Educational psychology test 3

Classroom level techniques

- Reduce the competitive atmosphere of the classroom. When classrooms are competitive students are likely to adopt performance approach goals in may endorse performance avoidance goals if they experience failure and perceive themselves to lack competence - use appropriate methods of evaluation and recognition: Praise students only when they learn or do something well not for being smart perfect at a task or completing a task quickly Take development level into account when using praise Offer opportunities for improvement so students know that effort is important and their performance is not due solely to fixed ability Be aware that motivational strategies such as announcing highest and lowest scores posted grades and charting progress emphasize social comparisons. - emphasize the value of learning

Factors influencing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

-compared to students with high levels of extrinsic motivation students with high intrinsic motivation and low extrinsic motivation exhibit higher academic achievement and more self regulatory behaviors are more likely to engage in extracurricular activities and are likely to feel like they belong in the classroom. - students upbringing and cultural background can significantly influence their motivation. - students tend to become less intrinsically motivated as they move from upper elementary grades through middle and high school they prefer less challenging task and show less interest and curiosity about learning - students have multiple teachers switch classes and academic subjects organized into short periods this causes an environment where the students feel anonymous feel a little belongingness in the classroom and become disengaged with the subject matter. - middle and high school students have stricter academic and behavioral policies which leads to more extrinsic and a controlling atmosphere. As a result students make fewer independent decisions encounter more rules and experience poorer teacher student relationships. - students experience a greater emphasis on performance goals rather than mastery and learning for the sake of learning. This increases emphasis on competition. - students spend more time comparing their own skills and performance in academic subjects with those of their classmates which could lead to increased competition and focus on performance goals that we see during adolescence. These experiences lead students to become more extrinsically motivated and perhaps shift from an internal to an external locus of control

3 dimensions of attributions

1. Locus: where we place the cause of the outcome. Internal or External? Compared to external attributions ability and effort attributions for success lead to higher levels of pride confidence and self-esteem. 2. Stability: whether we perceive the causes being stable or unstable over time. We expect future success when we attribute success to a stable cars like the typical effort you make every time you study. However expectation decreases when we attribute failure to a stable cars. Our expectations for future success are not hampered when we attribute failure to an unstable cause as saying missing several classes because of illness. 3. Controllability: our personal responsibility for the cause of success or failure. Attributing success or failure to amount of effort generally leads to positive expectations for future performance. Attributing failure to uncontrollable causes such as believing we have low ability that cannot improve we might experience shame and avoid situations that may lead to failure.

Influences that effect self efficacy

1. Past performance 2. Vicarious experiences (or observing the performance of someone else) 3. Verbal persuasion (reassuring individuals that they will succeed or encouraging efforts) 4. States of emotional arousal (fatigue stress and anxiety are often interpreted as indicators of lack of competence)

Types of students

1. Success oriented students: intrinsically motivated and a value ability as a tool to achieve mastery on personally meaningful goals, they define success in terms of becoming the best they can be, regardless of achievements of others. 2. Overstrivers: driven by high hopes for success, but they have an excessive fear of failure. They are motivated to channel their fears into increased effort to ensure they perform better than others. Such as: attempting only very easy task, having low aspirations, rehearsing responses, paying excessive attention to detail, cheating. They are motivated by a sense of pride stemming from their success and by the temporary relief of not feeling creating a continual cycle of having to prove themselves. Anxiety and lack of control. When fail they consider this prove that they lack competence and may adapt strategies to avoid failure. 3. Failure avoiding students: are highly motivated to avoid failure but they do not have high expectations for success. They are motivated to temporarily avoid a negative outcome(The anxiety of being identified as incompetent) and internalize feelings of relief rather than pride. They engage in defensive pessimism setting unrealistically low expectations for performance which reduces likelihood that ability will be judged as inadequate. They also use several self handicapping strategies that prevent any real learning: minimizing participation, making excuses, procrastinating, setting unattainable goals, or not trying or making others think they didn't try. 4. Failure excepting students: neither approach success nor avoid failure. Rather from repeated failures to perform up to their expectations they except failure and give up the struggle to demonstrate their ability and maintain their self-worth. Failure excepting students: take a little credit for success and believe the success is the retirement by external, uncontrollable factors, blame themselves, and view a new failure as confirmation of their belief that they lack ability. Similar to students with learn helplessness in the most difficult to motivate and discount the importance of school as a last resort..

Locus of control

A belief that the result of one's behavior is due to either external factors outside of one's control such as luck or other people's behaviors or internal factors under ones control such as ability or effort.

Flow

A feeling of intrinsic enjoyment and absorption in a task that is challenging and rewarding

Introjected regulation

A form of extra and seek motivation in which individuals engage in an activity to comply with external pressure. They perform the behavior to avoid guilt or anxiety or a sense of pride.

