ENG 304 History and Theory of Rhetoric

7 functional categories by Cicero

roman statesman and orator Cicero summarized the 7 functional categories of organized speech that could be variously combined. Rooted in oral noetic. The (exordium) begins with quiet respectful reference to audience, narrations is where the speaker connects ideas by putting them together i a story. Digression is where the orator responds to something important in the moment. Peroration is where the speaker uses poetic language/diction to emphasis the importance of what was said. -literate elements include: partition where the orator lists the key issues of a subject. Confirmation is where the orator presents topical arguments. Refutation is where the orator responds in point-by-point fashion to arguments from the opponent.

3 representative rhetorical perspectives

single definition perspective systems perspective evolutionary perspective

Taylorism

A set of ideas, also referred to as "scientific management," developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, involving simple, coordinated operations in industry to find the One Best Way to do things. Taylor believed there was no contradicting objectives between labor and management.

Epistemology: Chapter 7

"Epistemology" is the theory of knowledge (from the Greek episteme, 'knowledge'). Francis Bacon (1561-1625 -He promoted what we now call empiricism, emphasized observation and experimentation, and stressed inductive over deductive thinking processes. -----"The duty and office of Rhetoric is to apply Reason to Imagination for the better moving of the will."--------- Reason->Imagination (emotion)->will •Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to the more general underlying principles or processes that explain them. Unlike the syllogism, which was the dominant logical form after Aristotle, induction begins with natural phenomena and works through a series of intermediate steps to arrive at general axioms or statements about nature. In the inductive method, also called the scientific method, observation of nature is the authority. Deductive reasoning typically moves from general truths to specific conclusions -Bacon said to observe the surrounding world, converse freely to generate fresh insight, and study (especially history). •For the sciences, Bacon recommended the inductive method for the inventive (discovery) process •For rhetoric, Bacon redefined invention in terms of memory: A person included their personal experiences -Bacon rejected syllogism-- •Bacon didn't reject Aristotle's topics, but he added four commonplaces that he thought were more practical: •"Colours of Good and Evil": These give the speaker ways to shade or color their statements to better imply that what they are referring to is good or evil. These are largely what today we call connotations. (For example, calling your mother "my female parent" instead of "mom.") •"Antitheta": These are theses which can be argued pro or con. Bacon lists 47 theses in De Augmentis •"Formula(e)": These are stock phrases, even stock paragraphs, that you memorize to say about a particular topic. (Today's politicians call these "talking points.") •"Apothegms": These are pithy statements or quotations that you can stick just about anywhere in a speech when you can't think of anything substantial to say. •Bacon is most famous for his "idols," or those tendencies which lead the mind astray from the truth. •Idols of the Tribe: These tendencies toward intellectual error derive from the nature of humanity in general. These include: Common sense—(the tendency to rely upon limited assumptions without verifying them as established truths) Beliefs—(the tendency to support one's personal beliefs) Wishful thinking—(the tendency to believe what one wishes to believe) Overgeneralization—the tendency to jump to conclusions on the basis of first impressions. •Idols of the Cave: •These tendencies toward intellectual error derive from the nature of the individual person. These include: Insularity (the tendency to overemphasis the area of knowledge or the subject with which one is most familiar.) Conservatism (the tendency to admire and prefer the past.) Novelty (the opposite of Conservatism—the tendency to admire and prefer anything new.) Authority (the tendency to accept authoritative propositions without critically evaluating them) Inertia (the tendency to bypass intellectually difficult problems.) •Idols of the Market Place: The most troublesome fallacy. •These tendencies toward intellectual error derive from the act of human communication. They include the use of: Meaningless words (the tendency to create words which are so general that they become meaningless to others.) Double-meaning words (the tendency not to clarify the specific meaning in which a word is employed.) Personal definitions (the tendency to employ words whose meanings are entirely personal.) Verbalisms (the tendency to attribute significance to insignificant words or phrases.) Jargon (the tendency to accept large words which transcend one's understanding) •Idols of the Theater: •These tendencies towards intellectual error derive from the things one has learned in the past. These include: Neglecting experimentation (the tendency which derives from the dogmatism and rigidity in one's learning that lead toward the acceptance of propositions that are not verifiable by the senses.) Superstition (the tendency to interpret all of reality in terms of religious authoritative beliefs) Rene Descartes (1596-1650) one of the earliest rationalists. Rationalists believe that much of our knowledge is based on intuition and deduced from intuitions. Thought poetry was a gift of nature rather than a fruit of study. -Claimed syllogism incapable of investigating the unknown/separating truth from error. It's useful in communicating what we already know. Descartes found that he could not doubt that he himself existed: "Cogito ergo sum"—"I think, therefore I am." This was important because it is possible that we were disembodied souls and a demon could be making us believe in an imaginary world (no, he didn't write The Matrix, but that was the idea). But if we can ground our knowledge of the world in an indubitable reality, we can defeat skepticism. The cogito is an "innate idea." He determined there were others, such as the existence of God. •Descartes believed that to achieve the certainty of knowledge, mathematics could provide a model for philosophical and scientific method. His 4-fold model had four simple rules: •Accept as true only what is indubitable. •Divide every question into manageable parts. •Begin with the simplest issues and ascend to the more complex. •Review frequently enough to retain the whole argument at once. •Descartes' faith in mathematics and his structuralist epistemology led him to conclude that the entire universe should be conceived as a structure. All of nature, including animals, were basically machines. •Most of human behavior, like that of the animals, is also susceptible to simple mechanistic explanation. Cleverly designed automata could successfully mimic nearly all of what we do. Although humans, too, were machines, they differed because they had a soul. This belief introduced into philosophy and rhetoric the notion of "mind-body dualism," or "the ghost in the machine." He even devised a test to judge whether something was an automaton or a person, the predecessor to the "Turin Test." ---Descartes' test for distinguishing automata from real human beings had two criteria: •Although an animal or machine may be capable of performing any one activity as well as (or even better than) we can, he argued, each human being is capable of a greater variety of different activities than could be performed by anything lacking a soul. •Although an animal or machine might be made to utter sounds resembling human speech in response to specific stimuli, only an immaterial thinking substance could engage in the creative use of language required for responding appropriately to any unexpected circumstances.--- John Locke (1632-1704) John Locke rejected the notion of innate ideas. •Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. •Locke thought humans have no soul or "essence," but who we are is integrated through our memory. We are the composite of our remembered experiences. •He postulated that the mind was born a blank slate or tabula rasa. he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception. •Ideas are either simple or complex. Simple ideas combine in various ways to create complex ideas. So all ideas find their source in sensory experience. •There are two types of experience: •Sensation—when the mind experiences the world outside the body through the five senses, •Reflection—when the mind turns inward, recognizing its own functions (thinking, willing, believing, doubting). -An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), one of the first great defenses of modern empiricism, attempts to determine the limits of human understanding. --Hailed as the "Father of Liberalism," Locke wants us to use reason to search after truth rather than simply accept the opinion of authorities or be subject to superstition. He wants us to accept only those propositions for which we have empirical evidence. But he also believed in "natural law." •As a scientist, Locke recognized that science required accurate communication, and accurate communication about scientific matters required standardized weights and measures. •In the same way, he thought language should be standardized. Thus a wave of dictionaries and grammars were published in the hope of helping people write and speak in the same way, in order to prevent miscommunication. •Locke lists six common abuses of language: •People often use words without really knowing what these words mean. •People use words inconsistently. •People purposefully make terms obscure by using old words for new and unusual uses or by introducing new terms without defining them. •People mistakenly believe that words refer to things rather than ideas. •People try to use words incorrectly to change their meaning. •People assume that others know what they are saying when they are not really being clear. •Locke suggests four remedies to counteract the natural shortcomings and the abuses of language: •Never use a word without having a clear idea of what it means. •Try to recognize the same meaning for words as others do so that we can communicate with a common vocabulary. •If there is the slightest chance that the meaning of your words will be unclear, define your terms. •Always use words consistently. -Rejected syllogism because it neither demonstrates nor strengthens the connection 2 ideas may have. Nor does it advance an argument or lead to moral truth. Giambattista Vico (1668-1744): Vico was Italian. Vico's intellectual enemy was Descartes. Had cyclical views. He objected to Descartes's belief that man was everywhere, always, and equally rational. In his view, rationality was a historical acquisition, not a constant component of human nature. Because Vico went against the grain of the Enlightenment, he influenced rhetorical thought very little until the 20th century. -prefered Tacitus (contemplates man as he is) and Plato (contemplates man as he should be) Cicero taught him that rhetoric is a useful art to help people adjust to demands of life therefore making them more productive. Cicero also taught him that rhetoric is a form of practical knowledge based on mathematical probability of truth in the physical world (stems from geometry). Cicero taught him that verisimilitudes constructed from topics of an argument, rather than recited physical facts, is a pivotal element needed to alter ones behavior. •Three assumptions underlie Vico's New Science: •Cultural artifacts are creations of human consciousness, nothing more and nothing less. •A human mind in the past operated in the same way that a present one does; •We are capable of understanding human phenomena in ways that are not possible with respect to natural phenomena. -a person's identity was defined through the continuity of the consciousness of a single individual- •Vico's principle is summed up in the phrase verum esse ipsum factum: "the truth itself is made." One can understand only what one has created or is in principle capable of creating. Truth is verified through creation or invention and not, as per Descartes, through observation. Math, for instance, is manmade, and that's why we can understand it. Since we are a part of nature, we can understand nature in part. But something mysterious about nature will remain for everyone but its creator. therefore, the Enlightenment was altogether misguided in its attempt to construct a science of human nature based upon a study of physical nature. Humans can understand themselves and everything they themselves have created, but they can do so only through an inductive study of culture, not through the study of nature. Therefore, the proper basis for a science of culture and a metaphysics of mind can be found only in a historical investigation of the encounters between human consciousness and nature as they occur in different parts of the world at different times and in different situations. [That is, Vico basically invented cultural anthropology]. David Hume(1711-1776): He taught us the value of experience as a source of knowledge, that using moral reasoning is better than syllogisms, and that rhetoric is a humane field of study/part of social science •Hume accepts the notion that the mind comprised of separate faculties that must be stimulated in this order to persuade an audience:•Memory, •Understanding,•Imagination (Very important in Hume. Directed by the principles of association, it creates new ideas, either through creating relationships among the ideas of the understanding or through those of the fancy. Hume thinks that the same basic principles of association among ideas explain both flights of fancy due to the exclusive imagination and probable inferences due to reason.)•Passion,•Will •Hume relies heavily on John Locke's empiricism. He lays out mental perceptions as follows:•Impressions,•Of sensation (external),•Of reflection (internal),•Ideas•From memory,•From imagination,•From fancy,•From understanding,•Involving relations of ideas,•Involving matters of fact • Much like Locke, Hume begins by dividing all mental perceptions between ideas (thoughts) and impressions (sensations and feelings), and then makes two central claims about the relation between them. • First, advancing what is commonly called Hume's "copy principle," he argues that all ideas are ultimately copied from impressions. That is, for any idea we select, we can trace the component parts of that idea to some external sensation or internal feeling. •Second, there are several mental faculties that are responsible for producing our various ideas. He initially divides ideas between those produced by the memory, and those produced by the imagination. The memory is a faculty that conjures up ideas based on experiences as they happened. •As our imagination takes our most basic ideas and leads us to form new ones, it is directed by three principles of association: (pg. 160) •Resemblance—a picture of a friend leads me to an idea of my actual friend. "teaches us to recognize ideas & impressions that are conjoined with each other. •Contiguity—the idea of one building leads me to think of one next to it. •Cause and effect—seeing the stain on my shirt leads me to think of the coffee I spilled on it. •Hume says there are two basic forms of reasoning: •Demonstrative reasoning—about relations between either intuitively or demonstratively certain ideas like math (not Rhetoric) •Moral Reasoning—about human affairs (Rhetoric) •Moral reasoning is based on factual data related to experience, and there are four basic types of moral arguments:•Arguments from experience,•Arguments from testimony,•Arguments from analogy,•Arguments from calculations of probability (chance or causes (statistics) Particular audience- consists of people who share general traits of human nature. Those characteristics of a particular people have brought them together as a group to receive a message. Philosophical audience- an audience that strives for impartiality in judgements and free of prejudice •One critic, Marc Hanvelt, summarizes Hume's views on "high rhetoric" like this: "Hume's work was motivated by his interest in defeating the forces of faction and fanaticism. His philosophy of mind exposed the porous foundations of superstitious beliefs. It also revealed the power of rhetoric to disseminate beliefs, both sound and superstitious. Hume was acutely aware of the dangers posed by rhetorically gifted fanatics. However, unlike many of his contemporaries, he saw these as dangers of fanaticism not rhetoric. Hume distinguished between the low cant of the fanatics and a higher form of rhetoric that could persuade people, without manipulating them, to pursue common goods. His writings suggest a complex conception of rhetoric that is rooted in his philosophy of mind and that reconciles rhetoric with the values of politeness. This reconciliation of rhetoric and politeness is the most distinguishing feature of Hume's insights for stealing the thunder of the 'trumpeters, drummers, and musicians of the army.'" David Hartley: Argued that all ideas are derived from sensations caused by vibrations in the nerves of the muscles. As ideas enter the mind they transformed through the power of association into complex beliefs and attitudes that stimulate human action. 7 classes: sensation, imagination, ambition, self-interest, sympathy, theopathy (religious emotion), and moral sense. -insisted rhetoric conforms to reality Lord Kames: Combines analytical and synthetic methods. Takes notes from the Newtonian theory and Locke's doctrine of the association of ideas. Traced particular causes to reach a general concept. Joseph Priestley: Discovered oxygen and invented soda water. -Course of Lectures on Oratory and Criticism (1777) argued that topics and ideas are tied in with experience and recollection which are associated by means of their connection with and relation to one another. -Acknowledged that pleasure derived from a discourse results in a stimulation of the imagination and passions. -refered to as an index scholar because all his work relys on other's works.

