snow.
What is another name for Decompression Melting?
Adiabatic melting
Distinctive rock sequences on South America terminate at the Atlantic Ocean but reappear on the continent of
Africa
Which of the following plate boundaries is an example of an advanced stage of continental rifting that is developing into a new ocean basin?
African Plate and Arabian Plate
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of aluminum
Al +3
What is an example of a shield volcano?
Aleutian islands, cascade range
Who came up with continental drift?
Alfred Wegner
normal mag polarity
All basalts younger than 700,000 years old
Pahoehoe ____________.
All of the above
Orogenesis (mountain building) leads to the production of ____________. a. metamorphic rocks only b. igneous rocks only c. sedimentary rocks only d. All of the above are correct
All of the above are correct
____________ may help a geologist recognize a fault. a. Displacement b. Fault scarps c. Breccia d. All of the above are correct
All of the above are correct
Which of the following are a result of planetary differentiation?
All of the above: Light elements rose to form the crust; Heavy elements sank to form the core; Light lithosphere floating on denser asthenosphere
Minerals may form a crystal based upon their atomic structure. What controls the atomic structure in a mineral?
An array of atoms bonded together
Orogeny
An episode of mountain building involving deformation;usually accompanied by igneous activity, metamorphism, and crustal thickening.
What likely environment is implied by the presence of halite or gypsum in a sedimentary rock terrain
An evaporated lake
Porphyritic texture
An igneous rock texture characterized by two distinctively differetn crystal sizes. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts, whereas the matrix of smaller crystals is termed the groundmass.
Angular Unconformity
An unconformity below which strata dip at a steeper angle than those above.
Nonconformity
An unconformity is which stratified sedimentary rocks overlie and erosion surface cut into ingenious or metamorphic rocks.
Andesite
Andesite -Volcanic origin -Aphanitic texture
The closest galaxy to ours is ________________ , which is ___________ million light years away
Andromeda; 2.2
The form of small, poorly developed crystals is termed ________.
Anhedral
The metal alloy that makes up the core of Earth is ____________, as compared to the rocky mantle
Denser
Tephra
Deposits of pyroclastic debris.
Plate Tectonics & Sea Floor Spreadin= Continental drift
Answered the big question of how continents moved!
*Weathering
Any of the chemical or mechanical processes by which rocks exposed to the weather undergo changes in character and break down.
An extrusive igneous rock composed of crystals that are too small to see with the naked eye has a(n) texture.
Aphanitic
An extrusive igneous rock composed of crystals that are too small to see with the naked eye has a(n) texture.
Aphanitic
In addition to the two primary sources, plate motion may also be facilitated by convection occurring within the ________.
Asthenosphere
Number 64
B
Which of the following minerals belong to the halide group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Halite (NaCl) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH)) (E) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
B) Halite (NaCl)
Which of the following minerals belong to the oxide group? (A)Pyrite (FeS2) (B) Hematite (Fe2O3) (C) Calcite (CaCO3) (D)Apatite (Ca5(PO4)(F, Cl, OH))
B) Hematite (Fe2O3)
mafic silicate mineral
B) olivine C) pyroxene D) amphibole
Geological Time Scale- Relative dating
Discovered first!
What leads to explosive eruptions? Step 2
Disruption: magma gets so full of vesicles that it can no longer hold itself together
What makes one mineral different from another that allows us to distinguish them chemically?
Distinct crystal structure controlled by bonding. Distinct pressure and temperature conditions of formation. Distinct chemistry. All of these.
Causes of Pyroclastic Flows
Dome collapse, dome explosion, and column collapse
The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure?
Double Chain
Crystal settling
During the crystallization of magma, the earlier-formed minerals are denser than the liquid portion and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber.
Why does the ratio of Si to O vary from silicate mineral to silicate mineral?
Each tetrahedron bonded to another tetrahedron does so by sharing an O atom, so the more sharing, the lower the ratio of Si-O.
Foucault's experiment with a pendulum proved that
Earth rotates about an internal axis
Earth's interior is hot because
Earth's interior is hot because the process that formed Earth (accretion) generated large amounts of heat. Additional heat has been added through geologic time by radioactive decay of unstable isotopes (heat is a byproduct of the decay process). Molten rock or magma is actually rare in earth's interior - only the outer core is hot enough to be above the melting point for material of that composition under that amount of pressure.
Earth's surface is protected from solar wind and cosmic radiation by
Earth's magnetic field
Atoms that are not neutral are called ions. What happens to change an atom into an ion?
Electrons are either lost or gained in the atom's outermost energy shell
The Earth was first estimated to be a sphere with a radius of approximately 7000 km by
Eratosthenes in 200 BC
What leads to explosive eruptions? Step 3
Eruption: when the pressure of expanding vesicles exceeds the strength of the stretching magma, the magma fails violently
All of the earth's internal heat was acquired very early in its history through meteoric impact and differentiation of the core. The earth's interior loses heat to space but does not currently receive heat through any known process- True/False
False
All rock produced at the mid-ocean ridges consists of basalt
False
All volcanic eruptions pass through the crater at the volcanic summit-True/False
False
All volcanic eruptions pass through the crater at the volcanic summit.
False
Asbestos is a mineral
False
Cold air pushes underneath warm air at cold fronts and warm air pushes underneath cold air at warm fronts.
False
Diamond and graphite are both polymorphs of pure silicon.
False
Galena and halite have the same chemical composition and different crystalline structures.
False
Igneous rocks include rocks deposited on lava flows by running water-True/False
False
In a silicon-oxygen structural unit, silicon atoms occupy the corners of a tetrahedron. (See figure for question 1.)
False
In metamorphic rocks some melting is always required-True/False
False
It is rare for mineral crystals to display any sort of symmetry (invariance of pattern with respect to a transformation, such as rotation or mirror-image reflection).
False
Lithification is a metamorphic process-True/False
False
One of the reasons volcanic eruptions are so deadly is that there is no way to predict where an eruption will occur in the near future-True/False
False
Per capita energy use in the US has increased dramatically since the 1970's
False
Rocks are always made up of minerals.
False
Sliding motion along transform faults caused the segments of the mid-ocean ridges to become dislocated with respect to one another
False
Subducted slabs have never been detected below the Wadati-Benioff zone.
False
The 'texture' of a rock refers just to its feel-True/False
False
The colored strata layers of the Grand Canyon are said to be a form of foliation-True/False
False
The composition of a rock can be described as either being equant or inequant-True/False
False
The eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 was the greatest explosive eruption in the last two hundred years of world data.
False
The eruption of Mt St Helens in 1980 was the greatest explosive eruption in the last 200 years of world data - True/False
False
Until Columbus's voyage in 1492 most scientists thought the earth was much smaller than it actually was/
False
Virtually all of the sediment atop a downgoing plate becomes subducted into the mantle along with the plate
False
Wegener's evidence for a united Pangaea was so compelling that virtually all geologists agreed with the idea of continental drift during his lifetime
False
When rock is melted within Earth, typically the entire volume of rock is transformed from solid state to a liquid.
False
When rock is melted within earth, typically the entire volume of rock is transformed from a solid state to a liquid- True/False
False
Asbestos is a mineral. True or False?
False - Habit displayed by a group of minerals that goes into your lungs and gives you cancer
The strongest winds in a hurricane are found within the central eye.
False. In the eye wall
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation states of iron
Fe +2/+3
Which cations bond most often with Si-O tetrahedral structures in silicate minerals?
Fe, Mg, Ca, Na
Felsic
Felsic minerals are light colored: - Quartz (SiO2) - Potassium feldspar [KAlSi3O8] - Sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar [NaAlSi3O8] - Calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar [CaAl2Si2O8] - Muscovite mica [KAl3Si3O10(OH)2] Felsic magmas = high silica content and viscous
James Hutton
Founder of modern geology- uniformitarianism=the present is key to the past (lightning example)
gabbro
Gabbro: -Intrusive equivalent of basalt -Phaneritic texture consisting of pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase -Significant % of the oceanic crust
Who first discovered four moons belonging to Jupiter, proving conclusively that some bodies do not orbit around the Earth?
Galileo
Volatiles
Gaseous components of magma dissolved in the melt. Volatiles will readily vaporize (form a gas) at surface pressures.
coarse grained
Gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites, which are igneous rocks that are exceptionally --
Obsidian _____.
Glassy Igneous Rock; Felsic; An igneous rock consisting of a solid mass of volcanic glass; a mass of solid, felsic glass. I tends to be black or brown. Because it breaks conchoidally, sharp edged pieces split off its surface when you hit a sample with a hammer. Preindustrial peoples worldwide used such pieces for arrowheads, scrapers, and knife blades.
Which plant genus dominated glaciated regions during the Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic
Glossopteris
Which plant genus dominated glaciated regions during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic
Glossopteris
Euhedral
Good crystal faces; grown in open cavity.
The intrusive compositional equivalent of rhyolite is
Granite
Granite
Granite: -Phaneritic -Over 25% quartz, about 65% or more feldspar -May also contain biotite and/or muscovite mica -Very abundant - often associated with mountain building
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of hydrogen
H +1
Which common mineral is found in most kitchens?
Halite
Describe the physical properties that you would use to distinguish A) halite from calcite and B) galena from graphite.
Halite and calcite are both white to clear, but have different cleavages and crystal shapes. Halite has cubic cleavage, with three cleavage directions at 90 degrees, giving the mineral the shape of a cube. Calcite also has three cleavage directions, but they are not at 90 degrees so the mineral has a rhombic shape. Halite also has a distinct salty taste, while calcite while fizz if you put acid on it. Galena and graphite are both gray to black in color, but galena has a very bright metallic luster while graphite's luster is more dull, giving the minerals very different appearances. Galena also has three cleavage directions at right angles, while graphite has only one. While both graphite and galena are low in hardness, graphite is softer and is in fact the mineral with the lowest hardness on Moh's scale. (Please explain how the cleavage and habit is different for each pair of minerals. Also, galena is much denser than graphite and has a brighter metallic luster.)
Fiedrich Mohs is known for developing the Mohs Index of _______________.
Hardness
Properties used in mineral identification include
Hardness streak cleavage luster
A famous example of hot-spot volcanism occurs at ____________.
Hawaii
The extrusive compositional equivalent of gabbro is
Basalt
The picture below is most likely of which of these rocks? (black chunk of rock, no visible crystals)
Basalt
What magma composition does partial melting of peridotite produce?
Basalt
Composition of the Ocean Floor
Basalt rocks
Explain the relationships between magma composition, crustal thickness, fractional crystallization, and tectonic setting.
Basalt, which is low in silica like the mantle, can be produced in any setting where tectonic processes cause the mantle to melt - ocean ridges, continental rifts, or hot spots (melting by decompression) and also subduction zones (melting by addition of water). Andesite, with an intermediate amount of silica, is usually associated with subduction zones and rhyolite, with a high amount of silica, can only be found on continental crust. These higher silica compositions can be produced by melting of silica rich parent materials or by fractional crystallization or crustal contamination of basalt. This occurs where the crust is thicker - such as in subduction zones - where the basalt takes time to work its way through the overriding plate - resulting in fractional crystallization that produces enrichment in silica. Further enrichment in silica can occur where the crust is composed of high silica continental crust, which partially melts and adds high silica to the original mantle-derived basalt magma to produce andesite or rhyolite, such as a volcanic arc built atop continental crust (example: Cascades), or when a continental plate passes over a hot spot (example: Yellowstone). (Magmas originate in the mantle. Because the mantle is mafic (fe/mg rich, silica poor), melting of the mantle produces mafic magma - basalt. In tectonic settings where the crust is thin - oceanic ridges, continental rifts, oceanic hotspots, the magma erupts unchanged as basalt. Where the crust is thick, fractional crystallization produces more felsic magma compositions - andesite and rhyolite -- by the time the magma erupts at the surface. More felsic magma compositions are only seen where the crust is thick - subduction zones, continental hotspots.)
basalt
Basalt: -Volcanic origin -Mafic in composition -Aphanitic texture -Composed mainly of pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar -Most common extrusive igneous rock
Superposition
Basis for relitive dating of strata and their contained fossils. Oldest on bottom
How are biotite and muscovite different?
Biotite contains Fe and Mg in addition to K, while muscovite has only K
Planetesimals
Bodies whose diameter exceeds 1 km.
All silicate minerals have the same fundamental building block, the SiO4 tetrahedron (see figure). Which of the following is not a way in which this building block makes silicate minerals?
Bonds into diamond shapes to form minerals like quartz.
Because earth is a closed system:
Both A and B: there is a finite supply of resources and all waste and pollutants generated on Earth stay on Earth
Earth's atmosphere was once very similar in composition to the atmosphere of
Both B and C: Venus and Mars
How do blocks differ from bombs?
Both bombs and blocks are similar in size. However, bombs typically have a spindle shape reflecting their origin as lava is aerodynamically streamlined as it moves through the air while blocks are angular reflecting their origin as solid pieces blown out of a volcano.
KNOW THIS!
Both continental and oceanic crusts can form a plate
Weatering
Breaks down bigger to smaller A-a. Same content.
A sedimentary rock composed of angular gravel is called a _____
Breccia
What would you call the name of the glassy black rock shown below? Hint: It has been used in the past to make arrow heads.
obsidian
Topographically, most of the ocean floor is made up of
ocean plains
The pulling forces that produce the most rapid plate velocities are concentrated at
ocean trenches
Which choice best describes the age distribution of oceanic crust?
oceanic crust is youngest at the ridge and gets older with increasing distance from the ridge
at a subduction zone, the downgoing (subducting) plate is always composed of
oceanic lithosphere
Tectonic plates might consist of
oceanic or continental lithosphere or a combination of both
tectonic plates might consist of
oceanic or continental lithosphere or a combination of both
Laterite solis: a) are red in color b) are formed in tropical climates c) often contain high concentrations of aluminum d) all of the above
often contain high concentrations of aluminum
Layer Y is most likely to be reservoir rock containing _______ in the pore space.
oil
The world has the least amount of which of the following fuel types
oil
A permeable rock that contains hydrocarbon fluids and gasses is called a(n) _________
oil reservoir
What is the leading source of energy used in the United States today?
oil resources
200 mil yrs
oldest sediments on the ocean floor (age) are about
In Bowen's discontinuous reaction series, the first mineral to crystallize from a mafic melt is ____________.
olivine
How many silicon ions are involved in the formation of the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron?
one
tuff
one of the most common pyroclastic rocks, composed mainly of tiny ash-sized fragments that were later cemented together
Minerals utilized by humans as a source of metal are termed
ore minerals
minerals utilized by humans as a source of metal are termed
ore minerals
Rocks made up of the carbon-rich remains of plants are classified as______sedimentary rocks.
organic
Two major sources of energy, coal and oil shale, are considered ____________ sedimentary rocks
organic
the deepest earthquakes occur at subduction zones due to change in
organization
Assimilation
In igneous activity, the processs of incorporating country rock into a magma body.
Fault scarps
In places where an active normal or reverse fault intersects the ground, one side of the fault moves vertically with respect to the other, creating a small step called a fault scarp.
Fossiliferous Limestone without ripples form where?
In the ocean-limestone was once alive!
Where do the valence electrons occur?
In the outermost electron shell.
The deep red color of solis found in Georgia and other warm, humid regions in caused by ______ .
oxidized iron oxides
The most abundant element group in Earth's crust is
oxygen
The silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all the silicate minerals is composed of silicon and what other element?
oxygen
The two most common elements in the crust of Earth are ____________
oxygen and silicon
A poryphyritic texture indicates an igneous rock that
partially cooled underground and was then erupted on the surface
Broad, sediment-covered continental shelves are found along
passive margins
Continental coastlines that occur within the interior of a tectonic plate are called
passive margins
broad sediment-covered continental shelves are found along
passive margins
Is granite intrusive or extrusive rock?
Intrusive igneous rock
What makes the two major atomic bond styles different?
Ionic bonds are "attractive" (electrical), but covalent bonds are "sharing" electrons. Ionic bonds involve missing and gained electrons, but covalent bonds share electrons between atoms Ionic bonds are between positively-charged and negatively-charged atoms, but covalent bonds do not involve charges. All of these.
What is the core composed of? How do the inner and outer core differ?
Iron-Nickel Alloy. It is solid whereas the outer core is liquid.
Magma
It is called lava when it is exposed at Earth's surface.
What is the space within the mid-ocean ridges called and how is it created?
It's called the asthenosphere, and is created when two plates move apart and the asthenosphere rises
You would use a magnet to determine what property of a mineral?
It's magnetic property
Prof Skinners favorite plate?
Jaun de Fuca
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of calcium
Ca +2
What is the formula for calcite?
CaCO3
What is the special property that allows one to identify calcite versus dolomite, the very similar carbonate minerals
Calcite effervesces (fizzes) readily when HCl is applied.
Graded Bedding=Turbidity current(Water flow)
Just know.
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of potassium
K +1
What is the formula for K-feldspar?
KAlSi3O8
Volcanic agglomerate
Lapilli and bombs near the vent.
Phenocryst
Large crystals in fine grained surrounding
pumice
Lava rich in gas bubbles quench to form a frothy glass
obsidian
Lava without gasses quench to form a dense glass
Stratification
Layering of sedimentary rock
Red Shift
Light emitted from distant galaxies that shows that the universe is expanding. Velocity increases with increasing distance (Raisin Bread example)
What is the dominant chemical sedimentary rock?
Limestone
Tuff
Lithified ash with or without lapilli.
Plate Tectonics
Lithospheric plates move with respect to one another at divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundaries.
What does limestone metamorphose into?
MARBLE (on test)
Mafic
Mafic minerals are dark colored: - Biotite mica [(K, Mg, Fe, Al)Si3O10(OH)2] - Amphiboles [(Mg, Fe, Ca, Na)Si8O22(OH)2] - Pyroxenes [(Mg, Fe, Ca, Al)SiO3] - Olivine [(Mg, Fe)2SiO4] Mafic magmas = much lower silica content and more fluid-like behavior
What are the outward characteristics of mafic and felsic rocks?
Mafic rocks tend to be black or grey and felsic rocks tend to be white or pink
Lava
Magma the reaches the surface; ABOVE
How did the discovery of magnetic reversals confirm the sea floor spreading hypothesis?
Magnetic reversals are the periodic change in the orientation of earth's magnetic field. For reasons not fully understood, the magnetic field occasionally flips polarity, in other words, magnetic north becomes magnetic south and vice versa. When rocks containing iron minerals crystallize from lava, the iron mineral crystals align themselves with the polarity of the ambient magnetic field at the time of crystallization. This orientation is locked in place and will not change. When the seafloor was mapped in detail, it was discovered that the oceanic exhibits "stripes" of normally and reversely magnetized rocks that are symmetric on either side of the mid-ocean ridge system. In other words, rocks at the ridge axis today show normally polarity, and then as you move away from the ridge on either side you enter a belt of reversely magnetized rocks, and so on. This pattern indicates that rocks along the ridge today formed in today's interval of normal polarity. Rocks in reversely magnetized belt formed in the last period of reserved polarity, and then moved away from the ridge due to seafloor spreading.
Which of the following is not considered a primary diagnostic property of minerals?
Magnetism
What is the name for soils that are rich in calcium
pedocals
If non-silicate minerals account for only about 8% of the crust, what makes them considered important minerals?
Many non-silicates have economic importance due to their occurrence as metallic ores.
magnetic polarity reversals
Marine magnetic anomalies result from sea-floor spreading in conjunction with
MORs
Marine magnetic anomaly belts run parallel to
sea floor spreading, rates relatively rapid
Marine magnetic anomaly belts widest at
Olympus Mons, the largest known volcano in the Universe, is found on ___________.
Mars
Aside from Earth, the terrestrial planets are
Mars, Mercury, and Venus
In 1902, a famous, deadly volcaniclastic flow killed thousands of people on the Caribbean island of ____________.
Martinique
carribean volcano
Martinique
Lava with low viscosity is found at which volcano?
Mauna Loa, Hawaii
Why isn't the Earth Homogeneous?
Melting and Planetary Differentiation
Terrestrial Planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
The metamorphic process by which high temperatures cause mineral crystals to change their size and shape, but not composition or structure, is termed ______ facies.
Metamorphic
Contact Metamorphism
Metamorphism taking place adjacent to a body of magma or beneath a lava flow from heat and chemically active fluids (INTRUSION)
Which of the world's major cities has suffered tremendous earthquake damage in the past not because it is located at a plate boundary (it is not), but rather because it is built atop a basin of ancient lake bed sediments that rhythmically rock back and forth when agitated by seismic waves of a characteristic frequency?
Mexico City
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of magnesium
Mg +2
fixed crystal structure
Minerals are all naturally occurring solid substances with a definable chemical composition. They must also possess
Which of the following is not true about minerals?
Minerals can be liquid, solid, or glass
Why are the non-silicate minerals subdivided into classes based upon anion or anion complex that the members have in common
Minerals in each class have similar properties
fracture
Minerals that do not possess cleavage are said to possess
ore minerals
Minerals utilized by humans as a source of metal
Major categories of materials constituting the Earth?
Minerals, Rocks, Soil, and Water.
Which of the following measures an earthquake's intensity based on the observed effects on people and structures?
Modified Mercalli scale
The ranking of hardness of a mineral is called?
Mohs hardness scale
Magma
Molten rock material BELOW the surface
If there are nearly 4000 minerals identified to date, why is the crust dominated by only a few dozen "common" minerals
Most of these minerals include the 5 highest percentage elements found in the crust. These minerals include the most abundant elements in the crust. These minerals are "rock-forming" and are found in common rocks.
How does the CO2 levels on earth stay balanced and what is it called?
Mountains and continents erode sediment into the sea, the sea takes CO2 from the air and calcium from from the sediments to make limestone. This is called the carbonate-silicate cycle
stratovolc
Mt. Fuji
What is an example of a stratovolcano?
Mt. Shasta in northern California and Mt. Rainer in Seattle
Which rock composes the Earth's mantle?
peridotite
basalt comes from...
peridotite Most basaltic magmas originate from partial melting of an ultramafic rock called peridotite •Where formed: -Beneath mid-ocean ridges -Melting of mantle above subduction zone -Mantle plumes
mantle
peridotites, 2900 km, 51% mass, 82% vol
In 79 C.E., the citizens of Pompeii in the Roman Empire were buried by pyroclastic debris derived from an eruption of ____________.
Mt. Vesuvius
How do rock particles move during the passage of a S wave through the rock?
perpendicular to the direction of wave travel
volcanic
pertaining to the avtivities, structures, or rock types of a volcano
Which of the following is not a mineral?
petroleum
Which of the following is NOT a mineral?
petroleum (oil), which is a liquid cubic zirconia, which is a synthetic diamond substitute that is not found in nature ice, which is water in the solid state d. Neither A nor B are minerals; however, C is a mineral.
An intrusive igneous rock composed of crystals that are large enough to see with the naked eye is said to exhibit a ______________________ texture.
phaneritic
An intrusive igneous rock composed of crystals that are large enough to see with the naked eye exhibits a______texture.
phaneritic
granite
phanetitic rock composed of about 25% quartz and 65% feldspar, mostly potassium and sodium rich, there is an abundance of it in the continental crust
The deepest Earthquakes occur at subduction zones due to a change in the______ of the minerals within the subducting slab
phase?
Dacite Rocks
phenocysts of plagioclase and hornblende visible
All of the following are factors that determine the atomic structure of a mineral except
physical properties
Stoping by magmas occurs when
pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated
Bowen's continuous reaction series describes the crystallization behavior of a single mineral (with variable chemical composition), ____________.
plagioclase
The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is
plagioclase
The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is ____________.
plagioclase
Evidence for a united Pangaea comes from the fossil record of which type(s) of organisms?
plants freshwater animals large terrestrial animals All of the above are correct.
active margin
plate techtonics; anywhere on Earth where earthquakes are especially frequent
Without plate tectonics, we would not have
plates in constant motion formation of new oceans mountain building All of the above are correct.
Which of the following farming practices helps to prevent the erosion of topsoil?
plowing a field parallel to the contour lines
A blob-like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is
pluton
A blob-like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is ____________.
pluton
What is another name for intrusive igneous rock?
plutonic rocks
Two minerals with disinct atomic structures but the same chemical composition are termed
polymorphs
Two minerals with distinct atomic structures but the same chemical composition are termed___________ .
polymorphs
An igneous rock composed of phenocrysts within a groundmass or matrix has a______texture.
porphyritic
An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed
porphyritic
An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed ____________.
porphyritic
A cation carries a _____ charge
positive
Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they
possess exceptionally coarse grains
Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they ____________.
possess exceptionally coarse grains
Coal is formed from ______.
preserved plant material
Exfoliation domes form from
pressure release
metamorphic process by which grains partially dissolve at points of contact
pressure solution
The phase of oil extraction using the initial reservoir pore pressure is callled______recovery
primary
physical state
primary difference between lithospheric and asthenospheric mantle; gives man divergent patterns (physical behavior); the lithosphere is solid; and the asthenosphere is liquid
The phase of oil extraction using the initial reservoir pore pressure is called _____ recovery.
primary?
The preexisting rock that is subsequently altered to form a metamorphic rock is termed a
protolith
The preexisting rock which is subsequently altered to form a metamorphic rock is termed a
protolith
All atoms are elements. All atoms of the same element (e.g., oxygen or silicon) have the same number of
protons
The number of electrons in a neutral atom is balanced by the number of ___________.
protons
The number of electrons in a neutral atom is balanced by the number of ____________ .
protons
The number of electrons in a neutral atom is balanced by the number of________.
protons
For an ideal atom, what determines its mass in "atomic mass units" (AMU)? The number of:
protons plus neutrons
All isotopes of a given element would have the same number of __________, but a different number of ______________. Hence, their atomic _______________ differ.
protons, neutrons, weights
Which group of igneous rocks is all extrusive?
pumice, basalt, andesite
The general term for fragmental material erupted from a volcano is _________.
pyroclast or tephra
Igneous rocks produced by explosive volcanic activity will have what kind of texture?
pyroclastic
Volcanic bombs are ____________.
pyroclastic blocks that acquire aerodynamic shapes during flight out of the volcanic vent
Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of
pyroclastic debris
Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of ____________.
pyroclastic debris
The general term for fragmental material erupted from a volcano is
pyroclastic debris
Soufriere Hills
pyroclastic flows began in 1995 and continue today
A mineral shows conchoidal fracture
quartz
A mineral that commonly shows conchoidal fracture is
quartz
What common framework silicate breaks along conchoidal fractures, has no cleavage, and is commonly translucent
quartz
Which of the following minerals can occur in a multitude of colors, but always exhibits conchoidal fractures, and is commonly translucent? (A)Hornblende (B) Pyroxene (C) Olivine (D)Quartz (E) K-feldspar
quartz
Which of the following minerals found in a granite is not altered by chemical weathering?
quartz
Which of the following minerals has a low solubility and therefore is least susceptible to chemical weathering at the Earth's surface?
quartz
Which of these is least likely to form a clay mineral during weathering? feldspar quartz amphibole olivine
quartz
conchoidal
quartz
Which of the following sandstone types is most likely to form by the mechanical and intense chemical weathering of a granite?
quartz arenite
What makes up the rock granite?
quartz, feldspar, mica, and hornblende minerals
least susceptible to chemical weather to most susceptible to chemical weathering
quartz, olivine, orthoclase and plagioclase, pyroxene and amphibole, dolomite, calcite, biotite, muscovite (hardest to softest)
Some minerals can have different colors like?
quartz. because of whether the quartz has pure silicon dioxide which is white or if it has slight impurities that produce a range of colors like quartz (amethyst) which is violet
what's the name of the non-foliated metamorphic rock with a sandstone protolith, that consists almost entirely of quartz
quartzite
Numerical ages for boundaries between time units on the geologic time scale primarily resulted from the study of _____, in conjunction with relative age data.
radiometric dating of igneous rocks
Geothermal Gradient
rate of change in temperature with depth
3 factors that affect crystal size
rate, silica %, dissolved gas
summed over the entire surface of the earth
rates of lithospheric production and consumption are equal
Although hematite is silver-gray it can be identified by its?
red-brown streak
Define scoria
referred to as cinder, formed as gases escaped from melt that has mafic to intermediate composition
Define intermediate
refers to everything that has compositions that lie between mafic and felsic
Define Mafic
refers to rock that has high Fe and Mg and low Si, Na, and K
Define Felsic
refers to rocks with relatively high Si, Na, and K and low Fe and Mg
Low Velocity Zone
region of the upper mantle where seismic waves travel slower than expected
petroleum
NOT a mineral? quartz--diamond--petroleum--gold
The distinction between the crust and mantle is primarily on the basis of a difference in ____________; the distinction between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is primarily on the basis of a difference in ____________.
NOT: degree of physical rigidity; chemistry (mineral content)
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of sodium
Na +1
What is the formula for halite?
NaCl
no fixed crystal struct
Natural glass is NOT considered a mineral because it
An explanation for the origin of planets, moons, asteroids, and comets is the
Nebular theory
Which of the following did not occur at a plate boundary?
New Madrid, Missouri, 1812
Which of the following did not occur at a plate boundary? a) Anchorage Alaska, 1964 b) San Francisco, 1906 c) New Madrid, Missouri, 1812 d) Loma Prieta, California, 1989
New Madrid, Missouri, 1812
Earths Atmosphere Components
Nitrogen and Oxygen
KNOW THIS
No cleavage=fractures
Anhedral
No crystal faces; grown in tight space
. Which of the following is NOT a way crystals can form?
None of the above are correct.
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of oxygen
O -2
Which of the following set of elements account for >98% of the Earth's crust, in descending order of abundance?
O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg
Eratosthenes was the first person to accurately estimate the size of Earth. He accomplished this feat by
Observing shadows simultaneously cast at two different cities that were separated by a known distance.
addition new crust by sedimentation
Oceanic lithosphere thickens away from the mid-ocean ridge primarily due to
Which is not a felsic mineral?
Olivine
Order the following minerals by their melting temperature, from highest to lowest.
Olivine 1 Biotite4 Quartz 2 Pyroxene 3
shield volc
Olympus Mons
picture
On the outer edges
To a geologist, each of the following is why the orderly internal structure of a solid's atoms is used to determine whether the solid is a mineral, except which one?
Ordered atoms bonded into a structure determine the mineral's composition
specific gravity
Ore minerals, such as galena and hematite, tend to be distinct in their very
The layer of the Earth that is thought to be a liquid is the:
Outer core
What is the term geologists use for the layer of loose, heterogeneous weathered material lying on top of the bedrock?
regolith
In which of the following phenomenon are sediment records NOT preserved?
regression
Andesite Rocks
relatively crystal free but a few plagioclase phenocysts
Unlike the lithosphere, the asthenosphere
relatively weak and flows readily
unlike the lithosphere the asthenosphere is
relatively weak and flows readily
An impermeable rock, regardless of lithology, is a good candidate to serve as a ____________ in an oil producing scenario.
reservoir rock
Most of the natural gas used in the United States is consumed by _______.
residential use
What type of luster does the mineral sulfur have?
resinous to greasy luster
The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is a relative scale of
resistance to abrasion (scratching)
The amount of oil that may become available for use is called oil ________.
resources
A caldera
results from the collapse of a volcano after its magma chamber empties
The process of high-grade metamorphic rocks being altered to form low-grade metamorphic rocks is termed ____________ metamorphism.
retrograde
If, during an earthquake, a hanging wall slides upward relative to a footwall, the fault is termed ____________ if the fault is shallow (much closer to horizontal than vertical).
reverse
During motion along a ____ fault, the hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall at an angle of less than 30 degrees from horizontal
reverse fault
Which type of faulting would be least likely to occur along the mid-Atlantic ridge?
reverse faulting
Whereas the crust-mantle boundary represents a change in rock type, the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary is due to a change in the ______of the material
rheology
Coarse-grained granite is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________.
rhyolite
granite
rhyolite
cause MORs above sea level
ridge rocks are mafic, whereas the ocean basin crust consists of ultramafic rock
Pulling a block of clay apart, resulting in the middle portion thinning and sinking, is an adequate analogy for
rift basins and subsidence
mt. Kilimanjaro
rifting
A well-sorted sandstone with asymmetric ripples was most likely deposited as sand by a
river
Dynamothermal (regional) metamorphism occurs when ____________
rock becomes buried deeply during continental collision and mountain building
Igneous rock
rock that forms when magma cools and solidifies
Minerals are building blocks for?
rocks
Glass
rocks lacking crystals
extrusive
rocks that form at the Earth's surface that are usually fine grained
Define composite textures
rocks that have large crystals called phenocrysts that lie in small crystals
What is beach sand?
rounded quartz/ SiO2
Which of the following rock types would most likely be the best oil reservoir?
sandstone
____________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of quartzite
sandstone
a medium grained peltic rock with pophyroblasts
schist
The silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all the silicate minerals is composed of silicon and what other element?
Oxygen
According to geological evidence and computer models based upon that evidence, which statement about the concentration of oxygen in our atmosphere is correct?
Oxygen levels have generally risen during the Phanerozoic, but peaked during the Mesozoic ('age of dinosaurs') and declined sharply in the early Cenozoic.
____ waves travel faster than both S waves and Surface waves
P
Body waves consist of the
P and S waves
Which of the following sequences correctly lists the different arrivals from first to last?
P waves ... S waves .... Surface waves
Seismic waves that cause particles to move in the same direction of travel are termed
P-waves
Deep ocean trenches are found predominantly along the perimeter of the _____________ and can reach depths up to ____________, deep enough to swallow Mount Everest
Pacific Ocean; 8-12 km
Wegener proposed that, in the distant past, the continents were connected to form one super-continent he named
Pangaea
What is an example of a cinder cone volcano?
Paricutin, located in Mexico
Which of the following statements best describes the state of earthquake prediction?
scientists can characterize the seismic risk of an area, but can not yet accurately predict most earthquakes
MORs
sea floor rate heat greatest
was exceptionally weak
sea floor regions with (negative) anomalies; formed during times when earths mag field
was exceptionally strong
sea floor regions with (positive) anomalies; formed during times when earths mag field
How did seafloor spreading revive Alfred Wegener's ideas about continental drift?
sea floor spreading provided a viable mechanism for moving the continents
MORs
sea floor spreading volcanic happens
Most continental topography lies within a range of altitude between
sea level and 1 km above sea level
Continental topography
sea level-1 km above
Marine magnetic anomaly belts are widest when and where
sea-floor spreading rates are relatively rapid
Shale, salt, and fine-grained limestone that is not fractured are all good candidates to serve as ____________ within an oil field.
seal rock
What is the most common rock at the surface?
sedimentary rock
Organic sedimentary rock
sedimentary rock that forms from the remains of plants or animals
Clastic sedimentary rock
sedimentary rock that forms when fragments of preexisting rocks are compacted or cemented together
Chemical sedimentary rock
sedimentary rock that forms when minerals precipitate from a solution or settle from a suspension
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ have the most gently sloping sides, due to the low viscosity of the basaltic lavas which form them.
shield volcanoes
Large regions of continental interiors where high-grade metamorphic and igneous rocks are exposed at the surface are termed
shields
luster
shininess of a mineral
The hot-spot track associated with the Hawaiian Islands and Emperor Seamounts ____________.
shows that the Pacific Plate has been moving northwest for the last 30 million years
silicon and oxygen
silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all the silicate minerals is composed of
what is the mantle composed of and is there any melt within?
silicate rocks, (magnesium, silicone, olivine, garnet, spinel and pyroxene) there is probably partial melting within.
framework
silicate with greatest proportion of oxygen atoms shared by pairs of adjacent tetrahedra
Most minerals and rocks on Earth are classified as ______ based on their elemenal composition
silicates
The most abundant minerals belong to chemical group termed the
silicates
The most common minerals within Earth are
silicates
Describe partial melting. How does the composition of a melt produced by partial melting compare with the composition of the parent rock?
Partial melting occurs in rocks because the different minerals that compose rocks have different melting points. The melt take the compostion of the heated minerals, while the solid parent rocks remains with the solid minerals that did not melt.
Volcanic
Pertaining to the activites, structures, or rock types of a volcano.
Geological Time Scale-Today
Phanerzoic-Cenozoic-Quaternary-Holocene
Why are physical properties such as hardness useful to geologists to identify minerals?
Physical properties are controlled by the mineral's chemical composition and atomic structure, This combination is distinct in each mineral.
Each mineral in the feldspar group is very similar to each other in terms of physical properties. What is the only reliable visible difference between potassium feldspar and plagioclase?
Plagioclase has characteristic "striations." Other than that, they can look identical, and they have the same physical properties.
What does Venus lack that earth has?
Plate techtonics
In 2006, the International Astronomical Union produced a major announcement concerning Pluto. What was it?
Pluto has been officially demoted from its former status as one of nine major planets in our solar system.
An igneous rock composed of phenocrysts within a groundmass or matrix has a texture.
Porphyritic
Geological Time Scale Era's
Precambrian-Paleozoic- Mesozoic- Cenozoic
Inorganic chemical sedimentary rock
Precipitates from water
How does scoria differ from pumice?
Pumice is highly vesiculated siliceous volcanic rock while scoria is commonly highly vesiculated basalt.
A mineral that has a golden color is called?
Pyrite (fool's gold)
pyroclastic rocks
Pyroclastic rocks: •Composed of fragments ejected during a volcanic eruption •Varieties: -Tuff = ash-sized fragments (< 2mm) -Volcanic breccia = particles larger than ash
What are the characteristics of sandstone? Give examples of the environments it exists in.
Sandstone consists of sand-sized particles and there is a wide variety of sandstone with different compositions and textures. Often occur in beach or dune environments.
Sedimentary rocks
Sediment is carried away and deposited by water, ice, and wind. When sediment deposits are compressed, cemented together, and harden, ___form.
Which type of rock is most common on the surface? Interior?
Sedimentary;Igneous
In magma chambers, sulfide materials typically
sink to the bottome
What is the difference between sediment deposited on a beach vs an alluvial fan?
Sediments on beaches have been carried great distances from their source by stream transport, the sediment is well rounded, Sediment on alluvial fans are from brief flood-like events, and are not as well rounded particles
As lithosphere cools to the sides of a mid-ocean ridge, it begins to
sink with respect to material located closer to the ridge axis
What are the characteristics of shale rock? Give examples of the environments it exists in.
Shale has silt and clay sized particles. This rock occurs in places without significant currents and turbulence. It occurs in deep oceans, lagoons, lakes, and the floodplains of rivers.
The silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons in silicate minerals are linked to form larger structures by?
Sharing of oxygen atoms between tetrahedral units
What are the three types of volcanoes and their relative sizes?
Shield (very big), cinder cones (small), and stratovolcanoes (medium)
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of silicon
Si +4
Why are silicate minerals the most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust?
Si and O are the most abundant elements in the crust
What is the formula for quartz?
SiO2
Which mineral group is most common?
Silicates
The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure?
Single Chain
Steps in formation of the Universe according to the Big Bang.
Singularity explodes. Rocks and Dust clump together and begin to pull each other in and growing with gravity to form planets. Nebulae (gas and dust clouds) begin to clump together and and react and generate heat. Stars form. Stars gravity form solar system.
Which list properly orders metamorphic rocks from lowest to highest grade?
Slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss
3 rate of coolings that affect crystal size
Slow rate = fewer but larger crystals -Fast rate = many small crystals -Very fast rate forms glass
The growth of mineral crystals from a melt is the process of ________. (one word)
Solidification
____________ is a mineral property defined by the density of the mineral sample divided by the density of water (1g/cm3).
Specific gravity
The color of a mineral in powdered form is termed
Streak
Which property can be used to distinguish hematite from magnetite?
Streak
Incongruent streak
Streak color different than mineral.
Congruent streak
Streak color same as mineral
What does streak refer to?
Streak is the color of powder derived from a mineral that has been dragged across a porcelain plate
Stellar Wind
Stream of atoms emitted from a star during its lifetime
Buoyant materials are added to the edge of continents by:
Subduction of the surrounding oceanic crust
A mineral that has a yellow color is identified as?
Sulfur
In general, the most destructive earthquake waves are the
Surface waves
Why aren't synthetic diamonds considered minerals
Synthetic minerals are not naturally occurring
conchoidal
Synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit a fracture pattern
F
T/F -- A single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures.
F
T/F -- All minerals are chemical compounds (composed of more than one element).
F
T/F -- Diamond and graphite are both poly-morphs of pure silicon.
F
T/F -- all minerals are held by ionic bonds
F
T/F-----All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust.
T
T/F---Two different distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula.
Describe the different factors that affect magma composition (crystal settling, magma mixing, assimilation, melting of different source rocks, etc.).
Temperature, Pressure, Water Content, And Mineral Composition.
Describe how the doppler effect works
The Doppler Effect is an observed change in the frequency of any wave when the source of the wave is moving. When it is moving away it is red and sounds low. Moving closer creates a blue shift and high pitched sound.
3. Our Sun belongs to a galaxy known as
The Milky Way
Bowens reaction series
The Order In Which Minerals Melt With Increasing Temperature Can Be Predicted Using Bowen's Reaction Series
Texture
The ____ of an igneous rock is determined by the size of the crystals in the rock.
What about a mineral would control its property to cleave or fracture?
The alignment of ionic bonds into planes or not in the atomic structure.
Magnetic Field
The area in which magnetic substances are affected by lines of magnetic force emanating from the Earth. (Magnetism is caused by the spin of electrons)
Gravity
The attractive force that one object exerts upon another
Which of the following properties is NOT useful in identifying a mineral? size, density, cleavage, or hardness?
size
Because it can be split easily into thin sheets and is impermeable, ____________ is commonly used to make roofing tiles.
slate
________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of phyllite
slate
at a transform plate boundary, two opposed plates
slide past one another
The amount of ground displacement in a earthquake is called the
slip
Define volcanic ash
small pieces of pumice and scoria which were ground up during an eruption, essentially ground up glass
Mechanical weathering produces
smaller particles
In regard to the cooling of molten rock, a __________ volume and a __________ shape cools faster.
smaller; pancake
A hard mineral can scratch a?
softer mineral
In the Mohs hardness scale the lower the number the?
softer the mineral
talc
softest mineral
Clay minerals are important constituents of
soils
The primary barrier to using solar energy in the United States is that _______
solar power is not economically competitive with other energy sources
An aurora is produced when
solar wind particles are directed toward the poles and excite atmospheric gases
Density
solid is denser than liquid is denser than gas
mineral
solid natural substance whose atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern
The growth of mineral crystals from a melt is the process of
solidification
As compared to mafic igneous rocks, all felsic igneous rocks
solidify at lower temperatures
The tendency for variations in current velocity to segregate sediments on the basis of particle size is called _____.
sorting
As seismic (earthquake-generated) waves travel downward and reach the Moho, they ___________.
speed up
Which of the processes is not an example of chemical weathering?
splitting of a rock along a fracture
The theory of Neptunism
states that rocks precipitate from water
Valleys and hillsides carved by glaciers are generally more ____________ in comparison to those produced by rivers and streams.
steep sided
Define calderas
steep sided, often lake filled depressions, formed by the collapse of land following a large eruption and an outpouring of pyroclastic materials
What are the characterizations of cinder cone volcanoes?
steep sides and crater at summit, ash and cinders, small, no liquid lava, high viscosity
The attached picture shows hydrocarbon systems labelled A through E. Match the label to the type of trap.
stratigraphic=D, combination=E, Anticline=A, Fault Trap=B, Salt Dome=C
Mt. Fuji in Japan is an example of a ____________.
stratovolcano
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ are sometimes referred to as "composite volcanoes."
stratovolcanoes
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ are sometimes referred to as 'composite volcanoes.'
stratovolcanoes
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ consist of alternating layers of tephra and solidified lava.
stratovolcanoes
The color of a finely powdered mineral is called its
streak
The color of a mineral's powder is called its?
streak color
less variable
streak plate color in most minerals is --- than hand sample mineral color
Force per unit area is termed
stress
What type of faulting would be most likely to occur along transform faults?
strike-slip faulting
Differentiation
structural adaptation for a particular function; in a forming planet iron sinks to core and lighter rock floats
Composite volcanoes are found only in which tectonic setting?
subduction zone
Pillow lavas are associated with ____________.
submarine basaltic eruptions
Death Valley, part of the Basin and Range Province, has been sinking due to the weight of continuously accumulating sediment shed from the Black and Panamit Mountains that border the valley. What phenomenon is this an example of and what depositional environment is created by the sediment deposition?
subsidence and alluvial fans
____ waves travel along the Earth's surface
surface
A fold shaped like an elongate trough is a
syncline
Which of the following is least likely to contain an oil trap?
syncline
Oil derived from coal, oil shales or tar sands is called ________.
syncrude
56 The external structure form of crystals reflects the internal atomic
t, true
57 Rocks are mineral aggregates
t, true
59 Divergent plate margins are characterized by frequent, but smell earthquakes
t- True
As compared with metamorphism, diagenesis
takes place at lower temperatures and pressures
The mineral having the lowest hardness on the Mohs scale is
talc
The softest mineral is __________.
talc
What is the softest mineral?
talc
Which of the following is a mineral? coal, brick, talc, or granite?
talc
The metamorphic process by which high pressure and temperature "squeeze" and elongate mineral grains is termed
tectonic foliation?
the primary difference between lithospheric and asthenospheric mantle that gives rise to numerous divergent patterns of physical behavior is
temperature (the lithosphere is cooler than the asthenosphere)
Viscosity of magma is controlled by
temperature and silica content of the magma
cleavage
tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weakness
The difference between tephra and tuff is that ____________.
tephra is unlithified, whereas tuff is lithified
Air-fall deposits are produced by _________ falling from the sky.
tephra or pyroclasts
What is the classification of igneous rock dependent on?
texture and composition
Detailed studies of what earthquake allowed researchers to develop the elastic rebound theory?
the 1906 San Francisco earthquake
An island volcanic arc occurs at
the Aleutian Islands of Alaska
An island volcanic arc occurs at ____________.
the Aleutian Islands of Alaska
A continental volcanic arc occurs at
the Andes Mountains
The development of cyclones and anticyclones about high- and low-pressure regions is a result of deflection of air currents by _______.
the Coriolis effect
An important contribution made by Copernicus is his (correct) assertion that
the Sun was the center of the Earth's orbit
With regard to minerals, hardness refers to
the ability to resist being scratched by other substances
with regard to minerals, hardness refers to
the ability to resist being scratched by other substances
If a geologist discovered coal in a modern-day cold, snowy location, he or she could conclude that
the area was once covered with swamps and/or jungles
What is a crystal structure?
the atoms that are arranged in a particular geometric shape, or crystal structure
Tectonic Plate
the brittle, rigid but thin outer part of earth is divided into sections
What is a minerals streak?
the color of a mineral's powder
Olivine and augite minerals are mostly found in the oceanic crust and the mantle, they have more mass and more density than Quartz, muscovite, and hornblende that are mostly found in the continental crust. Can you tell why the continental crust floats higher on the mantle than the oceanic crust?
the continental crust floats higher on the mantle than the crust because the minerals found in the continental crust have less density and lighter mass so it floats higher than the more dense and heavier mass of minerals found in the oceanic crust
Minerals in geodes form spectacular euhedral crystals because
the crystals have abundant room to grow in their hollow surroundings
How a mineral breaks reflects its?
the cubic structure of its crystals
Core
the deepest or central composition layer of Earth. mostly made of iron
crater
the depression at the summit of a volcano, or that which was produced by a meteorite impact
Define sorting and the two categories
the distribution of grain sizes in a sediment or sedimentary rock, well sorted contains a narrow range of particle sizes, while poorly sorted sediment contains a wide range of particle sizes
How is sediment formed?
the effects of ice, wind and groundwater break down rock at the earth's surface through the process of mechanical and chemical weathering
Which of the following describes the build up and release of stress during an earthquake?
the elastic rebound theory
The intersection between a fault and the ground surface is a line we called
the fault line
Earth's magnetic field is generated by ____________.
the flow of the liquid outer core
crystallization
the formation and growth of a crystalline solid from a liquid or gas
Which country contains about 50% of the world's coal resources?
the former Soviet Union
geothermal gradient
the gradual increase in temperature with depth in the crust, the avg is 30C per km in the upper crust
gabbro
the intrusive equivalent of basalt, makes up most of the oceanic crust
melt
the liquid portion of magma excluding solid crystals
Hot Spots
the location on Earth's surface where a stationary column or magma has slowly risen to the surface and formed a volcano. The hot spot remains stationary and leaves a trail of extinct volcanoes. CAUSED BY: Rising mantle plume or lava
Inner Core
the lower part of the core that is made of solid iron
define evaporites
the main form of chemical sedimentary rock that is formed primarily from evaporation in enclosed basins in dry/arid regions. They are the salts that are left behind.
groundmass
the matrix of smaller crystals within an igneous rock that has porphyritic texture
Mesosphere
the mechanical layer between the asthenosphere and the outer core, it is solid but still plastic and able to flow
How are composite texture rocks created?
the melt was cooling at depth and growing phenocrysts and then erupted onto the surface before it completely solidified, resulting in the rapid cooling of the rest of the rock and developing the small crystals
Foilation
the metamorphic rock texture in which mineral grains are arranged in planes or bands
Mantle
the middle compositional layer of Earth. thick layer made up of peridotite in upper part and higher density rocks of peridotite composition in the lower part
Two-thirds of the world's known oil reserves are located in ________.
the middle east
What is limestone mostly composed of?
the mineral calcite
The boundary between the crust and mantle is marked by a seismic-velocity discontinuity called ____________.
the moho
Sea Floor Spreading
the origin of new oceanic crust at spreading ridges that then moves away from ridges and is eventually consumed t subduction zones
Focus
the place inside earth where an earthquake originates
Elastic Rebound
the point at which stress in earth's lithosphere is strained to a point where it can bend no further and the lithosphere ruptures and rebounds somewhat like a rubber band that has just been pulled apart
Epicenter
the point on earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
According to the figure below, every plate boundary can be recognized by
the presence of an earthquake belt
every plate boundary can be recognized by
the presence of an earthquake belt
Which of the following statements about weathering is false?
the presence of soil slows down the weathering of the underlying bedrock
Explain why geologists believe that the Earth's core is made mostly of iron.
The average density of the Earth, as shown by its gravitational field, is significantly higher than the density of the mantle, which is known from a few direct observations of materials erupted from volcanoes and exposures of mantle rock at the surface. This is despite the fact that the mantle makes up most of the earth by volume. Therefore, the core must be very dense to explain the earth's average density. Iron is one element that would provide the needed density, and iron is known to be abundant in the solar system from studies of meteorites, making iron a likely candidate for the composition of the core.
partial melting
the process by which most rock melt, since individual minerals have different meling points most igneous rocks melt over a temperature range of a few hundred degreesif the liquid is squeezed out after some melting has occured, a melt with a higher silica content results
Cementation
the process in which minerals precipitate into pore spaces between sediment grains and bind sediments together to form rock
Metamorphism
the process in which one type of rock changes into a metamorphic rock because of chemical processes or changes in temperature and pressure
Compaction
the process in which the volume and porosity of a sediment is decreased by the weight of overlying sediments as a result of burial beneath other sediments
magma mixing
the process of altering the composition of a magma through the mixing of material from another magma body
Why are rocks of intermediate (andesitic) and felsic (granitic) compositions generally not found in ocean basins?
they are found on the oncean basins, they are formed from partial melting of the earths crust.
How is gas measured above volcanoes?
they are measured from an aircraft using a correlation spectrometer
What is the role of volatiles in generating basaltic magma within subduction zones?
they cause the temp to change and creating mantle plumes
continental lithosphere is ______ than oceanic lithosphere
thicker
continental lithosphere
thicker than oceanic lithosphere
If a mineral is salty and composed of NaCl, then how many cleavage directions does it exhibit?
three
In a ____________ fault, the fault plane is less than 35° from horizontal and the hanging-wall block moves upward relative to the footwall block.
thrust
Due to the Coriolis effect, air which is spread northward from the equator is deflected
to the east
The San Andreas Fault zone in southern California is an example of a ____________ plate boundary.
transform
Segments of the mid-ocean ridge system are offset. Between the offset segments we observe
transform faults
What does the process of lithification do?
transforms sediment into sedimentary rock
Grains become rounded primarily during
transportation
Most sorting of detrital grains takes place during
transportation
Earth's geothermal gradient is the rate of temperature change incurred by
traversing down within Earth's interior
Most of the mass of the Earth's atmosphere is found within what atmospheric layer?
troposphere
A warm air mass may hold more moisture (water vapor) than a cold air mass of the same volume, and yet may have lesser relative humidity.
true
Hawaiian style effusive eruptions are greater threat to property than to human life - True/False
true
Hawaiian-style effusive eruptions are a greater threat to property than to human life.
true
In nature most examples of minerals do NOT grow as large, well-formed, euhedral crystals.
true
Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten
true
Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten.
true
two distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula. true or false?
true
Which of the following waves is the slowest?
tsunami
A volcano emits ash, which falls from the sky, settles in layers, and is eventually cemented. The resultant rock is termed ____________.
tuff
When ash is lithified it is called ________.
tuff
ash settles in layers and eventually cemented
tuff
lava tube
tunnel in hardened lava that acts as a horizontal conduit for lava flowing from a volcanic vent. lava tubes allow fluid lavas to advance great distances
Coarse clastic material can be transported into a deep marine environment by ______ .
turbidity currents
Mt build and collison
two bodies; continental lithosphere; pushed together at convergent boundarys; creates?
divergent boundary
two opposed plates, move away from one another
transform boundary
two opposed plates, slide past one another
convergent boundary
two opposed plates,move away from one another
Which type of magma has the greatest iron and magnesium content?
ultramafic
the magnetic field of earth in the geologic past is
unknown, but it is assumed to have been identical to todays
tephra
unlithified
texture
used to describe the overall appearance of a rock based on the size, shape, and arrangement of interlocking minerals
What is a streak plate?
used to identify a mineral's streak that is a piece of unglazed porcelain
On 10 to 100 million year time scales, variations in the Earth's climate are predominantly due to
variations in solar insolation.
On 10 to 100 million year time scales, variations in the Earth's climate are predominantly due to
variations in the Earth's orbit and axial tilt (i.e. Milankovitch Cycles).
If water is the transport mechanism of sediment, the grain size of sedimentary deposits most closely indicates the ___
velocity of the water at the moment the sediment settled to the bottom
If water is the transport medium of sediment, the grain size of sedimentary deposits most closely indicates the
velocity of the water at the moment the sediment settled to the bottom
Define Chemical and Biochemical sediments and give an example
The sediments formed by the precipitation of dissolved ions through chemical and biochemical processes, ex. calcite and halite
Define Clastic sediment and give an example
The solid particles that survive the weathering process or that are created by the weathering process, ex. clay and oxide minerals
How are Igneous rocks formed?
The solidification of magma at the earth's surface or at some depth within the earth
What controls a mineral's property of hardness
The strength of the atomic bonds within the mineral
Cosmology
The study of the origin, evolution, and nature of the universe
Nebula Theory
The sun and all other objects formed from material that had been swirling around the nebula for ages.
Heliocentric vs. Geocentric model of the universe
The sun is at the center of the Heliocentric model, and the earth is at the center of the Geocentric model.
Identify the three basic types of plate boundaries and describe the major geologic and tectonic processes occurring at each.
The three types of plate boundaries are convergent, divergent, and transform. At convergent plate boundaries, two plates are colliding with each other. This results in subduction and destruction of old, dense oceanic crust, volcanism, mountain building, and earthquakes. At divergent plate boundaries, two plates are moving away from each other. This allows magma from the mantle to rise towards the surface and form new oceanic crust. This process is known as seafloor spreading. At transform plate boundaries, two plates are sliding past each other in different directions. No crust is being created or destroyed at transform plate boundaries, but earthquakes do occur.
Which of the following statements is false?
The time and location of most major earthquakes can be predicted several days in advance
Non-silicate minerals (including gold and pyrite) make up only about 8% of the crust. However, they tend to be economically important minerals. Which of the following is not a reason why these minerals are economically important?
These minerals are widespread in the crust, but occur mostly in sedimentary rocks.
How does magma differ from lava?
They are different because lava is magma when it hits earth's atmosphere; magma turns to lava. Magma is when its inside the volcano.
Which statement about recharge areas is incorrect?
They are the same as discharge areas.
Why are "light" silicates much less dense than the "dark" silicates?
They do not have Fe or Mg in them
Though both are polymorphs, diamond and graphite are different minerals because of each of the following except
They have different chemical compositions.
Many silicate minerals, like olivine and plagioclase, are actually a family of minerals within the silicate mineral group. What about them makes them that way?
They have nearly identical chemical compositions and identical physical properties.
Why do we not use carbon-14 dating?
Too short of a half life-only 70,000 years
Transgression
Top to bottom: Limestone, Shale, Sand
Regression
Top to bottom: Sand, Shale, Limestone
color
Trace amounts of impurity in a mineral can commonly produce significant differ among individual crystals of this mineral.
Erosion
Transport removes sediment. From source carries it elsewhere. Running water, glaciers, wind, waves.
What are the spheres, in order, of earth?
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Ionosphere.
"All lava is magma is truer than "all magma is lava"-True/False
True
Bedrock covered in oil is not an outcrop of rock-True/False
True
Compaction and cementation is a sedimentary process-True/False
True
Hawaiian style effusive eruptions are greater threat to property than to human life - True/False
True
Hawaiian-style effusive eruptions are a greater threat to property than to human life.
True
In nature most examples of minerals do not grow as large, well-formed, euhedral crystals.
True
Sand is not a rock-True/False
True
The number of lithospheric plates on the Earth has been variable through geologic time. Hundreds of millions of years ago, there were plates that no longer exist today.
True
Olympus Mons, the largest known volcano in the Universe, is an example of a ____________.
shield valcano
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ are the largest in area.
shield valcanoes
Igneous vs. Metamorphic and Melting
Igneous=melt and crystalize Metamorphic= any rock altered in the solid state from preexisting rocks by any combination of heat and/or pressure.
The largest geothermal power plant in the United States is located near which city?
San Francisco
The deep ocean floor is flat and nearly featureless
Fale
A compass today points directly to geographic north
False
A single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures.
False
All crystaline rocks are igneous-True/False
False
All discovered faults are likely to experience earthquakes in the next few hundred years.
False
All minerals are held together by ionic bonds.
False
Stratification
The layering in sedimentary rocks; Layers less than 1 cm are laminations, bedding is thicker.
*Deposition
The process by which sediment settles out of the water or wind that is carrying it, and is deposited in a new location.
Magma mixing
The process of altering the composition of a magma through the mixing of material from another magma body.
Some minerals have crystal structures with distinct weaknesses. These minerals tend to break in certain directions along planes of weakness in their structure. These types of minerals are said to possess good ______.
Cleavage
Define limnic eruption
The rapid overturn and degassing of a lake
What are conglomerates and breccias?
Coarse grained and poorly sorted sedimentary rock
What is a good indicator of composition within rocks?
Color
Most of the uranium ore in the United States is located in the _____
Colorado Plateau
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, ____________ are the largest in area.
shield volcanoes
Marble and quartzite are nonfoliated rocks because
they are dominated by minerals that produce equant grains
What are the principal layers of the earth?
Crust. Lithosphere. Asthenosphere. Upper Mantle. Lower Mantle. Outer Core. Inner Core.
Define ignimbrites
sheet like deposits of pyroclastic flows that cover a large distance
A sill is a (an)____________.
sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock
Organic chemical
Carbon-containing compounds that either occur in living organisms or have characteristics that resemple living organisms.
What are the 7 mineral groups?
Carbonate, Halide,Phosphate, Oxide, Silicate, Sulfate, Sulfide.
Slab Pull
Causes subduction. The subducting cold slab of lithosphere is denser than the surrounding warmer asthenosphere and pulls the rest of the plate as it descends into the asthenosphere.
Who developed the procedure used to measure the size of an earthquake?
Charles Richter
chloride differ chlorine
Chloride is chlorine's anion.
What is the short hand notation and common oxidation state of chlorine
Cl -1
Lithified detritus (breakdown products of preexisting rocks) forms which kind of sedimentary rock?
Clastic
What are the two categories of sediment?
Clastic sediment and Chemical and Biochemical sediments
The division of Earth's interior into core, mantle, and crust is used to describe differences in
Composition. (We use the crust-mantle-core terminology to describe differences in chemical composition in Earth's interior. We use the lithosphere- asthenosphere terminology to describe differences the physical state and behavior. Note that the boundaries between layers with different compositions do not occur at the same depths as the boundaries between layers with different physical properties. For example, there is a change in composition when passing from crust into mantle. But there is no change in physical state or behavior at this boundary- the uppermost part of the mantle behaves in the same way that the crust does because it is still far enough below its melting temperature to be a rigid, brittle solid. The transition to a softer, more pliable solid occurs further down within the mantle and this change in behavior occurs with no change in composition.)
Classifying sedimentary rocks
Contain evidence of their formation: Fossils, Bedding, grain size. Clastic, Chemical/Biochemical
passive margin
Continental coastlines that occur within the interior of a tectonic plate are called
In what ways does continental crust differ from oceanic crust?
Continental crust differs from oceanic crust in all of the following ways: its thicker, less dense, more buoyant, richer in light elements like Na, K, and Si, and poorer in dense elements like Fe and Mg relative to oceanic crust
Heat transfer that occurs through the movement of a fluid, driven by temperature differences among various points within the fluid, is termed
Convection
What type of boundary to volcanoes occur at?
Convergent boundaries
What is the ultimate limestone building environment?
Coral reefs
What types of volcanoes are associated with eruptions of basaltic magma? Name one example of each of these types of volcanoes, and explain how their shapes are related to their eruptive style.
Eruptions of basaltic magma produce shield volcanoes, such as Mauna Loa in Hawaii and cinder cones, such as Sunset Crater in Arizona. Basaltic magma is low in silica and so has a low viscosity, is very fluid, and flows easily. Eruptions of thin, fluid basaltic lavas produce broad, gently sloping shield volcanoes like Mauna Loa. If the basaltic magma is charged with gases, it produces a different style of eruption and type of volcano called a cinder cone. Gas rich basaltic magmas have frothy eruptions which hurl material through the air, which cools and piles up around the erupting vent. This forms a conical pile of loose cinders around the vent called a cinder cone.
vesicles
Escaping gasses can leave behind holes
How is a mineral such as quartz physically different from all other minerals based upon the combination of its crystalline structure and chemical composition?
Every mineral has a unique set of physical properties.
Phreatomagmatic eruptions are
Explosive
What are extrusive and intrusive intermediate rocks called?
Extrusive - andecites and dacites Intrusive - diorites and granodiorites
What are extrusive and intrusive Mafic rocks called?
Extrusive - basalts Intrusive - gabbros
What are the two categories of igneous rock formation?
Extrusive - cooled at the earth's surface intrusive - cooled at depth below the earth's surface
What are extrusive and intrusive Felsic rocks called?
Extrusive - rhyolites Intrusive - granites
How do you metamorphose something?
Heat and pressure-burry it deeper and deeper/layer.
Give an example of a mineral that is a different color than its streak?
Hematite
What color is the mineral Hematite and what color is its streak?
Hematite mineral looks black or silvery, but has a red-brown streak
Describe the classification of igneous rocks.
Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of composition and texture. Composition refers to the types and relative abundances of minerals present. Felsic igneous rocks are those with lots of light colored minerals and are rich in elements like silica, sodium, and potassium. Mafic igneous rocks are rich in dark minerals containing iron and magnesium, while intermediate igneous rocks have more equal proportions of light and dark minerals. Texture refers to the size and arrangement of mineral crystals in the rock and reflects how the rock formed. There are two basic types of igneous rock textures: intrusive, also called phaneritic, igneous rocks have larger mineral crystals because they cooled slowly underground. Extrusive (aphanitic) igneous rocks are fine grained because they cooled quickly at the surface. Other igneous textures include pyroclastic (explosive), vesicular (bubbly), and vitreous (glassy).
Chemical weathering in which water breaks apart bonds in silicate minerals to produce clay is termed
Hydrolysis?
Extrusive
Igneous activity that occurs at Earth's surface.
Intrusive
Igneous rock that formed below Earth's surface.
Andesitic
Igneous rocks created from cooled magma or lava that is a blend of basaltic and granitic magma or lava
Why does quartz have a higher hardness than calcite
Quartz has a higher proportion of covalent bonds than ionic bonds than does calcite.
How do we absolute date?
Radiometric dating
Melting of rocks to produce magma can be caused by
Raising the temperature Adding water Lowering the pressure
The metamorphic process by which high temperatures cause mineral crystals to change their size and shape, but not composition or structure, is termed
Recrystallization
METAMORPHOSIS
Recrystallization of a mineral
Rhyolite
Rhyolite -Felsic rock -May contain glass fragments and vesicles -Aphanitic texture -Minerals mostly quartz and potassium feldspars
*Metamorphic rock
Rock that was once one form of rock but has changed to another under the influence of heat, pressure, or some other agent without passing through a liquid phase.
Silicate Rocks
Rocks composed of silicate minerals (most common minerals, compound of silicon and oxygen).
Pyroclastic
Rocks formed from ejected rock fragments and other particles
What are the roles of pressure and heat in generating magma from solid rock?
Rocks in the lower crust and upper mantle are near their melting points An increase in confining pressure causes an increase in a rock's melting temperature or conversely, reducing the pressure lowers the melting temperature
What is the exemption to the rock color and composition rule, and what is an example?
Rocks that are made mostly of glass, obsidian is an example
Sediment
Rocks, mineral crystals, and organic matter that have been broken into fragments
Seismic waves that cause particles to move back and forth perpendicular to the direction of travel, such as Secondary waves, are termed ____ waves
S-waves
tetrahedron
SILICATE+OKYGEN main elements on Earth crust
Describe the Earth's internal structure in terms of both chemical composition and physical properties.
The earth is divided into three layers, a crust, a mantle and a core, that differ in their chemical composition. The crust is the thin outer layer, consisting primarily of oxygen, silicon and aluminum. It is further subdivided into continental and oceanic crust. The oceanic crust is thinner and denser, and is similar in composition to basalt (Si, O, Ca, Mg, and Fe). The continental crust is thicker and less dense, and is similar to granite in composition (Si, O, Al, K, and Na). The mantle is made of magnesium, iron and silicon. The core is almost exclusively iron and nickel. The outer core is liquid iron and the inner core is solid iron. The mantle and crust are further divided into the lithosphere, asthenosphere and mesosphere, depending on their physical properties, namely how close the material is to its melting point. The lithosphere is cold and rigid and includes the curst and uppermost part of the mantle where rocks are far below their melting point. Further down in the mantle is the asthenosphere where rocks are weak and can flow because they are close to their melting point. The deepest part of the mantle is the mesosphere where rocks are gain strong and below their melting point due to the high pressure.
What is Lake Nyos in Africa and example of?
The effects of CO2 gas
The study of a silicate mineral's atomic structure and chemical composition permits geologists to draw inferences upon which of the following?
The environment in which it was formed.
Big Bang Theory
The evolution of the universe came from a dense, hot state followed by expansion, cooling and a less dense state.
Crystallization
The formation and growth of a crystalline solid from a liquid or gas.
Continental Drift
The hypothesis that all continents were once joined together in a single land mass that broke apart, and moved. Named land= Pangea
How does the lithosphere differ from the asthenosphere?
The lithosphere is a rigid and brittle solid while the asthenosphere is a soft and ductile solid. (The terms crust and mantle are used to denote differences in chemical composition; while the terms lithosphere and asthenosphere are used to denote differences in physical state (for example, rigid, brittle solid vs.. soft, ductile solid). Because the boundaries between layers with different chemical compositions do not occur at the same depth as boundaries between layers with different physical properties, lithosphere cannot be considered synonymous with crust, not can asthenosphere be considered synonymous with mantle. For example, a large change in chemical composition occurs as you move from crust to mantle. However, there is no change in physical properties at boundary between crust and mantle because uppermost mantle is still cold enough relative to its melting point to behave in the same manner as the crust- as a rigid brittle solid. The transition to a soft ductile solid- the asthenosphere- does not occur until we get further down into the upper mantle - where temperature approaches the melting point of the mantle at that depth.)
What is the most common reason that melting occurs within the earth?
The lowering of pressure on hot rock
Rock
The material that makes up the solid parts of Earth
Muscovite and biotite are in the same silicate mineral group due to their extreme similarity (the micas; sheet silicates). What is the only significant difference between them?
The mineral's major cations.
According to the Periodic Table of the Elements, the atomic weight of silicon (Si) is listed as 28.0855. If the atomic weight is supposed to be equal to the total number of protons plus neutrons, why isn't this a whole number?
The number is the average value of all silicon isotopes, weighted by abundance.
When two oceanic plates collide:
The older plate will subduct
What is the oxidation state of an element?
The oxidation state of an element is the charge that it would have if it were an ion
Suppose you are given two mineral samples that have the same color and luster, what tests could you conduct to determine whether the two samples are the same mineral?
Use a streak plate to see if it has different streak colors, or see if one can put a scratch mark on the other to measure differences in hardness or you could measure its density
How is Venus different than the earth?
Venus is dry and has sulfuric acid rain, it is 860 degrees fahrenheit, and has 96% CO2 (in comparison to earth's 0.03%)
What leads to explosive eruptions? Step 1
Vesiculation: as magma rises to the surface and the pressure decreases, volatiles dissolved in the magma begin to be released forming vesicles
The idea that the facies we see in a vertical sequence will also replace each other laterally is refered to as?
Walther's Law
A sill is a. a sheetlike intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. a cooled layer of lava c. an intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. a sheetlike intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
a. a sheetlike intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock
Coarse grained diorite is most similar in mineral composition to fine grained a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite
a. andesite
Oceanic crust is produced by seafloor spreading. How is continental crust produced?
both of the above (Continental crust is produced at subduction zones as buoyant materials on the subducting plate are accreted to the leading edge of the overriding plate, while the remainder of the plate (due to its higher density) is subducted into the mantle. Introduction of water into the mantle by the subducting plate causes melting in the upper mantle producing magmas that are richer in silica and more like the continental crust than they are the mantle or the subducting plate. These magmas may erupt at the surface but most crystallize within the crust of the overriding plate as intrusion. Either way, more material is added to the continental plate. Both terrane accretion and partial melting makes continental crust by separating out buoyant materials from the subducting plate.)
The mineral assemblage within metamorphic rock is
both the minteral content of the prolith and the temperature and pressure of formation
What is the moho?
boundary between the Earth's crust and the underlying mantle
What is the difference between a breccia and a conglomerate?
breccias have angular fragments and conglomerates have rounded fragments
Erosion
broken up pieces of rock are carried by water, wind, or ice and deposited as sediments elsewhere.
the first widely used alloy in ancient civilizations was
bronze
The first widely used alloy in ancient civilizations was a) bronze b) copper c) gold d) iron
bronze? next comes iron
lithification
burial
The most abundant elements found in the Earth's rocks (such as oxygen, silicon, iron) were formed ________.
by fusion reactions within stars
How could you distinguish a sample of galena from a sample of pyrite?
by its different color since they have the same metallic luster
How can a minerals streak be found?
by scraping the mineral on a piece of unglazed porcelain called a streak plate
What determine how a mineral fractures?
by the crystalline structure of the mineral or the bonds between the atoms in the crystals
As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, all fine-grained igneous rocks ____________. a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temperatures d. solidify at lower temperatures
c
Ash and lava fragments that cascade down the sides of a volcano eventually settle and lithify to form ____________. a. basalt b. andesite c. welded tuff d. ash-fall tuff
c
Important volatiles in magmas include ____________. a. iron- and magnesium-rich minerals, such as olivine b. potassium and aluminum c. water and carbon dioxide d. trinitrotoluene and nitroglycerin
c
Which list below places important pure metals and alloys in chronological order from first to last (most recent) in terms of their widespread use by humans?
d) copper, bronze, iron
Commercial ore deposits are most likely to be found associated with a) thick basinal sandstones and shales b) blueschists c) evaporite sequences d) igneous rocks
d) igneous rocks
27 Igneous rocks
d, all of the above
4 Without plate tectonics, we would not have____
d, all of the above are correct
5 Evidence for a united Pangaea comes from the fossil record of which types(s) of organisms
d, all of the above are correct
3 If the outer core was not liquid, which of the following would be true about Earth
d, all of the above are correct,
31 Pahoehoe
d, all of the above are correct.forms when a basaltic lava flow ceascs flowing and solidifies simultaneously, has a smoother texture than a'a, is easier to walk on than a'a is
40 The characteristic "rotten egg" smell of many active volcanoes is derived from
d, hydrogen sulfide gas
44 The hot-spot track associated with the Hawaiian islands and emperor seamounts
d, shows that the pacific plate has been moving northwest for the last 30 million years
50 Based on the definition of a mineral, which of the following is a mineral or is composed of minerals
d, snow
20 The new age practice of surrounding one's self with crystals has a strong positive effect on
d, the bank accounts of rock shop owners
At a passive continental margin the primary geologic process occuring is
sedimentation (Passive continental margins are places where the crust changes from thick continental crust to thin oceanic crust, but functioning as one plate- moving at the same direction and speed - and as such do not coincide with a plate boundary. When that area of continental crust first started breaking up by continental rifting, it was at a new divergent boundary, but is now far from the plate boundary due to addition of new oceanic crust to the edge of each plate by seafloor spreading- with the plate boundary remaining at the ocean ridge. As the edge of the continental crust gets further and further from the divergent plate boundary where hot mantle rock is rising, the continental crust cools and subsides (having been heated and elevated during the rifting stage). Since the crust was also thinned by the rifting process, its not as thick as it once was and drops below sea level as it cools, forming a broad continental shelf. This provides a place for large amounts of sediment to accumulate - this sedimentation is the primary geologic process occurring in a passive margin setting.)
Which of the following lists is written in the order of increasing temperature ?
sedimentation, diagenesis, metamorphism
The deflections traced by a seismograph provide a record of the earthquake called a
seismogram
A fine-grained clastic rock that splits into thin sheets is
shale
What two type of rocks make up old salt marsh?
shale and sandstone
Consult the figure below. Spreading peanut butter on bread is an application of
shear stress
Waves in which particles of material move back and forth perpendicular to the direction in which the wave itself moves are called
shear waves
S-Waves
shear waves produced by an earthquake, slower than p-waves and so arrive later at seismic wave detectors
The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure
sheet
The diagram shows what type of silicate tetrahedral structure?
sheet
The locations and ages of islands in the Hawaiian Island chain can be used to show
the rate of movement of the Pacific Plate. (The Hawaiian Islands have been built by the passage of the Pacific plate over a mantle hotspot. The location and ages of the islands show the direction of movement of the Pacific plate as it passed over the hotspot. This is called a hot spot track. Because the Hawaiian islands are on the Pacific Plate they tell us nothing about the direction or rate of movement of the North American plate - the North American plate moves independently of the Pacific plate. They also don't tell us anything about the size of earthquakes to be expected in the Pacific Ocean - while passage of the plate over the hotspot, and subsidence as it moves off the hot spot results in earthquake activity, the largest earthquakes occur on the subduction zones that ring the Pacific basin.)
What does the term density mean?
the ratio of a material's mass to its volume
What is a minerals hardness?
the resistance of a mineral to scratching
The shear modulus measures
the resistance to change in shape
The bulk modulus measures
the resistance to change in volume
Lithosphere
the rigid outer shell of earth, consists of the crust and the outermost part of the mantle that is too cool to be partially molten
What is Mohs?
the scale used to rank the hardness of a mineral
Moho
the seismic discontinuity at the base of earth's crust
Rock cycle
the series of processes in which rock forms, changes from one type to another, is destroyed, and forms again by geological processes
One of the most important factors in limiting ionic substitution in a mineral is
the size of the ions
texture
the size, shape, and distribution of the particles that colectively constitute a rock
Surface waves
the slowest of all the waves;
vent
the surface opening of a conduit or pipe
Curie Temperature
the temperature at which a material loses it magnetism
The moment magnitude of an earthquake depends on all of the following except
the type of faulting
Outer Core
the upper part of the core that is made of liquid iron
Curst
the uppermost composition layer of Earth. very thin, composed of granitic continental crust and basaltic oceanic crust
Lithosphere
the uppermost mechanical layer of earth, brittle and is only layer in which earthquake can occur
What is the luster of a mineral?
the way in which its surface reflects light
What determines the crystal shape of a mineral?
the way the atoms are arranged in a particular crystal structure or geometric shape
The term "aeolian" refers to transport and deposition by:
the wind
Elements are arranged in the periodic table by
their number of protons the filling of electrons in different orbitals and energy levels their atomic number
Subduction zones were discovered when
when it was noticed that deep earthquakes are found only near ocean trenches, and that earthqauakes increase in depth with distance from the trench (Remember from Lecture 3 that earthquakes are not randomly distributed across the globe. Earthquakes are concentrated along plate boundaries. In particular, deep earthquakes (earthquakes that originate below the crust) are found only in association with ocean trenches. Further, earthquakes get deeper with distance from the trench, but only to one side of the trench (the "inland" side). These earthquakes mark the descent of cold, rigid oceanic lithosphere into the asthenosphere. Normally earthquakes are not possible in the asthenosphere because the asthenosphere is a soft solid close to its melting temperature. But where subduction occurs, cold, rigid oceanic lithosphere (the subducting plate) is sinking into the asthenosphere. The subducting plate remains cold enough and rigid enough to produce earthquakes to depths up to 700 km. This is how the process of subduction, and the places it occurs, was discovered - by the relationship of deep earthquakes to trenches.)
When does lithification happen?
when unconsolidated sediment is deposited in a sedimentary basin and buried beneath younger sediments, the heat and pressure of the burial is what causes the sediment to be lithified into sedimentary rock
Define intraplate/within plate volcanism and give an example
when volcanism does not occur at a plate boundary, Hawaii
Where the chemical bonds are the weakest will tell us?
where the mineral will break
It is unusual for ____________ to carry grains larger than sand.
wind
Which of the following is a renewable resource? a) coal b) oil c) wind d) natural gas
wind ***oil, coal, and gas are nonrenewable resources
Ash Dispersal
wind disperses the ash locally but if the ash cloud is tall enough to carry ash into the upper atmosphere global wind patterns can carry ash around the world
increases
with increasing distance from mid ocean ridges, age of oceanic crust _____
Hot spots can occur
within either continental or oceanic plates
Crystals of sulfur are always what color?
yellow
Is cleavage a type of fracture?
yes
MORs
youngest sea floor occurs at