Self-worth theory

A person's ability to achieve is directly linked to their perceptions of themselves An appraisal of one's own value as a person. They are motivated to protect their self-worth by maintaining a belief that they are competent. Schools value reward and competencies students perceptions of ability contribute to their self-worth. Proving their ability becomes a primary focus on students learning. Students become motivated to avoid a negative consequence such as looking less competent than their peers. Consequently students become extrinsically motivated. Their intrinsic motivation to learn becomes compromised. As students progress through school they experience greater emphasis on competition and performance evaluation, and their self-worth increasingly depends on their ability to achieve competitively. Extrinsic rewards for learning such as good grades or high performance on standardized test are symbols of success that maintain self-worth Oh focus on extrinsic factors may decrease students intrinsic motivation.

Outcome expectations

A set of beliefs, drawn from experience, about what the consequences (rewards or punishments) of certain actions are likely to be. (Success)

Integrating a self theories

All 3 Theories place importance on competence and intrinsic motivation Self efficacy depends on whether individuals believe they have the knowledge or skills to succeed on a task. Self-worth relies on a basic need to protect our perception of competence. Self-determination has its own core the individuals need to feel competent. Both self efficacy and self-determination are domain specific. For self efficacy, that means our expectations about accomplishing a specific goal. Self determination means our feelings of autonomy competence and relatedness can vary depending on the situation. Remember that are striving for autonomy competence in relatedness represent universal human needs. The theories provide similar suggestions for enhancing students intrinsic motivation.

Performance praise (outcome praise)

An evaluation of the end product " The argument in your term paper is clear and compelling"

Process praise

An evaluation of the process taken to complete a task, which provides students with positive feedback about what they have done well and what to do the next time. This form of praise may result in a belief that ability is controllable and able to be improved called and incremental believe about ability. It also fosters intrinsic motivation and feelings of competence and students

Self-efficacy theory

And expectation that we are capable of performing a task or succeeding in an activity, influences our motivation for the task or activity. Students with high efficacy and I'll come expectations approach difficult task as challenges to be mastered, set moderately challenging goals, and persist with task are difficult. Students with low efficacy and outcome expectations are easily discouraged by failure and therefore are not motivated to learn. Self efficacy is a critical determinant of behavior in school sports and social relationships. Domain specific Students with high self efficacy tend to choose more difficult task and mastery goals, respond more positively to negative feedback and persist with face with failure, choose more effective strategies such as organizing information, making connections, re-reading material, and monitoring performance.

Goal theory

Based on the premise that people with goals work harder than people without goals

Efficacy expectations

Believes that we have the requisite knowledge or skills to achieve the outcome A high school student my believe that studying leads to performing well in school, but she also must believe that she has the appropriate study skills to achieve success in school subjects.

Fostering self efficacy, self-worth, and self determination

Capitalize on interest and relevance. Provide realistic changes among task. Teach and model skills necessary for success. Focus on mastery: slightly above capabilities/difficulty level. Help students set appropriate goals Provide appropriate feedback Limit the use of external constraints and teaching (close monitoring) Foster relatedness in the classroom (you care about them as individuals)

Student level techniques

Change students attributions for success and failure. The first step is to determine what attribution students currently make for their successes and failures. Teachers can ask about their expectancy's and their views about scale improvement and difficulty level of task The next step is to encourage students to shift were making an entity attribution for failures to make a more positive attributions that will encourage them to continue trying and be intrinsically motivated. Providing feedback to students that attributes future success to effort and avoid pity for poor performance. Training students to attribute failure to lack of effort rather than too little ability by reading persuasive articles will participate in discussions that focuses on strategies for dealing with challenges and emphasize ability as improvable. Teach students to value Challenge, improvement, and effort. Provide short-term goals and strategies for making progress towards goals

Cognitive theories

Changing students motivation to learn requires changing the way they think. We need to understand students expectations for success and valuing of learning task, their goals for learning activities, and their attributions for their success and failures.

Decontextualized learning

Common in middle school and high school; Learners do not see the relevance of academic material

Becoming Self-Determined

Domain specific Individuals develop self determination through a developmental process called internalization To intrinsically motivate students, it is important for teachers to know what type of motivation along the continuum students currently exhibit

Mastery approach goals

Focus on improving intellectually, acquiring new skills and knowledge, and developing competence

Anxiety

For some students anxiety can significantly impair motivation and academic performance. They experience mental worry which most directly affects academic performance and significantly impair motivation. Girls typically show higher anxiety levels than boys girls may be sensitive to social approval from adults while boys may be concerned with peer Evaluation. Teachers own anxieties and personal entity views of ability and certain subjects Mason subtle but powerful messages to students especially girls. Teachers can use varied approaches for reducing students anxiety depending on when students experience anxiety during the instructional process. Older students may benefit more from techniques that focus on changing the negative use of ability and attributions for failure and worries in addition to study skills training. Relaxation techniques involve writing about one's emotions prior to stressful activity have been shown to reduce negative thoughts that might overburden working memory and increase performance.