british and continental rhetoric system

(1550-1850) -full-scale modernism (literacy, market economy, bureaucratic government) wasn't possible until the Industrial Revolution which brought the factory system -neoclassical approach (restated graeco-roman system), belletristic/fine literature (approach aimed to instill good artistic taste), epistemological-psychological rhetoric (focuses on new theories of how the mind worked), elocutionary (movement that applied science to the canon of rhetorical delivery {scientific view of public speaking}) -trade/manufacturing increased leading to a growth in capitalistic institutions. This creates a need for "economic and commercial info" (press and postal system). The press became interested in catering to educated people about literary & social matters. This lead to that demographic gathering to discuss those topics. These democratic discussions began happening in politics next. This leads the new business class to want a say in government. This leads to press covering politics. the transition from premodernism/pastoral life to urban environment created the context that resulted in this type of rhetoric

Quintilian's system

a memory system devised to use visual representations by orators to conduct their speech. "Taught that the orator's memory should be arranged according to a visual system of localities" (a mental picture with symbols to represent key parts of a speech)

Rhetorica ad Herenium

written in the first century -Greek Inventio (chose a topic/identify relevant ideas & evidence) Dispositio (organization)-select ideas best suited in clear sequence for the purpose, audience, and occasion elocutio-refers to the style and rhetorical devices the speaker uses memoria-embraces the mental process of recall pronuntiatio-delivery as in the voice/physical action *the end of a speech influences the feelings of listeners***

contemporary rhetoric

(post-1930)

Citizen Orator Powerpoint info

-Plato studied rhetoric from the perspective of a philosopher; Aristotle studied rhetoric from the perspective of a scientist. -Primary purpose of rhetorical education was to train students' character, so that they might become good citizens, leaders, and persons. -These three writers' lives cover a large historical span and two cultures: Isocrates, a Greek contemporary of Plato and Aristotle, lived 436-338 BCE; Cicero, a Roman in the latter part of the republican era, lived 106-43 BCE; and Quintilian, a Spaniard but a Roman citizen, lived in the imperial era. -Stasis theory assumes that, although every judgment involves the consideration of multiple questions, ultimately the final decision will rest (stasis) on one, central issue.

Important Sophists

-Protagoras, had been a student of Anaxagoras, who had been prosecuted for impiety because he had taught that the sun, moon, and stars were red-hot stones and not gods. Protagoras taught that arête, excellence, was the result of training and not innate—not the natural consequence of an aristocratic birth. His teaching focused on practical skills, particularly upon rhetoric, since the art of persuasion was essential to success in Greek politics. He was one of the first to claim that truth was plural, and he instructed his students to argue both sides of every question because the whole truth could not be limited to just one perspective. -Anaxagoras was also the first to offer an accurate explanation of the cause of eclipses.

Cicero's speech strategies

-an effective speaker uses props and visual aids -believed emotion was most important -Make key points of a speech rhyme or have a slogan to be better remembered "If the gloves don't fit you must acquit" -repetition: if you tell someone something often enough they will believe it -guilt by association: insinuate that the person is terrible because they keep bad company -mudslinging: focusing on personal defects rather than their political policies -labeling: try to associate in the listeners' mind abstract positive qualities with yourself and negative about your opponent. -fearmongering: suggesting that if the opponent wins bad things will happen -appeal to the gods and religion: "God is on my side" -simplification: reducing complex issues and debate to simple emotional arguments -transferal: flip the argument around on your opponent -testimony: cite witnesses or use vague phrases "everyone knows..." -divert/distract: draw the audience away from opponents good points with a sensational statement -humor: audiences like to laugh. make them laugh at your opponent. -delivery: arguably the most important. Poor speech given with great delivery is better than a good speech delivered poorly. -use of gestures was to tell you how to feel as an audience

Ivor Armstrong Richards

-focused on how language and words come to mean. Focused on meaning -During the 1930s, Richards spent much of his time developing Basic English, a system originated by Ogden that employed only 850 words; Richards believed a universally intelligible language would help to bring about international understanding...." Works -The Meaning of Meaning (1923) -Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936)- PG 261. "Rhetoric Should be the study of misunderstandings and its remedies" -Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) Facts •Richards argued that language alone does not give its signs meaning, but that meaning is generated by the interaction between the signs, the language, and the context in which the signs are used or encountered. •What a sign or word means is the missing parts of the context. A sign "stands for" an "absent cause and conditions." How does it do this? No one knows. We don't know enough about neurology yet, Richards says, but since each person has experienced different conditions and causes, signs mean something a little different for each person because the context they bring to the interpretation is always a little different. -Any part of a context (event or thing) appears related the possibility exists that an entire context will be remembered and the organism will act as if the total context were present (pg 262) -Interinanimation: the mutual dependency and interaction which links words and symbols together in a literary relationship (pg 265)

modern

-secure needs via people in the city where environment is people more than nature -the shift from a completely hierarchical family to a more egalitarian one contributed to later modernism's increasing focus on the individual. Families shift from an economic unit to a domestic unit -tends to favor a morality based on guilt (internal self judgement) (de Tocqueville's theory: tyranny of the majority, where the majority has overwhelming power to dictate opinion and repress non-conventional life choices) the factory system allowed for efficiency rather than tradition emphasis on actions (not words), materialism (not spirituality), and individualism (not a fixed hierarchy)

Richard Whatley (1787-1863)

-subscribed to Campbells idea that rhetoric is less concerned with investigation and discovery than with management. An orator must approach rhetoric as a communicator not an investigator. Whately taught there were two types of argument: •a priori : reasoning from cause to effect ("an accounting for"). •In these arguments, one explains (accounts for) why something is the case by demonstrating how it came to be the case. Here, one shows that the conditions necessary for something to happen or be did, in fact, happen or exist. •sign: reasoning from an "effect to a condition." •In these arguments, one demonstrates that because something is, in fact, the case, the conditions necessary for it to be or happen must exist or have existed. This distinction is very similar to the more common distinction between deductive (from the general to the particular) and inductive (from the particular to the general) reasoning. testimony is an argument from sign. He describes three types of testimony: •"Undesigned testimony": Incidental and unplanned testimony—strong in its disarming simplicity •"Negative testimony": When an advocate fails or refuses to contradict a claim that is widely known (widely publicized). It is assumed that the uncontradicted statement has validity. •"Concurrent testimony": When several witnesses, unknown to one another, testify in a similar way.] -The use of all three is necessary for a solid argument. This is called progressive approach" •One of Whately's most long-lasting contributions to argumentation theory is his recognition of the importance to legal and other debates of distinguishing between which side has the "presumption" and which side has the "burden of proof." The side with the presumption does not need to present an argument at all until it is challenged in a relevant venue. •Presumption: Whately argued that, contrary to what thinkers before him had assumed, presumption is not "a preponderance of probability" but a "preoccupation of the ground" (i.e. that side which the majority of a given audience favors at the outset of a speech). •Burden of proof: The rhetor who seeks to dispute the presumption (what most of the audience already believes) has the burden of proof, and he or she is the one who has to prove the case. •In law, there is a presumption in favor of the accused. In all instances of alleged wrongdoing, the accused person is presumed to be innocent at the start of a trial. (This does not mean the accused is probably innocent, but that the accused does not have to prove he or she is innocent.) •There is a presumption "in favour of existing institutions"—e.g. the Christian church, the two houses of Parliament, Oxford and Cambridge universities, etc. "Change is not a good in itself." •There is a "presumption against anything paradoxical"—that is, against anything that is "contrary to prevailing opinion." •There is a presumption with respect to the Christian religion as a whole: the religion is now largely accepted and so has current presumption in its favor. •There is a presumption favoring well educated people, particularly in their areas of special expertise. •There is a presumption in favor of tradition: This usually has presumption on their side and prove there is a tradition and that its entitled to respect and establish this point •The burden of proof may be transferred, and the presumption overthrown (i.e. some presumptions are more fundamental and so can trump others). •There is a relation between presumption and deference: There is a strong tendency to defer to a person who has, in the eyes of the judges of a debate, a higher level of ethos. •Since Whately, it has been assumed that no meaningful debate can take place until it is determined where the presumption lies•Important: Whately does not think that there is a necessary advantage to the side having the presumption. •Whately was primarily a logician, and his approach to rhetoric was from that perspective, so he had little of importance to say about most of the traditional canons besides invention, and that was limited to what Aristotle referred to as logos. •Nevertheless, his contributions to such matters as testimony, presumption, and the burden of proof were important, influential, and long-lasting.

sophists hoplites

-teachers who taught the public -men who owned property or maintained a trade such that they had funds to purchase armor and the ability to take time away to train.

Chapter 3: The Scientific Approach of Aristotle

-wrote over 170 pieces; 30 survived, with 2,000 pages -Aristotle thought rhetoric had four important functions: to uphold the truth, to teach suitably to a popular audience, analyze BOTH sides of the question, enable one to defend oneself. -enthymeme: a rhetorical syllogism drawn not from universal principles belonging to a particular science but from probabilities in the sphere of human affairs -an infallible sign is an assumption that can be scientifically verified -four common topics: possible/impossible, past fact, future fact, and size. -special topics are not as broad and focus on a particular thing -lines of argument is methods of reasoning rather than material propositions -demonstrative enthymeme: begins with consistent propositions and reaches affirmative conclusions -refutative enthymeme: its purpose is to controveert the demonstrative, the conclusions are obtained from inconsistent propositions and its purpose is not to affirm but to destroy a premise -maxims enhance the character in the audiences eyes.(pg 71) -four cardinal virtues Aristotle believed to be essential for an ideal republic: courage, temperance, wisdom, and justice. The Greeks added magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, and magnificence. -4 parts of a speech: Proem/introduction, Statement, Argument, Epilogue/conclusion -In audience analysis: the audience wants to be happy, age impacts reception -an analogy is the most commonly used metaphor. -Aristotle didn't believe in delivery but rather style

George Campbell 1719-1796

Became a minister like his father -founding member of Aberdeen Philosophical Society -in the general area of rules and in his lengthy treatment of language control and style, he followed closely to the ancients (pg 179) - intentional theory takes more of the modern scientific thought than classical precepts -His focus was on rhetoric not philosophy Campbell's definition of Rhetoric: Rhetoric is seen as an art or talent by which discourse is adapted to its end. (dialogue is used to meet the desired conclusion) Believed Rhetoric to be a developing dynamic process. Campbell's definition of audience: Viewed memory and understanding the audience as a way to stimulate their passion. The audience is his focus point. -liked the classical emphasis on rules as an art form -states that everything worth reading in French or English is copied from Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian Campbell's Features of Rhetorical Theory: -Enlighten: This means to explain the unknown and removing doubt -Awaken: awaken the memory and please the imagination with pleasing images (paint a picture with words) -moving: moving the passions requires the ability to astonish and delight and the ability to invoke love pity and grief which can offset one another -Will: guide the audience to the orators needs. Rhetoric creates vivacity by making the ideas of the imagination more real. Campbell's inspiration -Francis Bacon: inductive reasoning and scientific investigation. Practical knowledge must be established in scientific truth. Truth could give scientific explanations for events that could only previously be observed. -Thomas Reed: took ideas about common sense. Humans act similarly to clear and obvious motives (stimulus) -Quintilian's "good man" theory. As a preacher, he thought it was exceptionally important that the audience believed that the speaker was a good person—the speaker's perceived character was even more important than his/her perceived intelligence -Locke: Like Locke, Campbell taught that passions either pleasant or painful—and passions are produced by an idea's association with something to which one is attracted or repulsed. -Campbell also held to the doctrine of "sympathy." For him, there was no persuasion without sympathy, and no sympathy without trust. Sympathy is a social affinity in which one person closely understands the feelings of another person. (This conception reflects classical ethos, plus Locke's and Hume's insistence that only common sensations/impressions produce common ideas. Sympathy requires that each of two parties actually are very much like the other in certain respects. It is analogous to sympathetic vibration in music.) (pg 173) Campbell's works -Dissertation on Miracles: Contains contributions to rhetorical theory such as basic elements of faculty psuchologu, the laws of association, sympathy, moral reasoning, and common sense. Was a rebuttal on David Hume's essay on miracles. He thought the mind was separated into faculties that should be viewed as a hierarchy -Philosophy of Rhetoric (3 parts): Part 1 on the Nature and Foundations of Eloquence. Part 2 the Foundations and Essential Properties of Elocution. Part 3 The Discriminating Properties of Elocution•The Philosophy of Rhetoric is on wit and humor. Wit is the result of novelty and surprise. Humor is more pathetic than wit and inferior to it. Influenced by Pepys, Scotsman, James Bothwell -Lectures on Pulpit Eloquence: taunted his contemporaries for their inability to extend the highly artistic approach to rhetoric developed by the ancients - Campbell's Logical Proofs •Following Hume, Campbell divides evidence into two types: •Intuitive evidence•Campbell describes three types of intuitive evidence:•Mathematical axioms—These are immediately apprehended and require no further proof. •Ex. "Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another." (Euclid) •Consciousness of sensory messages—If you see the color red, that's all the proof you need that you see red. •Common sense—these "immediately comprehended relations" cannot be proven empirically or logically, and they are shared in varying degrees by all people. Ex: "Whatever has a beginning has a cause." "The course of nature will be the same tomorrow that it is today." "there are other intelligent beings in the universe besides me •Deductive evidence•Campbell says that there are two types of deductive evidence—scientific proof and moral reasoning. When he refers to scientific proof, he means the Cartesian variety, which excludes degrees of certainty or contradictions (as one finds in mathematics and pure logic). Scientific proof is outside the scope of rhetoric. Moral reasoning AKA: rhetorical reasoning, is concerned about "moral" or practical issues for which there can be no certain, only probable, answers. In describing moral reasoning, Campbell follows Hume, and gives four "species" of moral evidence.•Experience •Based on personal observation—it allows going from examples to a universal premise. •Analogy •Analogy is "indirect experience" founded on a resemblance between a known and unknown. (Campbell says it cannot advance truth, but it can reduce an opponent's refutation). •Testimony—our book says this is a "landmark in argumentation theory" Campbell claims that testimony is "an original principle of our nature." Testimony is evidence based upon the observations of others. Testimony is stronger for single facts than is experience. The criteria used in corroborating or invalidating the claims of a witness are. The "reputation" of the author and the manner of his or her "address." The nature "of the fact attested." The "occasion" and the "disposition of the hearers to whom it was given." The use of "concurrent" testimony. Calculation of chances: With the aid of mathematics, one might predict on the basis of past experiences stored in memory what the likely statistical probability of an occurrence might be (e.g. annuities, insurance, etc.). Syllogism: 1: proceeding by synthesis and from universals to particulars, runs counter to moral reasoning which proceeds by analysis and from particulars to universals. 2: it has not been used by mathematicians as an appropriate means of demonstrating theorems. 3: it is of little utility in applying knowledge stemming from experience. 4: since it is confined primarily to the adjustment of language to express previsoul-known concepts, it contributes nothing to our understanding. Persuasion Vs Conviction •Following Blair, Campbell accepted the distinction between "conviction" and "persuasion."---"Conviction" occurs when the faculty of the understanding recognizes the logic of an argument and accepts its conclusion as being true.---•"Persuasion" occurs when the faculty of the will is moved so that the audience wants to act upon the conclusion. Persuasion is a 4 step process based on faculty psychology. 1.The understanding must be instructed, so that the audience understands the problem to be solved or the action to be taken. The understanding requires perspicuity (clear and concise language) and demands logical explanation and proof. 2.The imagination must be stimulated, by drawing upon the audiences' memory to construct strong images of the issue, so that the audience has a vivid sense of the situation and keeps its attention focused upon the argument. The imagination combines remembered images which, in combination, the audience has never perceived. (For instance, the speaker's language might create an image in your mind of your own currently healthy mother dying from COVID-19.) 3.The audience's passions must be stirred by associating the imagined situation with the audience's values, beliefs, personal experiences, and so forth. The passions are stirred through the association of images (through resemblance, contiguity, or cause and effect). Stirring the passions, according to Campbell, requires a "vehement" style. "Lively ideas" are necessary to move the passions. Dry abstractions won't work here. The ideas need to be concrete and tied to the audience's experience. Circumstances that are instrumental in operating on the passions: probability, plausibility, importance, proximity of time, connexion of place, relation to the persons addressed, interest in the consequences. 4. The resulting emotions move the audience's will to act.•Moving the will requires the speaker to connect these aroused passions to the conclusion reached by the understanding. Things a speaker should know about the audience education levels, moral culture, habits, occupation, political leanings, religious affiliation, and locale. •Doctrine of Usage—Campbell's most importance contribution to style was his "doctrine of usage" which still influences the teaching of written composition today. a stylistic standard is required in order to produce a degree of stability, accuracy, and propriety in our language. •The doctrine was a set of standards by which to judge the appropriateness of a word, phrase, or idiom. Campbell thought such standards were necessary to preserve the stability, accuracy, and propriety of language. •The standards were Impure: Not using the national use could show one is motivated by affectation and undue pride •Reputable use (model your style on the styles of respected authors) •National use (avoid localisms, regionalism, foreign terms, and professional jargon) •Present use(avoid mimicking the styles of authors of previous ages) -•Campbell recommended perspicuity, but he also saw the importance of using figurative language to stimulate the imagination and passions.

the systems perspective

Douglas Ehninger published a study "On The Systems of Rhetoric" saying rhetoric has no single definition therefore its rhetorics systems. systems are defined as "an organized, consistent, coherent way of thinking about something" a system of rhetoric is an organized set of generally understood analytic principles that are practiced and taught which suggests no system can exist without a literate approach to the subject matter 3 systems development of democratic institutions and to be your own lawyer which means oral discourse emphasis on persuasion 3 forms of proof: ethical/personal, logical, or reasonable, and pathetic or emotional, and grammatical ****(this includes fundamental 5 canons: inventio (message), dispositio ( organization and adaptation), elocutio (language control and style), memoria (memory), and pronunciatio (voice usage and bodily activity) multiple rhetorics rhetorical systems are closed systems like languages bc languages don't translate well

Deme agora arte hubris Epicureans stoics

Greek term for rule by pricinct. It meant that on almost any day one might be called upon to speak on a matter of public policy. -marketplace (uniquely foreign in Athens) -the knowledge and attitude for effective participation in domestic, social, and political life -Hubris, strictly speaking, occurs when human beings attribute to themselves qualities that rightly belong only to divinities, and in Greek literature, such a usurpation of the divine always inevitably, results in the severe punishment of the offender. -defined pleasure as an absence of pain in the body/trouble in the mind -stoics valued self-control/wisdom and claimed there was a basic order to the universe known by man

educational-philosophical school of thought

Isocrates began as a logographer (speech writer) in Athens. Couldnt be a good speaker due to stage fright and a quiet voice. -From a wealthy family, Isocrates studied with Gorgias, Prodicus, and Socrates. -Rival of Plato - He taught that the main consideration of rhetoric was•Appropriate action (prepon) at•The appropriate time (kairos) -392 BCE, five years before Plato's (truth-seeking vs Isocrates' practical training in civic leadership), Isocrates built a school of speech. Requirements: 15 years old, competence in science, math, promise in voice control, intellect, and nerve. Astronomy/geometry are mental gymnastics to prepare the mind for philosophy and civics. Studied history, poetry, writing, debate, classical prose, philosophy, math. --Isocrates believed there were three essentials for learning: natural ability, training, and practice-- -"no interest in idle speculation nor did he believe in the existence of an absolute truth... The moral man was one who chose wisely in a given situation...education in the wisdom of choice was essential exercise for the soul -"none of the things which are done with intelligence take place without the help of speech" -"learning to speak properly was tantamount to learning to think properly" -"Isocrates made his students study his speeches which were propaganda that mirrored his belief in pan-hellenism which is the belief that the Greeks should stand together against barbarians (Persians) -"Against the sophists" by Isocrates is an attack on itinerant professors of his day and serves as the prototype for Plato's Gorgias -Isocrates' name is listed most in Aristotle's Rhetoric -Greek invented Rhetoric but the Romans perfected it -Grammaticus is an elementary teacher that corrects spelling, grammar, , reading, punctuation, and interpreting poetry. -declamation: instructor presents a case similar to those debated at the Roman Forum and students would argue its merits as closely as possible to reality. -orator is the training with the goal of producing a philosopher-orator-statesman -Cicero wrote de oratore -Romans called the 5 canons of rhetoric: inventio (the message), dispositio (organization/adaptation of the message), elocutio (style and language control), memoria (memory), prounciatio (voice control/bodily activity/appearance). -Stasis: the Romans version of logos. concurs with Aristotle's interpretation of commonplaces, lines of argument, and enthymematic reasoning. "they said...crucial logical elements of stasis...came to mean the central turning point in a case--the issues upon which a debate my hinge: fact, definition, and quality. ***Cicero and Quintilian argued that the state of any case could be determined by asking certain questions: whether a thing is, what it is, and of what kind it is. -Quintilian's analysis of Cicero's Milo is defeated (pg 87 paragraph 2) -Arguments are derived from the motives for actions done or to be done (cause, place, time, manner) according to Quintilian -inventio: (ethical proof) Aristotle defined it as intelligence, character, and good-will. Romans broadened ethical proof to include the thrust and image of the speaker's life as a whole. The notion of a "perfect orator" is born. --Quintilian defines the perfect orator (good man theory) in Institutes Of Oratory. Technical skill is subordinate to moral strength of the speaker. Quintilian believed no man can be an orator unless he is a good man. They have to be vice free, lover of wisdom, sincere believer in the cause which he advocates, a servant of the state and the people. the end is the leading principle of life and any methods the orator uses are acceptable if the cause which he defends is just. (pg 88)-- Pathetic Proof: extended from Aristotles views of rational men. In Orator by Cicero: impressive pathetic appeals must be used as a reinforcement of logos. Cicero set the stage for Quintilian who observed "there is room for addresses to the feelings" -Despositio: Roman organization is 7 parts. four parts of a speech outlined by Aristotle: Proem, statement, argument, and epilogue. exordium, partition, narration, proof, refutation, digression, and peroration. --The purpose of an exordium (introduction) is to arouse attention and orient the listeners regarding the theme and to conciliate. Strongest argument come first and the weakest in the middle of a speech. -Cicero amplified the classical notion that dispositio embraces audience analysis and adaptation as well as arrangement. -Quintilian approached speech organization from a defendant in a legal case perspective. -Elocutio: Language control. Cicero declared the speakers purpose would determine his use of language: to prove he will resort to the plain style (propriety). To please he will employ a middle style (charm) championed by Isocrates. to persuade he will choose the grand style of discourse (magnificent and ornate). The ideal orator is one who mastered all three -Memoria: the canon of memory which is unmentioned in Aristotle's Rhetoric. Simonides first taught this. The association of words to visual images. Cicero was obsessed with the order of thoughts (92) Quintilian asked potential speakers to visualize a house with furniture in each room associated to an idea and thought the best way to improve memory is through practice and industry. -Pronunciatio: a speakers manner of presentation. Aristotle ignored this so the Romans explored it. -In Rhetorica ad Herennium; there are three speaking tones: the conversational, the debating, and the pathetic -Cicero defines it as the control of the voice and body in a manner suited to the dignity of the subject and style of the speech. Believes that we look to nature for a musical voice and clarity can be improved by practice -Quintilian agreed that good delivery comes from nature but that it can be enhanced by nature. Placed emphasis on the association of the emotions with delivery. He is the first rhetorician to provide extensive treatment of gesture and facial expressions. (pg 93) -Artistic Form: Cicero had a special interest in producing rhetorical works that have artistic form -Cicero and Quintilian set forth three other requirements for the formation of an accomplished speaker: inherent natural ability, extensive reading knowledge of the arts and sciences, a program of practice in writing. -Quintilian called this discipline the roots and foundations of eloquence. -Cicero separated orators of Greek and Roman eras into three categories: those who could write but not speak, those who could speak but not write, those who were outstanding speakers and writers. -Cicero relates rhetic to conversation. Cicero says that in order to be an effective conversationalist you should focus on timely/worthy subjects such as family affairs, politics, arts, and science. You have to adapt the conversation to the audience. (pg 96) --Cicero's great essay "On Moral Duties" was written in the year of his death and placed action above philosophical speculation. -3 major approaches to rhetoric: -Moral-philosophical: represented by Plato. Established its ideal of the noble lover--a speaker who seeks to lead an audience to a truth centered will of the gods -Scientific-philosophical: epitomized by Aristotle. A communication model comprised of a speaker, speech, and audience: and recognized the vital notion that rhetoric deals exclusively with probability and contingent propositions. -Educational-philosophical: By Isocrates, Cicero, and Quintilian. Admitted the superiority of nature over nurture of an orator. Created an effective model for teaching rhetoric in the classroom.(97) Characteristics of classical rhetoric: Rhetoric is a field of study worthy of scientific speculation/inquiry -Rhetoric has a unique vocabulary and category system consisting of elements in the form of discourse and the Canons of invenio, despositio, elocutio, memoria, and pronunciatio -Rhetoric is concerned with persuasion -Rhetoric is an oral activity -Artistic proof, with its stress on enthymematic reasoning, is more important that inartistic proof comprised of physical evidence. -The ethical dimension is a central aspect of rhetoric. -telltale signs of the development of the theory of interpersonal communication.

evoluntionary perspective

James L. Golden in presented an essay "Contemporary Trends and Historical Roots: A Personal View" in 1987 that says evolution performs in the formulation of a rhetorical or communication theory. concludes that knowledge does not move in a revolutionary manner 3 implications from this perspective: gives a reasonable view of the nature/importance of history (history is ongoing), implies that cutting out historical roots is unwise, and suggests the need to adopt a world-view based on pluralism instead of monism (virtue of single perspective)

Chapter 6: Neoclassicism, the Belletristic Movement, and the Rhetoric of Hugh Blair

Neoclassicism was from 1700-1740. it's a product of the Protestant Revolution which placed heavy emphasis on the doctrine of original sin. the opposite of the Renaissance; they saw a man as imperfect beings inherently sinful whose potential is limited with heavy emphasis on order and reason, restraint, Common Sense, religion, politics, economic and philosophical conservatism. man was an appropriate subject of Art (which should be logical and orderly and symmetrical), they sell art as pragmatic, it's valuable because it's useful. Was a flowering of classical tradition in English letters. Described as "Augustan Age" Boileau's L'Art Poetique and Alexander Pope's essay on criticism are major critical statements of neoclassical principles. - the movement embodied attitudes about art and human existence colon ideals of order, logic, restraint, accuracy, correctness, decorum, Etc. this would enable practitioners of various Arts to imitate or reproduce the structures and themes of Greek or Roman originals but with different content and style -Augustans set up a standard for persuasive writing. The first step is the author's imitation. There is no need for originality except in the mode of expression. Every writer must develop a style that describes old and new truths interestingly. They have inflexible attitudes toward those who questioned the value of classicism. pg 125 -Jonathan Swift was the first Augustan who disapproved. -Battle of the Books was satirical criticism on ancients vs. moderns -Tale of a Tub is another that sheds light on the literary controversy of using modern methods of research Alexander Pope was an Augustan who ruled for 50 years in English Literature. -Essays on Criticism: considered a model of critical theory. In this writing, a set of rules is made that must be used to obtain a high standard of criticism and are built around the principles of nature. **Follow Nature and then frame your judgments by her standards. Art is imitative because nature is the original. -- poetical Trinity consists of three members operating in sequence. 1 fills up and overflows(nature) then emanates into the second member of the Trinity (classical writers) which turns into the Third (the True Modern genius) - poetic Trinity can be shown in the relationship between Homer(direct) and (indirect). Homer looked at nature for his source of inspiration and Virgil look to Homer. Pope thought both poets imitated nature. - classical tradition or instrumental in temporarily preventing an encroachment of scientific methodology in the field of Art John Lawson (also John ward) - wasn't ready to alter the content or structure used by the Ancients in their analysis of oral discourse -(Lawson's) lectures concerning oratory appeared in Dublin in 1758 was an Angelicized version of Aristotle, Cicero and quintilians theories (pg 126) - sought to make adaptations for students seeking a career in preaching - Lawson was content to summarize and applied classical rhetorical doctrines. primarily used Aristotle for guidelines on his invention, Cicero and quintilian for ideas on disposition, style, delivery - John Ward: systems of oratory was a two-volume study that covered the most extensive treatment of classical rhetorical theory in the English language (pg 127) it equates rhetoric with persuasion. Recognizes three forms of oratory - deliberative, forensic, Epideictic. highlights numerous elements of invention, disposition, style, and delivery. volume one objected to the inclusion of memory as one of the five canons because it's not a unique aspect of rhetoric. volume to he changes his mind. uses Cicero and quintilian for guidance. it's basically the comprehensive summary of the best Roman rhetorical thought in practice. Became popular in American universities during the 19th century. - neoclassicists are unique because of their slavish devotion to classical notions and tendency to reject newly-developed trends. BELLETRISTIC MOVEMENT - takes from neoclassicism: logos, pathos, ethos the classic system of Roman cannons; (invention, Arrangement, style, memory, and delivery). accepted the classic division of the ends of discourse (to instruct, to please, or to move an audience). accepted the use of models in the necessity of an imitation - the trend in British and Continental rhetorical thought was the work of the belletristic scholars. these students of communication Theory borrowed both the Ancients and modernists to produce a new type of rhetoric. BELLATRISTIC AESTHETICS taste contest was usually treated as a separate faculty which coordinates the other faculties into a unified experience, giving one the ability to appreciate and experience pleasure from the perception of the beautiful. - Beauty: beautiful objects elicit a subjective sense of completeness, proportion, and symmetry, but if the perceiver has poor or untrained taste, he or she is incapable of attending to the relevant elements of the beautiful object. The beautiful object is perceived as a whole, with all its parts working to produce a unified impression. -Sublimity: the sublime produces a feeling of all from the experience of something (nature, art) that passes the limits of human compression and is yet since to be a whole even if it cannot be grasped as a whole. Sublime experiences maybe of nature or Supernatural. - Junior School in genius is the ability to perceive and describe, or present, relationships that others cannot. The goal of Genius is not to persuade the audience but you transport them out of themselves so that they can see the world differently. FACULTY Psychology - faculty psychology conceived the human mind as consisting of separate powers for Socrates. Each faculty play a different role in the rhetorical process: different rhetorical ends required the rhetor to address different faculty sometimes in a very specific way. # the mind is a muscle education exercises and strengthens the intellect to the point where it can control the will and emotions. This is called mental discipline and said that the best way to strengthen the minds of younger students was through tedious drill in repetition what we might Now call the basic skills in order to cultivate the memory. - intellect: understanding and reasoning, understanding assimilates and organizes experience and reason communicates and expresses experience -Memory: stores experienced as singular instances. derived from external stimuli, the raw materials for all mental processes -Imagination: converts past experiences in the mine, either individually or in combination, into a present experience. - emotion: moved the audience to respond either towards or away from what is imagined. will corn translates emotion into action. WHAT THEY TOOK -from Aristotle they took the communication model (comprised of source, message, and receiver), ethical, logical, pathetic proof, recognition of the effect the occasion on a speaker's choice of material, and appreciation for perspicuity in style. - from Cicero and quintilian the accepted the definition of rhetoric as one great art consisting of five letter Arts (invention, disposition, style, memory, and delivery), the three-party separation of the ends of discourse into instructing, pleasing, and moving. and styles into plain, and Grand. The role of nature, imitation, was the use of models in the formation of orator - From Longinus they learned the value of combining rhetoric and Poetics into a single coherent system and the meaning and significance of taste and Sublimity - do unique feature was the tendency to broaden rhetoric to include writing and criticism along with speaking -Longinus wrote On the Sublime and in 1674 it surfaces with a translation by Boileau. it sparks french/English scholars to use his key analysis on taste, beauty, sublimity, and genius (the components of theory of perception) as powerful criteria employed in criticism. states the goal of Genius is not to persuade the audience but rather to transport them out of themselves. FIVE SOURCES OF SUBLIME: the command of full-blooded ideas, the inspiration of vehement full-blooded ideas, the inspiration of vehement emotion, figures of thought, figures of speech, and dignity and elevation. suggested when a communicator unites profound ideas with strong emotion and nobility of phrase they transport the audience TASTE: the human capacity those two critically appreciate and to receive pleasure from everything that was beautiful. taste responds to exercise and can be improved by studying models (imitations) or by reason example in recognizing the connections in a complex plot). two main characteristics: delicacy (having strong, accurate perceptions) and correctness (perceiving logical connections and comparisons). there is good bad right and wrong taste people's judgment about different kinds of objects does not imply that one or other person have corrupt taste. Disagreement about a particular object is not merely diversity - one of the other is exhibiting for taste. taste is an important source of beauty there for Taste was related to Sublime TYPES OF TASTE: - moral taste: acidic taste in maltase function similarly in one affects the other because if you can't recognize moral from immoral acts and you can't understand art. the Improvement of Moral taste requires the imitation of models. Christians for example strive to live like Jesus. just as an object is beautiful or not; ate a human Act is good or not. SUBLIME: awe or inspiration experienced in the presence of natural or artistic greatness GENIUS: the ability to see relationships and to perform or create worthy objects ( these were important components of middle-class life in 1750 to 1900 to be socially attractive you must be well-versed various subjects. genius is the ability to see connections that others cannot and combine that with the ability to show those connections to others. Genius lies behind artistic originality but it's not simply inspiration; creative invention requires a thorough knowledge of the subject in the ability to reason with it. Both original creative inspiration and reason come from nature rhetoric cannot Supply the use; it can only guide genius - Joseph Addison was there a English essayist and poet and asked what gives pleasure to the imagination when we survey outward objects= Sublime. pg 129 - defined taste as the faculty of the Soul, which discerns the beauties of an author with pleasure and the imperfections with dislike. taste is innate but argued it could be improved and cultivated by those who gained a knowledge of writing from the best authors and critics and who conversed with Men of Genius - John Baillie: influenced by Locke's treatment of the senses Humes discussion of associationism. wrote an essay on the sublime published in 1747. the premise the nature conveys the sublime in our senses. then an analogy to the works of art saying they likewise May produce a similar experience. Edmund Burke: 1750s relied-upon psychology. Wrote a philosophical inquiry into the origins of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful. Burke accepted the hypothesis that the mind is compromised of faculties and The Taste results from the senses, the imagination, and judgment and since all people have these traits they all have taste. Differences in taste are due to Natural sense ability, knowledge, training. --Described the effect upon the senses that astonishment, Terror, obscurity, vastness, Infinity, uniformity, magnitude, difficulty, Darkness, color, and loudness had. suggested proportion, Fitness, and protection are not causes of beauty. the real traits are smallness, smoothness, variation, delicacy, color, physiognomy, and clarity. this means the sublime and beautiful are built on different principles one has Terror for its bases and leads to astonishment the other depends on pleasure to stimulate the affection of love. Alexander Girard: 1759 - 2 years after Burkes in query - an essay on taste is published. Gerard equated taste with ideas relating to the powers of the imagination. His major sources were Locke Hume and Baillie. gained an enthusiasm for doctrines of associationism and reductionism which became key for his aesthetic Theory. objects which are not by Nature Sublime May possess that quality when United with other Concepts in a proper manner.: example color combinations. endorsed the idea of the development and Improvement of standard of taste. goodness of taste positive maturity and perfection it consists of powers of judgment and Imagination combined: sensibility, refinement, correctness, and proportion or comparative adjustment of its separate principles. recommended strengthening the internal senses of judgment and the need for established General precepts that conform to the common feelings of men emphasized genius is the quality of invention and taste is the guide without genius taste can provide the ability to judge. - Charles Rollin: a four volume study translated to English in 1734 was influenced by early French rhetorics and was the combines thinking of classical rhetorician from the University of Paris. - the message of teaching and studying the Belles lettres was designed to improve the understanding, manners, and religious affections of students parents and Friends. door is separated into six parts: grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, philosophy, and educational Administration and procedures. Rollin establishes guidelines for future Studies by analyzing taste Sublimity, rhetorical canons, ends of discourse, forms of proof, in the eloquence of the bar, pulpit, and sacred writings. Adam Smith - the English counterpart to Rollin. sought to present assistant Magic analysis of style, oratory, and criticism. His emphasis on various forms of discourse means whenever he developed one of the traditional cannons he related his discussion to oratorical, poetical, dramatic, and historical writing. the most common element presented in all methods of communication is Style so he gave this can in a central position. had a classical style discourse: persuasion, reasoned reasoned arguments, emotional Appeals and regarded these as the primary aim of rhetoric. worship Alexander Pope, John Dryden, Thomas Gray.(pg 132) - added an extra system: (didactic) to inform, this and here's to the narrative form and is designed to instruct. Smith and vision to critic do searches his own mind to assess genuine feelings but then comes to appreciate the feelings of others. -"Inquiry into the nature and causes of The Wealth of Nations" published in 1776 gave him the reputation as father of political economy. -" collectors on Justice, police, revenue and arms" Smith suggest 3 essential ingredients of beauty, principal substance taste, Arco improper variety, easy connexion, and simple order. these treats form the general neoclassic concept of decorum or propriety - Hugh Blair: was a preacher and the. a professor at the University of Edinburg for 25 years. appeal to students who wanted to study an overview of rhetoric, literature, and criticism. had 47 lectures that spanned five subject areas: five of the discourses dealt with criticism, taste, and genius. 4 dealt with language, 15w Style, 10 dealt with eloquence, and 13 dealt with literary themes such as poetry and historical and philosophical writing. said that you should be able to appreciate Beauty even if it's not your type but also be able to explain to others its beauty. here come to believe the rhetorical system grounded only in the classics and static and sterile, while one based exclusively on modernism was without historical roots.- Blair was extremely influence by longinus(discussions on taste and sublimity), Cicero (organization), and quintillion (sections on style influenced by Q) ×defined eloquence as " true eloquence is the art of placing truth in the most advantageous light for conviction and persuasion" this is heavily influenced by faculty psychology. defined conviction as a function of the intellect. You become convinced that something is true or an action is worthwhile because it appears logical or reasonable. Define persuasion of the function of the will. You will be convinced that an argument is right or just put still not act on it unless you are persuaded to want to act " conviction affects the understanding only; persuasion the will and the practice" (the notion that our readers could be convinced that the thing was true without feeling compelled to act on this belief) -according to Blair taste can be appreciated even if it's not personal. - two important characteristics of taste - delicacy AR to feel strongly and accurately for taste. correctness of taste also implies delicacy and enables the critic to see logical connections between two beauties. - Blair argues we must conclude that one person's case may be superior to another and that there is such a thing as good bad and right and wrong taste. Blair stresses the impact that Asian nationality have on taste four people of one nation May respond warmly to passionate Appeals well others are inclined towards more correct in regular Elegance. ********Blair realize that taste is fluctuating and varies with the nature and cultural background of an individual******* FORMS OF ORATORY BY BLAIR (pg 133) - eloquence of the Court: basically the same as Aristotle's judicial discourse and which to Blair aim to convince the intellect - eloquence of the public assembly: a blend of demonstrative and deliberative discourse, which to Blair aimed to please the audience (notes, for Blair, this included teaching and the speeches of special occasions). - eloquence of the pulpit: which for Blair and to persuade the audience - Blair believed the reading Aristotle, Cicero, in quintillion would increase their inventive Talent. But when one is faced with a persuasive speech they should disregard ancient topics and concentrate on his subject. - a man possesses genius, Blair asserted, is to imply that he has an unusual invention and creative power. And then turn on the other hand, requires a thorough knowledge of the subject, and the ability to reason adequately concerning the theme. It's clear that the man of genius has greater capacity to analyze the particular problem. The only source from which genius can be derived from is nature. - Blair is credited as being one of the first modern writers to think of rhetoric as a form of criticism. He refused to limit himself to one single School of critical thought he was part neoclassicist part rationalist part epistemogist. SUBLIMITY - may be found in inanimate objects and Human Nature. Sublimity in writing or speaking is characterized by Simplicity conciseness and strength BEAUTY -Portrayed by color, figure, and motion. color suggest stimuli that comes through the eye. Figure is composed of regularity in variety a truly beautiful object combines regularity variety and motion. - true criticism is not based on abstract reasoning but rather a result of careful analysis of facts -published "lectures on rhetoric and Belles lettres" which was a reproduction of the discussions he delivered at the University since 1759 - dissertation: "defundamentis and obligatione Levis Naturae" said the Christianity might be of service and promoting both benevolence and duty but that man can discover natural law without it he thought the minister was deity - an effective writer needs to have clear ideas, practice, have read literary Works available, should wood slavish imitation, adapt ideas to specific Target audiences which makes the speaker consider purpose in the occasion. one should remember Style; substance comes before form and ornamentation. The goal should be correctness Precision propriety in Polish

Kenneth Burke

Perhaps the most important twentieth-century rhetorician, this critic is the founder of dramatism. Pentad surpasses neo-Aristotelianism as a type of methodology to examine rhetorical transactions by the 1970's motive: a label for a completed action

phaedrus

Plato "true rhetoric" pg 55 Plato counters Lysias' speech with three speeches about love by saying that love is a form of exploitation, that the lover seeks what is the best language for his audience rather than himself

gorgias

Plato made fun of Sicilian sophist, who talked about probability and a florid style of rhetoric, saying: Rhetoric isnt an art, it does not confer power etc (pg 54)

Differing views of reality

Plato: reality is there and communication reflects reality (when you watch tv you are watching a reflection of reality) Aristotle: we cant know for certain the nature of reality but we have a good insight to our reality due to experience. Communication is just as real as anything else. Gorgias: reality is not there and communication creates reality (nihilist-nothing) Nothing can be proved or demonstrated.

Aristotle's view on Rhetoric (384-322 BCE)

Platos student, born in Macedonia (means he's Greek), at 7 he entered the Academy, Stayed at the Academy for 20 years, left when Plato died, not eligible to inherit Academy, Taught biology, politics, rhetoric, zoology, ethics, philosophy, science, psychology. Taught Alexander the Great, came back to Athens to open Lyceum -defined rhetoric as the faculty of discovering in every case the available means of persuasion." He thought of rhetoric as technê— "art." Aristotle's rhetoric showed you how to design and build a speech to accomplish a certain persuasive task. Works to explain why speeches work the way they do. -"The canon of invention" Classified speeches into 3 main categories: logos, ethos, and pathos. --Logos, logic, is the structure that shows the movement from claims that the audience already accepts (premises) to other claims that the speaker is trying to persuade the audience to accept (conclusions). •Can I trust what this speaker says? --Ethos guides the audience's perception of the speaker's character, motivations, and authority and are elements of a discourse that determine how the audience perceives the speaker. Aristotle says that the key elements are intelligence, virtue, and goodwill.•However, bear in mind that the Greek word "ethos" means literally "haunt," which the dictionary defines as "a place frequented by a specified person or group of people." In other words, when an audience judges a speaker's ethos, it judges whether the speaker is "one of us." Is this speaker's advice based on the same experience, values, goals, and interests as ours? Why do you think political candidates will eat fried Snicker bars at a county fair? •Do I care about these claims? -Pathos:The rhetorical value of emotions is that people act on their emotions.•Emotions are types of either desires or aversions—you are moved either toward or away from something.•Emotions entail social relations. If a person in one social relation to you says something, then another person in a different social relation to you says exactly the same thing, you will react differently. (Imagine your father telling you to "be home by 10 tonight" and your little sister telling you the same thing).•Emotions produce a physical feeling. The feeling isn't the emotion, but it is caused by it and is a symptom of it. -Believed in scientific demonstrations and analysis to form logic and truth, Dialectic and Rhetoric (the logical and philosophical discussion that leads to truth) form two major divisions in his view of human inquiry but they deal with subjects on which true knowledge isn't available. -believes rhetorician must start with knowledge -Thinks it is an art but the problem is it's adapted to the hearers who are not educated. -Concerned with the impact of the speech as well as the speech itself -Rhetoric is the art of public speaking -Dialectic is the art of logical discussion both are part a universe of discourse -Rhetoric has its own identity and is useful -prevents fraud/injustice -aids in instruction (you have to investigate what you're trying to persuade people about -makes us consider (both sides) the pros and cons of the argument -helpful for self-defense -Aristotle says that the basic form of an argument's logic is the "syllogism." Its basic structure is very simple: major premise > minor premise > conclusion. -Rhetoric is useful for making decisions in which we don't have the ultimate truth. -Enthymemes: a special type of logic used in rhetoric "while the enthymeme and the syllogism are structurally the same, they differ in one major respect: that is, the degree of certainty of the sources from which they draw their premises" That is not quite correct: they differ in the topics (topoi) they use to connect the premises to the conclusion. -•True syllogisms use only one topic: definition (genus/species).•For example:•Socrates is a man. ("Socrates" is a member of the genus "man.")•All men are mortal. ("Men" is a member of the genus "mortal things.")•Therefore, Socrates is mortal. Syllogisms are certain, but only because they are certain by definition. Enthymemes are probable because at least one of their topics are founded by experience. That's why enthymemes can lead only to probable conclusions, not certain conclusions. This enthymeme looks like a syllogism, but it isn't:•All Athenians love to argue.•Socrates is an Athenian.•Therefore, Socrates loves to argue.•"All Athenians love to argue" is not true by definition. It's a generalization from observation. It's what Aristotle calls a "sign," like smoke is a sign of fire. Smoke is a sign of fire, but fire isn't defined by smoke. -The subject is the thing you talk about while topics are the relationships you use to connect statements about the subject. Topics are common/universal and are usually binomial oppositions or degrees of difference. So when you say in the claim "Quartz is harder than soapstone," Quartz and soapstone are rocks, and so "rock" is the subject, while "harder/softer" refers to the topic -Topics are "special" when they are to be found only in discourse about a particular subject. For instance, when he classifies discourse into three main types, he mentions topics that are special to each type: judicial (justice/injustice), deliberative (advantageous/disadvantageous), epideictic (virtue/vice).•However, in almost any discourse you will find special topics used for that subject that you won't find being used in another. For instance, in discourse about cooking, you might find the topic "sweet/sour," but you won't find that topic in auto mechanics. •Aristotle says ethymemes may use three kinds of premises: •Probabilities: These are generally true and causal.temperatures below 32 degrees will freeze water (generally, but not always, such as if the water is running) •Signs: These are signs of particular facts. if you see dog poop in your yard, that's a pretty good sign that a dog has been in your yard (unless, say, you have a nasty neighbor who threw poop in your yard). •Examples: These proceed by induction from parallel cases. if you've owned three Fords and all three have had transmission issues, then you can conclude that, if you buy another Ford, it will have transmissions issues (but only probably) . -Aristotle defines "anger" as "a longing, accompanied by pain, for real or apparent revenge for a real or apparent slight, affecting a man himself or one of his friends, when such a slight is undeserved. Anger is in regards to social relationships. Aristotle analyzed a number of emotions this way, the idea being that if you know what a particular emotion is (if you can define it), you can, as a speaker, produce it; and if you know what the emotion does, you can learn when it is the appropriate time to produce it. -Types of discourse: In forensic discourse, the audience will be judging an action that took place in the past—as in a criminal trial. •In deliberative discourse, the audience will be judging what action should take place in the future—as when a legislature votes whether or not to go to war. •In epideictic, or ceremonial, discourse, the audience is judging the present state—as when at commencement the faculty judges you fit to hold a degree. •Audience analysis: Whereas Plato considered only arguments between two people in dialogue, Aristotle was more concerned about public speeches to large audiences. So, rather than analyze individual souls, he classified audiences into types, and explained how speeches should differ depending on what groups the members of the audience belonged to (such as gender, age, wealth, nationality, religion, education) •Metaphor: Aristotle said that it took "genius" to create an original metaphor. This is because a metaphor recognizes a relationship shared by two things that no one had ever noticed before. He claimed there were four kinds of metaphor. A metaphor is "the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species (My computer is asleep." ("Sleep" is a species of the genus "inactivity.")), or from species to genus (She wants it all." ("All" is the genus of particular things that are desirable.)), or from species to species (He cut to the chase." ("Cut" is a species of cinematographic editing / "transition" is a species of graphic [writing] editing.)), or by analogy, that is, proportion. ("Achilles is a lion." (Achilles is to his enemies as a lion is to its prey.)

Miasma (pollution, defile

Religious pollution occurs when something that might be safe and proper in one domain takes place in another domain. The Greeks believed that order required a very strict separation of functions and entities, particularly the separation of the divine from the human, and the male from the female. But they also insisted upon strict rules of inclusion and exclusion within society—family from non-family, Athenian from non-Athenian, Greek from non-Greek. An individual's identity and place in society depended upon the clarity of those relationships of exclusion and inclusion. The question "Who are you?" requires a genealogy. Such identity becomes impossible when incest has confused these hierarchical distinctions and connections. And, since the propriety of action toward another is determined by the relationship between them, the murder of kin could destroy the society's entire system of values. The notion that everything belongs to a certain category or class, although originally a religious principle, formed the basis for Greek logic, as we will see.

Apology (Plato)

Socratic dialogue that Plato writes of Socrates in defense of himself when he is on trial for corruption of youth. This dialogue shows us how Socrates lived/what he believed in which helps thinkers later view his philosophies in different light.

Mimesis

Things in our phenomenal world were merely appearances, imitations (mimesis) of these Ideas. the written word "chair" is a copy of the spoken sound "chair," which is a copy of my idea of a chair, which may be a copy of a picture I had seen of a chair, which is a copy of a material chair that had been seen by the painter, and the material chair is a copy of the carpenter's idea of a chair, which is a copy of the Idea of a chair in the noumenal realm.

proto-rhetorics

biblical, ancient Egyptian, and other oral rhetorics represent prototypes of a rhetorical system. (orally remembered wisdom, manners, and ethics (proverbs taught cultural lessons) -characterize orally based rhetorics as pre-systematic proto-rhetorics because they spring from general cultural understandings and dont supply precise, developed, and organized principles to be taught systematically proto-rhetorics developed in Confucian-era (focused on philosophy, morality, and manners) China and in Aztec Mesoamerica - in the Maxims of Ptahhotep speakrs are advised that keeping silent may be the best strategy of all (circulated in Egypt in 2,300 B.C.E.) -critical analysis is not typical of oral societies -reflects oral patterns of thinking and communication

deliberative rhetoric

when speech is under the influence of literacy the past and future can be depicted. the future is called deliberative rhetoric

oral noetic

Walter Ong noetic is a term that refers to the human process of perceiving and understanding. Walter says this is a society based on oral communication. argues that orality and literacy create different kinds of human consciousness -oral consciousness places less store in human agency and more faith in guidance from spiritual powers. Egyptians thought that the spiritual powers gave us divine inspiration and spoke through us so to speak

Single Definition Perspective

addressed in an essay "Rhetoric: Its Function and Scope" by Professor Donald C. Bryant in 1953 the ultimate goal "is the attainment of maximum probability as a basis for public decision" speaks on Aristotle's classification system: deliberative (political), forensic (legal), and epideictic (ceremonial) speeches are formed for the marketplace, legislative and judicial bodies, ceremonial occasions, propaganda, public relations, advertising, and salesmanship. seeks to inform and persuade citizens in a democratic society only one rhetoric that functions with the same rules but continually expands

contemporary era

began in 1930 described as sociological the theory of discource is time and culture bound

cultural collective rhetorics: Greek Culture

culture bound affected by geography and climate Due to mountains and ocean in Greece; food importation due to poor soil is common. -found value in improving the mind and body; thus dominating philosophy and sports. -first written rhetoric happened in 465 BCE at the Greek colony of Syracus in Scicily.

jain bian

refers to giving advice or persuasion refers to justice and making distinctions, eloquence, discussion, and disputing

Rhetorical Canon

history influences rhetoric but it stays the same invention (how we find something to say), organization (how we arrange in speeches and texts what we have to say), style (how we say things: the wording, phrasing, and tone), delivery the means we use including texts, gestures, graphics etc), memory (the way we preserve and reproduce our speech, writing, etc

topoi

one of the best systems for inventing arguments was created by Aristotle. Translates to "places" and lays out a list of 28 verbal categories that prompts the orator to recall useful ideas/info - Aristotle suggested orators pay attention to three key factors: vocal volume, vocal pitch, and rhythm

premodernism

physical environment that is based on nature -according to Jacques Ellul premodernism refers to a kind of human existence where life revolves around the natural world (livelihood is affected by weather, seasons) -economy requires little formal organization (trading, gathering (the ultimate market economy is one based on the large-scale production of goods through the factory system (this is why modernization required large industrial cities) -characterized by small scale social settings. pastoral and village life. -hierarchical society -relies upon a morality of external control by others (shame) this is a community responsibility -ritual is vital to maintaining a sense of reality because it provided community memory where there lacked access to writing

post modern

post-1930's Ehninger expected sociological emphasis on improving human relationships. (there's a preoccupation with the human condition). Characterized by a growing integration of the world economy and an increasing dominance of technology. -Social (1915-1965 mass migrated which made a socio-cultural change in urban environments/media) and cultural changes. -Valladao's World America means US leadership in world economy as well as being a cultural cauldron of transformation and change -identity society: where people strive to construct and communicate a view of who they are. Urges to define themselves and express it publicly. -anxiety comes from the constant worry we are failing to measure up to standards we cannot entirely identify -film/virtual reality offers the possibility of the imagined becoming reality -ideological (effort to understand social belief systems), epistemic (search for roots of human knowledge), performance studies (analysis of how culture/ideology are expressed in actions by the public) -diversity of rhetoric (afrocentric, gay, asian, etc) leads to the postmodern condition. -technology becomes the environment when it exerts fundamental influence on how life is lived/experienced

dialectic

the art of investigating or discussing the truth of opinions -uses a categorical form of logic -A claim is either true or false, and to say that something is true at this time and place but not true in another clearly is, to him, false rhetoric. -Socrates uses the dialectical process in all the dialogues. In practice, it is a questioning and answering practice designed to help students clarify and organize their thoughts coherently. The Greeks call it elenchus. We call it the Socratic method.

noosphere

the cumulative thought of mankind that continues to expand at a rapid rate

Orality vs. Literacy

the transition from oral to written media and the transitions in society from premodern -> modern -> post modern help explain how certain systems of rhetoric emerge due to surrounding culture and politics earliest forms of rhetoric were oral and todays world is highly oral oralitys ability to establish a context of present time and immediate audience means the speaker constantly adapts to the audience there is a very personal relationship that exists between an oral storyteller and the message a story told orally lacks permanence literacy easily treats a subject abstractly in a detached objective manner repetition is important oral medium takes the form of something directly experienced