Achievement goal

Includes both (a) the reason for undertaking a task and (b) the standard that individuals construct to evaluate their performance Ex. Student may decide to earn better grades to get into college or may decide that this means earning all Bs in classes

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Individuals are motivated by basic human needs: 1. Physiological needs (like food water shelter) 2. Safety needs (feeling non-threatened and having a sense of order and stability) 3. Love and belongingness 4. Esteem needs (achievement and for respect from others) 5. Self-actualization (I need to satisfy their full potential) Needs are organized according to their biological urgency with the most urgent was needed to be satisfied first. If lower needs are mostly unmet this would interfere with students interest in learning. Self-determination theory suggest that if needs for autonomy competence and relatedness are not supported students will not be intrinsically motivated.

Behavioral Theory (theory of operant conditioning)

Individuals who receive reinforcement would be likely to perform the behavior again

Person praise

Involves a favorable judgment about a persons attributes or behaviors such as you're so good at math. Does not indicate specifically what the student does well Controlling praise; The teachers favorable evaluation rather than the students intrinsic interest or self evaluation provides the motivation. Person praise may be detrimental to intrinsic motivation. This form of praise may result in a believe that ability is fixed and uncontrollable

Identified regulation

Is a slightly internalized form of regulation that approximates intrinsic motivation. They identify with the value of an activity, they've excepted regulation of the activity as their own anymore willingly in cages in the activity because they see it as personal relevance. A high school student who chooses to learn a foreign language because of its importance for career goals

Motivational problems

Learned helplessness and anxiety

Deficiency needs

Meaning we are motivated to obtain them when they are lacking in our environment 4 basic needs

Using Rewards Effectively

Occasionally use unexpected rewards Use expected tangible rewards sparingly withdraw rewards as soon as possible Use the most modest reward possible make rewards contingent on quality of work minimize the use of an authoritarian style

Integrated regulation

Occurs when individuals have fully excepted intrinsic regulations by integrating them with other aspects of their values and identity. A high school student might study regularly because it has become a part of her identity as a student

Learned helplessness

Occurs when students who have experienced repeated failures attribute their failures to causes beyond their control. They might attribute failure to external stable and uncontrollable causes such as teacher bias or task difficulty. Or they might attribute failure to internal stable or uncontrollable causes such as lack of ability. Says I can't, doesn't pay attention to the teachers instructions, doesn't ask for help when needed, does nothing, guesses, no pride in success, appears bored, easily discouraged, and gets out of or avoids work. Can be domain specific Even high achieving students can experience learned helplessness It is difficult to convince students with learned helplessness that they can succeed in the future because they believe others perform better than they did, do not take responsibility for their success, underestimate their performance when they do succeed, and interpret a new failure as further evidence of their lack of ability.

Informational praise

Process or performance praise because it provides students with information about what they have done well and what to do next time Enhances students intrinsic motivation that provides detailed info about one's competence and promotes a sense of mastery leading to: Increased interest, more positive self evaluations, more positive attitudes about the activity, persistence after experiencing failure, and a greater likelihood of choosing the activity during free time

Growth need

Self-actualization and self-esteem needs Individuals are continually motivated from within by a need for growth and maturation and fulfillment

Performance avoidance goals

Students are concerned with judging their competence relative to others such as failing a test they believe others will succeed on. goals that center on avoiding failure, particularly publicly observable failure

Performance approach goals

Students are motivated simultaneously by and need to achieve and a fear of failure. Because these students fear failure and have perceptions of low ability their goal is to demonstrate their ability to others and outperform others.

Self-regulation

The ability to control one's emotions cognitions and behaviors by providing consequences to oneself. Students with high self efficacy are more likely to engage in self regulatory processes, such as goalsetting, self monitoring, self evaluation, and effective strategy use. Many of these processes are linked to intrinsic motivation.

Expectancy-value theory

The amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal Expectancy: students expectations for success (can I do this task?) Value: reasons for undertaking a task (why should I want to do this?) Individuals tend to value what they are good at Can also predict motivational behaviors such as choice of activities, performance, effort, and persistence on activities.

External regulation

The least autonomous form of extrinsic motivation. Perform behaviors in response to extern all contingencies such as rewards praise punishments or deadlines

Intrinsic motivation

The most self determined and autonomous form of motivation

Intrinsic motivation

The reward is the activity or behavior itself Rewards undermined intrinsic motivation

Mastery avoidance goals

The students want to avoid situations in which they might fail to achieve mastery. A fear of not performing up to one's own standards Perfectionist are considered mastery avoid it because they set high personal standards and never want to be wrong or incorrect.

Comparing mastery and performance goal orientations

They result in positive outcomes such as persistence and effort. Performance approach goals are often linked to students use of superficial learning strategies such as memorizing but usually results in achievement. Mastery of protocols are not always linked to high achievement despite the use of deep level learning strategies such as planning and organizing material.

Causal attributions

We try to explain our performance through interpretations of events based on past performance and social norms.

Goal orientation

What drives our behaviors and choices can be described by two types of mastery goals into types of performance goals

Changes in goal orientations

When a child experiences a general shift from a mastery orientation to a performance orientation may be due to changes in the learning environment. In elementary school parents and teachers encourage a mastery approach to learning through an emphasis on effort and work habits and through feedback such as praise happy faces and stickers Middle elementary children's abilities are more systematically evaluated through reading group standardized test scores and grades. Intrinsically motivated to learn and approach to learning task to master them or show off their abilities rather than approach learning as a way to avoid misunderstanding or to avoid inferiority. From childhood through early adolescence children go become less related to their parents goals and their mastery orientations decrease. In middle and high school they often encounter performance orientated environments characterized by ability grouping harsher grading practices and competitive recognition practices. As a result students become socialized to adapt performance goals in response to competitive classroom environments that emphasize performance approach goals. High school students consider both grades and interest to be their major motivators. Students exhibit these behaviors because they believe putting forth effort indicates low ability a trait they consider to be stable and unchanging therefore they value performance goals and try to avoid exerting effort and academic task. Adolescents are more likely to adopt a work avoidance orientation if they perceive their parents as having performance approach goals for them, their teachers use a performance approach orientation, or they experience a decline in their perceived ability as a result of more challenging subjects.

Internalization

Where students acquire beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors from external sources and progressively transforms them into personal attributes values and self regulatory behaviors

Values

Why do students choose to complete academic test? - Intrinsic value: satisfying interest curiosity or enjoyment (completing a science project because the topic is interesting) - Attainment value: the intrinsic importance of being good at a task (studying spelling words to be a good speller) - Utility value: extrinsic usefulness for meeting short term and long term goals (Choosing to take calculus to prepare for college) Students who consider academic task to have high utility value show greater effort and achievement compared to those with lower value for the task Students also my Tuesday engage a task or to avoid task because of their cost Many factors influence how we value a task : values, view of them self, long and short term goals, competency beliefs, past experiences, parents beliefs and expectations, gender roles, cultural stereotypes

Extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment Trophies, awards, prizes, grades, praise, attention, recognition

Self-determination theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation We make our own choices in a need for competence that is an innate desire to explore and attempt mastery of skills. Need for relatedness or a sense of being securely connected with others Focuses on the needs

Academic intrinsic motivation

an orientation toward learning characterized by curiosity; persistence; attraction to challenging, novel tasks; and a focus on mastery of knowledge and skills

Work avoidance goal orientation

consists of procrastination or engagement in activities that interfere with completing a task A motivation to avoid academic work. Students often use surface level learning strategies and engage in behaviors such as pretending they don't understand something, complaining about assignments, engaging it off task behavior, taking the easiest path when given choices, and not contributing their fair share in group activities

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows A positive consequence for behavior Motivate behavior

Amotivation

lack of motivation No self regulation Unwilling to act at all "go through the motions" Feel incompetent Students may be a motivated because the academic task is unappealing to them or they do not value learning activity More in boys than girls

Performance contingent rewards

rewards that are based on how well we perform a task Seen as feedback or informational Less likely to undermine intrinsic motivation it may enhance intrinsic by providing positive feedback about students competence When students expect a performance contingent reward for achieving a certain level of mastery the anticipation of being evaluated may interfere with their intrinsic interest in the subject negative feedback may not in his intrinsic motivation because it's a just a lack of ability

Task contingent rewards

rewards that are given for performing/completing a task, regardless of how well the task is done Students see as controlling must only do what the teacher wants to get the reward, it undermines intrinsic motivation Student show less interest in the activity and choose to engage in the activity less often than before the reward Close monitoring by the teacher, deadlines, threats and directives, external evaluation, competition Matters how the student feels about the outcome. Positive performance feedback helps students with information about mastery and can facilitate intrinsic motivation more than winning a competition

Attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition