ENGLISH 210 - Unit 1 ?

Personal Pronouns

There is another set of personal pronouns that are used as noun modifiers and thus are more accurately classified as adjectives: my, our, your, his, her, its, and their. Ex - That is my book. - my modifies the noun book and therefore is treated as an adjective

Sentences classified by purpose

These fall into four categories: 1. Declarative sentences (statements) 2. Imperative sentences (commands) 3. Interrogative sentences (questions) 4. Exclamatory sentences (sentences with exclamation points)

Imperative sentence

must have an understood you as the subject. Ex - Close the door. - has a clear understood you as the subject. Can be punctuated by either periods or commas Ex - Close the door. Close the door!

Verbal phrases

phrases headed by verbals

Number

the term is used to describe nouns and pronouns. The noun city is singular; the noun cities is plural. I is a singular pronoun; we is the corresponding plural pronoun. Verbs also have numbers in the sense that verbs have different forms of agreement with the number of their subjects. Ex - The city is on the plain. - the verb is singular in agreement with its singular subject city Ex - The cities are on the plain. - the verb are is plural in agreement with its plural subject cities.

Regular verb

the vast majority of verbs that form their past forms and past participles with -d or -ed Ex - rake, raked, raked; walk, walked, walked

Reflexive pronoun

they always end in -self or -selves. The reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, or themselves. Ex - I found myself making the same mistakes. - the antecedent of myself is I. Reflexive pronouns can also be used as emphatic pronouns, which are reflexive pronouns used purely for emphasis. Ex - I myself make the same mistakes. - myself is a emphatic pronoun. Emphatic pronouns can always be deleted without affecting the grammaticality of the sentence. Ex - I made the same mistakes. - myself was deleted.

Participial phrase

verbal phrases headed by either a present particle or a past particle. They are used as adjectives to modify preceding nouns. Ex - The woman taking notes at the hearing was a reporter. - taking notes at the hearing is a present participial phrase modifying woman. Ex - I just finished a book written by a college classmate. - written by a college classmate is a past participial phrase modifying book.

Preposition

"little words" that are used primarily to form prepositional phrases. Ex - In the evening, on the deck, by me, after dinner. Prepositions can also be used to form compound verbs called phrasal verbs. Ex - Humpty Dumpty passed out. - passed out is a phrasal verb consisting of the verb passed plus the preposition out meaning "fainted"

Semicolon

(;) is used in place of a period to join two closely related independent clauses. Ex - Popeye could always be counted on; he never gave up even when things looked bad.

Common noun

Common nouns are nouns used for categories of people, places, and things, as opposed to proper nouns, which refer to specific individuals Ex - city is a common noun; Chicago is a proper noun. Common nouns are not capitalized; proper nouns are

Coordinate adjective

Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives of the same descriptive category used together. Coordinate adjectives must always be separated by commas Ex - The tired, defeated day trader slumped before his computer. - tired and defeated are coordinate adjectives

Coordinating conjunction

Coordinating conjunctions join grammatical units of the same type, creating compounds. There are seven coordinating conjunctions. They can be remembered by the acronym FANBOYS For And Nor But Or Yet So

Correlative conjunction

Correlative conjunctions are two-part coordinating conjunctions. Ex - either...or, both...and, and neither...nor

Dangling modifier

Dangling modifiers are noun modifiers, usually participial phrases, that do not actually modify the nouns they were meant to modify Ex - Damaged beyond repair, Ruth had to trash her hard drive. - the modifier damaged beyond repair actually modifies Ruth, not the intended noun hard drive

Declarative sentence

Declarative sentences are statements (as opposed to commands, questions, or exclamations). Declarative sentences are always punctuated with periods. Ex - This is a declarative sentence.

Interrogative sentence

Questions that must always be punctuated with a question mark. Ex - Where are you going?

Tense shifting

Refers to a change or shift from one tense to another (usually from present to past tense or vice versa) within a single passage or even within a single sentence. Tense shifting can either be appropriate or inappropriate. Ex (appropriate tense shifting) - We ate at an old restaurant that is on the lake. - The writer has shifted from past tense (ate) to present tense (is). The tense shifting is appropriate in this case because if the writer had written that the restaurant was on the lake, the past tense would incorrectly imply that the restaurant is no longer there. Ex (inappropriate tense shifting) - Whenever the weather changes, my joints started to hurt. - In this case, the writer incorrectly shifts from present tense to past tense. Because the writer is making "timeless" generalizations, the whole sentence should stay in present tense - Whenever the weather changes, my joints start to hurt.

First-person pronoun

The first person pronouns are: 1. I (singular subject) 2. me (singular subject) 3. we (plural subject) 4. us (plural object) 5. my/mine (singular possessive) 6. our/ours (plural possessive)

Indefinite article

The indefinite articles are a and an. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or vowel sound. Ex - we say an honor, not a honor, because the h is not pronounced A is used before words beginning with a consonant or a consonant sound Ex - we say a uniform, not an uniform, because the word uniform begins with a y sound, not a vowel sound

Run-on sentence

A collective term for two independent clauses that have been improperly joined together as a single sentence without the benefit of adequate punctuation. The two main types of run-on sentences are fused sentences (using no punctuation at all) and comma splices (using commas but no coordinating conjunctions)

Progressive

A collective term used for three verb constructions that use the verb be (in some form) as a helping verb followed by a verb in the present participle form. The three constructions are the present progressive (I am working on it), the past progressive (I was working on it), and the future progressive (I will be working on it)

Compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence is a giant combo of a compound sentence and a complex sentence. That is, it contains at least two independent clauses and at least on dependent clause. Ex - John got the pizza [independent clause], but Mary brought a salad [independent clause] because she was on a low carb diet [dependent clause]

Participle

A cover form for two verb forms: 1. present participle 2. past participle

Subordinating conjunction

A group of conjunctions used to begin adverb clauses (a type of subordinate clause--hence the name subordinating conjunction) Ex - I hung up the phone after I had been on hold for fifteen minutes. - after is a subordinating conjunction beginning the subordinate adverb clause after I had been on hold for fifteen minutes.

Interrogative pronouns

A group of special pronouns used for asking questions. Ex - Where are you going ? - begins with the interrogative pronoun where. The most important ones are who, whom, what, where, when, why, and how

Pronouns

A group of words that can play the role of noun phrases. Some pronouns can replace entire noun phrases. Ex - The waiters in the restaurant smiled at the cute little boy. - The noun phrases can be replaced by third-person personal pronouns - They smiled at him. There are no fewer than six types of pronouns. The most important group is the personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it and they in their various forms) The other groups are demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, reflexive, and relative

Intensifier

A small (but frequently used) group of adverbs that are used to intensify the meaning of verbs Ex - Mary Poppins was very upset with the children. - very is the intensifier modifying the verb upset

Linking verb

A small (but highly important) group of verbs that can take predicate adjectives as their complements. Ex - Fred was frantic; Louise looked lonely; Sam seemed scared. The most common linking verb is be Ex - Al was angry. The other linking verbs are adverbs are verbs of sense perception (appear, look, smell, taste) or words that describe the condition of their subjects Ex - The cook got very angry; They became accountants. Linking verbs are called linking because they "link" their complements back to their subjects. In other words, linking verbs help describe the nature of their subjects. Action verbs do not predicate adjectives as their complements.

Relative pronoun

A special group of pronouns that begin adjective clauses. They are: who, whom, whose, which, and that. Ex - She was in a movie that we saw on TV. - that is the relative pronoun beginning the adjective clause that we saw on TV. The adjective clause modifies the noun movie.

Appositive phrase

Appositive phrases are noun phrases that rename or further identify preceding nouns. Ex - Dancer, one of Santa's reindeer, has a weight problem. - the noun phrase one of Santa's reindeer is an appositive phrase identifying who Dancer is. (ALSO: see essential appositive phrase and nonessential appositive phrase)

Intransitive verb

Action verbs that do not require complements. They may be followed by any number of optional adverbial modifiers. Ex - The phone rang in the middle of the night. - the verb rang is intransitive because the adverb prepositional phrase in the middle of the night is not a complement required by the verb to make a grammatical sentence. Modern grammar and traditional grammar differ on what constitutes a complement -- thereby also differing on what constitutes an intransitive verb. Ex - The train was on Track 5 - would be considered in modern grammar to contain a transitive verb because the sentence becomes meaningless if the complement is deleted: the train was. In traditional grammar, however, prepositional phrases cannot be complements. And thus, by definition, the sentence - The train was on track 5 - has to contain an intransitive verb

Transitive verb

Action verbs that require objects. Ex - Thelma met Louise. - met is a transitive verb. If we were to delete the object Louise, the sentence would become ungrammatical - Thelma met. The term transitive is not usually applied to linking verbs

Nonrestrictive adjective clause

Adjective clauses modify nouns, but different types of adjective clauses have different relationships with the nouns they modify. Instead, nonrestrictive adjective clauses, like appositives, give additional (but non-defining) information about the nouns they modify. Ex - My father, who was born in Ireland, came to the United States as a child. - the adjective clause who was born in Ireland is nonrestrictive because my father would still be my father no matter where he came from. Nonrestrictive adjective clauses are always set off with commas.

Restrictive adjective clause

Adjective clauses modify nouns. Restrictive adjective clauses significantly restrict and redefine the meaning of the nouns they modify. Ex - We bought the rug that was on sale. - the adjective clause was on sale is a restrictive clause because ti singles out one particular rug (the one that was one sale) from all of the other rugs (the ones that weren't on sale). Restrictive adjective clauses are never set off with commas. The opposite of restrictive adjective clause is nonrestrictive adjective clause

Adjective

Adjectives play two different roles 1. Modify the nouns they precede (large trucks; disappointed lovers) 2. Used after linking verbs (such as be, seem, and become) to describe the subject When adjectives are used in the second way, they are also called predicate adjectives. In the following sentence, the predicate adjective blue describes the subject sky: The sky is blue.

Adverb clause

Adverb clauses modify verbs, giving where, why or how information. Ex - I will call you after I get back. - the adverb clause after I get back modifies the verb call. The adverb clause tells when the speaker will call

Adverbial

Adverbial is a generic term for any kind of structure (adverb, adverb prepositional phrase, and adverb clause) that functions as an adverb

Adverb

Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. In the sentence - Sally spoke rapidly. - the adverb rapidly modifies the verb spoke. In the sentence - A rapidly rising tide flooded the path. - the adverb rapidly modifies the adjective rising. In the sentence - The flood rose pretty rapidly. - the adverb pretty modifies the adverb rapidly

Comma

Commas (,) have three main functions: 1. separate coordinate elements 2. set off introductory elements 3. set off interrupting elements

Agreement

Agreement refers to certain grammatically connected words. There are two main forms of agreement. 1. Subject-verb agreement, in which verbs must agree with their subjects in number. Ex - She sells seashells. - the verb sells is in its third-person singular form in agreement with its subject she. 2. Pronoun-antecedent agreement, in which pronouns must agree in number and gender with their antecedents. Ex - Sally saw herself in the mirror. - the reflexive pronoun herself is singular and feminine in agreement with its antecedent Sally

Action verb

All verbs except linking verbs and helping verbs are action verbs. Typically, the subject of an action verb is the doer of the action Ex - Roberta sang at the Met. - the subject Roberta is the doer of the action of singing

Introductory element

Any kind of words or phrases placed in front of the subject noun phrase. Adverbs and adverb prepositional phrases are typical introductory elements. Ex - In the afternoon, we went for a walk. - the adverb prepositional phrase in the afternoon is an introductory element. They are normally set off with commas

Essential appositive and appositive phrase

Appositives and appositive phrases rename a preceding noun. If the appositive or appositive phrase serve to uniquely identify the noun, then the appositive or appositive phrase is said to be essential Ex - Shakespeare's play Hamlet is one of his most complex works. - Hamlet is an appositive to the noun play. The appositive Hamlet is an essential appositive because if we were to delete it, the reader would have no way of knowing which of Shakespeare's plays was being described. Essential appositives and appositive phrases are never set off with commas.

Appositive

Appositives are the heads of appositive phrases

Inverted appositive

Appositives or appositive phrases that have been moved from their normal positions after their antecedents to a position in front of the antecedent. Inverted appositives are most common with subject noun phrases. Ex - Rudolph, the only reindeer with a press agent, hit the talk shows. - In this sentence, the appositive phrase the only reindeer with his own press agent is in its normal position following its antecedent, Rudolph. We can put more emphasis on the appositive by inverting it and putting it in the most prominent part of the sentence--the beginning Ex - The only reindeer with his own press agent, Rudolph hit the talk show

Article

Articles are a special set of adjectives that precede descriptive adjectives. There are two types of articles: 1. Definitive article (the) 2. Infinitive article (a/an)

Antecedent

Both third person pronouns and reflexive pronouns get their meaning from some previously mentioned noun. That previously mentioned noun is the antecedent of the pronoun Ex - Ralph got an urgent call. He returned the call immediately. - the antecedent of the third-person pronoun he is Ralph. (ALSO: see agreement)

Quotation

Can refer to either of two different types of quotation: 1. direct quotation - uses quotation marks to report verbatim what someone said 2. indirect quotation - a paraphrase of what a person said. Quotation marks are not used for these.

Independent clause

Can stand alone as complete sentences. They consist of at least one subject and one tensed, or finite, verb linked together in a subject-verb agreement. The opposite is dependent clause

Clause

Clauses consist of at least one subject and one tensed, or finite, verb linked together in subject-verb agreement. If a clause can stand alone, it is called an independent clause. If a clause cannot stand alone, it is called a dependent clause

Noun clause

Clauses that function as nouns (or, more accurately noun phrases). Noun clauses play the noun roles of subject, verb, object, and predicate nominative. Ex - What you see is what you get. - the first noun clause what you see functions as the subject of the sentence. The second noun clause what you get functions as a predicate nominative

Colon

Colons (:) have a variety of uses: 1. introduce a list (like this!) 2. introduce a quote 3. Join two clauses when the second clause explains or elaborates on the first. Ex - John is not a very good driver: he is always getting tickets

Comma splice

Comma splices are incorrect use of a comma to join two independent clauses Ex - Martha was very upset, she had just received some bad news

Complement

Complements are grammatical elements required by a verb or preposition Ex - the verb love requires a noun phrase complement: John loves ice cream. - we cannot just say John loves. When someone loves, they have to love something. In traditional grammar, complements can only be nouns (and noun substitutes, like pronouns, noun clauses, gerunds and infinitives) and predicate adjectives. In modern grammar, the term complement is broadened to include any grammatical element required by a verb. Ex - John put the book on the desk. - the adverb of place on the desk is considered a complement because the sentence is ungrammatical if it is deleted: John put the book. When you put something, you have to put it somewhere

Indirect object

Complements of certain verbs that take not one, but two objects-- a direct object and an indirect object. When a verb has two objects, the indirect object always comes before the direct object Ex - Donald gave Melania a present. - Melania is the indirect object and present is the direct object. The indirect object can usually be paraphrase with to or for Ex - Donald gave a present to Melania

Complement of a preposition

Complements of prepositions are the noun phrases that follow prepositions. Prepositions and their complements make up prepositional phrases. Ex - Louise saw Thelma at the bookstore. - the noun bookstore is the complement of the preposition at. Together, they form the adverbial prepositional phrase at the bookstore. The complement of a preposition is also called the object of a preposition

Complete predicate

Complete predicates are everything that is not the part of the subject. In other words, the complete predicate is the verb (also called the simple predicate) plus its complements and modifiers, all taken as a unit. Ex - Prancer saw Rudolph reading a road map behind the barn. - the complete predicate is the verb saw, its complements are Rudolph and reading a road map, and the adverbial modifier is behind the barn. In modern grammar, the complete predicate would be called a verb phrase

Complete subject

Complete subjects are everything in a sentence that is not part of the complete predicate. Complete subjects consist of simple subjects together with all their modifiers. Ex - The tall young man in the yellow sweater ordering a double latte is my brother. - the complete subject is everything before the verb is

Compound sentence

Compound sentences consist of two (or more) independent clauses but no dependent clauses Ex - This little piggy had roast beef, but this one had none

Conjunction

Conjunctions are words used to join grammatical elements. There are two types of conjunctions: 1. Coordinating conjunctions - words such as and, but, and or that are used to join word phrases, or clauses as equals 2. Subordinating conjunctions - words such as when, since, and if that begin dependent adverb clauses

Conjunctive adverb

Conjunctive adverbs show how the meaning of the second of two independent clauses is related to the meaning of the first. Ex - We were going to meet this afternoon; however, I had to cancel. - the two independent clauses are linked by the conjunctive adverb however. The however signals that the second independent clause is going to contradict in some way the meaning of the first clause

Sentence

Consist of at least one independent clause (with or without accompanying dependent clauses). Sentences are always punctuated with periods, exclamation points, or question marks.

Prepositional Phrase

Consist of prepositions together with their objects (also called complements), which are usually nouns or pronouns. Ex - by noon, under the tree, near me. Prepositional phrases can play two roles: as adjectives or adverbs. Adjective prepositional phrases modify nouns. Ex - the car in the left lane cut in front of me. - the prepositional phrase in the left lane functions as an adjective modifying the noun car. Adverb prepositional phrases modify verbs. Ex - A car had broken down in the left lane. - the prepositional phrase in the left lane functions as an adverb modifying the verb broke down, telling the reader where the car had broken down.

Past perfect tense

Consist of the helping verb had (the past form of the verb have--hence, the name past perfect) followed by a verb in the past participle form. Ex - I had taken some pictures before the boat left. The past perfect tense is normally used to describe a past-time event that took place before a second, more recent past-time event.

Past progressive

Consist of the helping verb was or were followed by a verb in the present participle form. Ex - Rudolph was filing his hooves while Santa gave his usual pre-Christmas pep talk. Past progressive is used to describe an action that was ongoing (Rudolph filing his hooves) at some point of time during the past (during Santa's pep talk)

Present perfect tense

Consists of the present tense of the helping verb have (has or have) followed by a verb in the past participle form. Ex - Winston has held his current job for many years. The present perfect tense is often used to describe past-time actions that have continued over a period of time

Dependent clause

Dependent clauses are clauses that cannot stand alone. They are always attached to independent clauses. Ex - Dependent clauses are clauses that cannot stand alone. - that cannot stand alone is a dependent clause. There are three types of dependent clauses: 1. Adjective clauses 2. Adverb clauses 3. Noun clauses Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses

Determiner

Determiners are adjectives that do not have comparative and superlative forms and cannot be used as predicate adjectives. Some common determiners are the articles (the, a/an) and numbers Ex - the book, a book, two books, the first book

Direct object

Direct objects are noun phrases required by the complements of certain verbs Ex - Harry will meet Sally in the park. - the noun phrase Sally is the direct object of the verb meet. The verb meet requires a noun phrase direct object. When we meet, we have to meet someone

Direct quotation

Direct quotations are the actual, exact words that someone used. Direct quotations are always indicated by quotation marks (" ") Ex - George said, "I cannot tell a lie". - the words enclosed in quotation marks are a direct quote The opposite of direct quotation is indirect quotation, which is the writer's paraphrase of someone's words. Indirect quotation does not use quotation marks

Emphatic pronoun

Emphatic pronouns are reflexive pronouns used for emphasis. Emphatic pronouns are not objects and, in fact, play no grammatical role in the sentence Ex - I would kiss Miss Piggy, myself. - myself is a emphatic pronoun. Emphatic pronouns, like interjections, can be deleted from their sentences without damaging the grammar of the sentence. Ex - I wouldn't kiss Miss Piggy Emphatic pronouns are also called intensive pronouns

Interjection

Exclamations inserted into sentences for emphasis. Ex - Man, it is really hot in here. - man is the interjection Interjections, unlike adverbs, play no grammatical role inside their sentences

Verbs

Express action (Martha sneezed) or describe the subject (Martha was not amused). Only verbs have different forms that express tense. That is, only verbs have present and past forms. Ex - the word watch could either be a noun or a verb, but the past tense form watched can only be a verb

Ordinal number

First, second, third, etc. One way to remember the term ordinal is that ordinal numbers refer to the "order" of things. The other number form is called cardinal (one, two, three, etc.)

Superlative adjectives

Formed either by an -est ending (tallest, quickest) or with most (most beautiful, most interesting)

Gerund phrase

Gerund phrases are gerunds together with their subjects, complements, and modifiers (in any or all combinations). Ex - His reading of history gave him a good understanding of current events. - his reading of history is a gerund phrase

Subject of the gerund

Gerunds are present participles used as a nouns. Gerund phrases are phrases held back by gerunds. Gerund phrases are derived from sentences whose subjects can be retained as subjects of the gerund. Subjects of the gerund must always be in possessive form. Ex - Tarzan's constant yelling drove all the apes crazy. - the possessive noun Tarzan's is the subject of the gerund phrase: Tarzan's constant yelling

Possessive noun

Have an -'s or -s' ending Ex - the man's pencil; the cooks' paychecks. Possessive nouns function as modifiers and are thus classified as adjectives.

Subject-verb agreement

In all clauses (independent and dependent alike), the form of the first verb (AKA the tensed, or the finite, verb) is dependent on the number of the subject. This dependency is known as subject-verb agreement. Subject-verb agreement is seen most clearly when the first verb is in the present tense. If the subject is singular, then the verb must also be singular; that is, the verb must be in what is called the third-person singular -s form. Ex - The car needs to be washed. - the verb needs is in the third-person singular form in agreement with the singular subject car. If the subject is plural, then the verb must be in its plural form with the -s: The cars need to be washed

Compound

In grammar technology, the term compound has two different meanings. Compound can refer to any two grammatical elements of the same type joined by a coordinating conjunction (typically, and). Ex - Martha and George went shopping. - Martha and George are compound nouns as well as compound subjects. Ex - He turned and ran. - turned and ran are compound verbs as well as compound predicates. Ex - I went up the stairs and through the door. - Up the stairs and through the door are compound prepositional phrases. The term compound can also refer to certain types of word combinations, such as compound prepositions and compound verbs. Ex of compound prepositions - as soon as, because of, in spite of, on account of Ex of compound verbs - grow apart, pass out, shut up, turn over

Head

In modern grammar, heads are the key grammatical elements that determine the nature of their phrases. Ex - Nouns are the heads of noun phrases, verbs are heads of verb phrases, prepositions are the heads of prepositional phrases, etc.

Simple tense

In traditional grammar, there are six tenses. They are broken down into two main groups: 1. The three simple tenses (present, past, and future) 2. The three perfect tenses

Phrase

In traditional grammar, they are groups of words acting as single parts of speech. Ex (prepositional phrase) - I found the address on the web. - on the web is a prepositional phrase acting as an adverb telling where the address was found. In modern grammar, the term phrase is used more broadly. A phrase is a noun, a verb, an adjective, or a preposition head together with the head's modifiers and complements (if any). By this definition, a phrase can consist of just one single word (as opposed to the traditional definition, which requires a group of words)

Infinitive

Infinitives consist of to plus the base form of a verb. Ex - to act, to be, to run, to sleep Also the heads of infinitive phrases

Verbals

Infinitives, present participles, and past participles used as other parts of speech. Infinitives (and infinitive phrases) can be used as nouns (To err is human), adjectives (a day to remember), or adverbs (you must practice to succeed). Present participles (and present participle phrases) can be used as nouns, also called gerunds (Winning is not everything) and adjectives (a light shining in the window). Past participles (and past participial phrases) can be used as adjectives (a book printed in Holland)

Flag word

Is used as a collective term for the introductory words that signal the beginning of dependent clauses. The relative pronouns that begin adjective clauses, the subordinating conjunctions that begin adverb clauses, and the wh-words that begin noun clauses are all examples of flag words

Tensed verb

Is used in modern grammar to identify the present form or past form verb that enters into the subject-verb agreement with the subject. The tensed verb is always the first verb in any string of verbs. Ex - George has been working out all summer. - has is the one and only tensed verb in the sentence. Even in what traditional grammar would call a future tense sentence, the first verb is still a tensed verb. Ex - Perry will be late again. - is actually the present tense of a modal verb. If a sentence contains only a single verb, that verb is also a tensed verb because it enters into subject-verb agreement with the subject. The term tensed verb means the same thing as the term finite verb.

Simple predicate

Is used in traditional grammar for the main verb together with any helping verbs. The term is rarely used anymore.

Tense

Is used in two different (and somewhat contradictory) ways: 1. Tense can mean the "time" in which the action of the verb takes place. In this meaning, there are, of course, three tenses of time: present, past, and future 2. Tense can also be used as the conventional name for various verb constructions built from different verb forms. In this meaning, there are six tenses: present tense (go, goes), past tense (went), future tense (will go), present perfect tense (has gone), past perfect tense (had gone), and future perfect tense (will have gone)

Simple subject

Is used to distinguish the noun in the subject part of the sentence from the noun's modifiers. Ex - The young man in the yellow sweater took out his cell phone. - Man is the simple subject. The entire component of the sentence is called the complete subject. Ex - the young man in the yellow sweater is the complete subject (above) The term is useful because it is what the verb actually agrees with. Verbs do not agree with the complete subject, only the single subject

Squinting modifier

Modifiers that can be interpreted as modifying two different things. Ex - Students who practice writing often will benefit. - the reader cannot tell if often modifies practice writing or if often modifies will benefit. These are corrected by moving the modifiers so that there is no confusion about what they modify. Ex (two ways to solve above) - Students who often practice writing will benefit; Students who practice writing will often benefit

Misplaced modifier

Modifiers that have been placed so far away from the words that they were meant to modify that they seem to modify the wrong thing. Ex - I saw my neighbor's car at the station with a flat tire. - the modifier with a flat tire appears to modify the nearest noun, station, making it sound like the station had a flat tire. What the writer meant, of course, is that the car had a flat tire. The problem is solved by moving the modifier next to the word it modifies - I saw my neighbor's car with a flat tire at the station.

Main verb

Multiple verb constructions consist of two parts: main verbs and helping verbs Main verbs are the heads of verbal phrases. Main verbs have complements like direct and indirect objects or predicate adjectives; helping verbs do not. Helping verbs are only followed by other verbs. Helping verbs can be deleted without affecting the basic grammar of their sentences. Main verbs can never be deleted without destroying their sentences. Ex - I have been working on the year-end report. - working is the main verb and have and been are helping verbs. We can rewrite the sentence to eliminate the helping verbs without wrecking the sentence - I worked on the year-end report. - However, if we delete the main verb, the sentence is either ungrammatical or becomes a totally different sentence - I have been on the report. In any string of verbs, the main verb is always the final verb on the right.

Object

Noun phrases that are complements of action verbs or prepositions. Ex - Sherlock checked his watch. - the noun phrase his watch is the object of the action verb checked. The complements of linking verbs are not objects; they are called predicate nominatives. Ex - Tarzan became a travel consultant. - the noun phrase a travel consultant is a predicate nominative (not an object) because it is the complement of the linking verb became. Prepositional phrases consist of prepositions and their objects (also called complements).

Noun

Nouns are the names of people, places, things, and ideas. Most nouns can be used following the article the (the book, the subway, the conclusion) and can be made plural (the books, the subways, the conclusions). Nouns are the heads of noun phrases

Indirect quotation

Paraphrases of what someone actually said. They are never used with quotation marks. Typically introduced with that. Ex - The reporter said that she would call back tomorrow. - indirect quote being she would call back tomorrow

Nonrestrictive participial phrase

Participial phrases are participles along with their complements and modifiers. Participial phrases modify nouns, but different types of participial phrases have different relationships with the nouns they modify. Nonrestrictive participial phrases do not define or significantly alter the identity of the nouns they modify. Instead, nonrestrictive participial phrases, like appositives, give additional (but non-defining) information about the nouns they modify. Ex - My father, being an immigrant, was always very curious of his accent. - the participial phrase being an immigrant is nonrestrictive because my father would still be my father even if he were not an immigrant. Nonrestrictive participial phrases are always set off with commas.

Fragment

Parts of sentences that have been incorrectly punctuated as though they were complete sentences. Typically, fragments are pieces cut off from preceding sentences. Ex - My computer crashed and I lost my project. Which I had been working on for weeks. - which I had been working on for weeks is a fragment incorrectly detached from the preceding sentence

Past form

Past forms of regular verbs add -d or -ed onto the base form: call, called; walk, walked; bake, baked. Many irregular verbs use vowel changes: run, ran; sing, sang; write, wrote. The most unusual past tense is the verb be, which has two past tense forms: was in the singular tense and were in the plural

Gerund

Present participle forms of verbs used as nouns. Ex - Reading is my favorite activity. - reading is a gerund Gerunds are the heads of Gerund phrases

Present tense

Present tense verbs use the present form in agreement with the subject. Ex - I am, you are, she is We use the present tense for generalizations and statements of fact. Ex - Malta is an island in the Mediterranean. The present tense rarely means "present moment" Ex - the sentence about Malta does not mean in this present moment. Malta has always been an island in the Mediterranean, not just at the present moment.

Vague pronouns

Pronouns that do not have antecedents to give the pronouns meaning. Ex - They should do something about airport security. - they is a vague pronoun because the reader has no way of knowing what they refers to; airports, Congress, the Department of Homeland Security, or just the world in general

Passive voice

Refers to a sentence in which the subject is the recipient of the action of the verb, not the doer of the action (AKA agent) as in active voice sentences. Ex - Mary was seen by John. - Mary is not doing anything. She is the recipient of the verb see. The agent John is the one doing the seeing. Passive voice sentences can always be identified by the use of a helping verb (usually, but not always be) followed by a past participle.

Parallelism

Refers to a series of two or more elements of the same grammatical type, usually joined by a coordinating conjunction. Ex - I love reading good books, going to the ballet, and watching NASCAR on television. - There are three parallel gerund phrases serving as parallel objects of the verb love.

Faulty parallelism

Refers to a series of two or more grammatical elements joined by a coordinating conjunction that should be in the same grammatical form but are not Ex - Senator Blather is a pompous and a fool. - the adjective pompous is not parallel with the noun phrase fool. One solution would be to make parallel adjectives: Senator Blather is pompous and foolish

Predicate

Refers to everything in a sentence that is not part of the complete subject. The predicate is the main verb together with helping verbs, the main complements, and modifiers (if any)

Third-person singular verb form

Refers to the -s that is added to present forms of the verb when that verb agrees with a third-person pronoun (or a noun phrase that can be replaced by a third person pronoun). Ex - She drives to the city every day. - the verb drives is in the third-person singular form to agree with the third-person singular pronoun she. Ex - My friend Louise drives to the city every day. - drives is still considered to be the third-person singular form because drives agrees with the subject noun phrase my friend Louise, which can be replaced by the third-person pronoun she

Possessive apostrophe

Refers to the use of apostrophes to indicate nouns being used as possessives. Ex - Mary's lamb was lost again. - the ' tells the reader that the -s ending on Mary is possessive, not a plural -s

Historical present

Refers to the use of the present tense for stories and other narrations, which are normally presented in the past tense. We often use the historical present for jokes Ex - This guy goes into a bar and sees a polar bear drinking a Cosmopolitan...

Simple sentence

Sentences containing only a single independent clause and no dependent clauses. Ex - This is a simple sentence.

Exclamatory sentence

Statements punctuated with an exclamation point. Ex - I don't get it!

Base form of a verb

The base form of a verb is the form of a verb that is used as an entry in the dictionary. For example, be and go are the base forms for those verbs. The base form is also the same as the infinitive form, only without the to

Cardinal number

The cardinal numbers are one, two, three, four, etc. The other kind of numbers (first, second, third, etc.) are called ordinal numbers

Parts of speech

The conventional parts of speech are 1. noun 2. adjective 3. pronoun 4. verb 5. adverb 6. presposition 7. conjunction Sometimes the interjection is included as an eighth part of speech

Demonstrative pronouns

The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. Demonstrative pronouns are true pronouns that function as subjects and objects Ex - That is mine. - that is a pronoun functioning as the subject. The same four words can also be used as adjectives Ex - That book is mine. - that is not a pronoun. It is an adjective modifying the noun book

Subject

The doers of the action of the sentence (with action verbs) or the topics of the sentence (with linking verbs). Subjects enter into subject-verb agreement with tensed, or finite, verbs.

Proper noun

The names of particular individuals, places, or things, as opposed to common nouns, the names for categories of individuals, places or things. Ex - Fred Flinstone is a proper noun, but caveman is a common noun. Seattle is a proper noun, but city is a common noun. Empire State Building is a proper noun, but building is a common noun.

Third-person pronoun

The personal pronouns he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, they, them, and theirs. The third-person pronouns (unlike first- and second-person pronouns) can replace or stand for entire noun phrases. Ex - All the bears in the forest gathered to watch Goldilocks leave. - we can replace the subject noun phrase with they - They gathered to watch Goldilocks leave. When third-person pronouns are used to modify nouns, they are classified as adjectives. Ex - The students packed their bags. - the third person pronoun their is functioning as an adjective modifying the noun bags

Second-person pronouns

The personal pronouns you (singular), yours (singular), you (plural), and yours (plural). The term second person refers to the person or persons being spoken to. The second-person possessive pronoun your (both singular and plural) is used to modify nouns and thus functions as an adjective, not a pronoun. Ex - your book.

Present progressive

The present progressive consists of the present tense form of the verb be (am, is, or are) followed by a verb in the present participle form. Ex - Santa is checking his list of naughty boys right now. The present progressive is often used to describe actions that are taking place at a present moment of time

Active voice

The term active or active voice refers to the vast majority of sentences with action verbs in which the subject is the doer of the action--as opposed to passive voice sentences in which the subject is the recipient of the action. Ex - Tom saw Jerry. - Tom is the subject doing the seeing. In the corresponding passive voice sentence - Jerry was seen by Tom. - the subject Jerry is not doing the seeing; rather, he is the person being seen

Agent

The term agent refers tot the doer of an action in a sentence. In an active voice sentence, the subject is the agent. Ex - John saw Mary - the subject John is an agent. In the corresponding passive voice sentence - Mary was seen by John. - John is still the agent, but no longer the subject. John is the object of the preposition by.

Case

The term case refers to the grammatical role and form of nouns and pronouns. There are three cases: 1. a subject (or nominative) case 2. an object case 3. a possessive (or genitive) case In older forms of English, nouns (and the adjectives that modified them) and pronouns were overtly marked with distinctive case endings. In modern English, some of the older case system markings are preserved in the personal pronouns. For example, the first-person pronouns are marked for case - I is in the subject, or nominative case; me is in the object case; my is in the possessive, or genitive, case.

Complex sentence

The term complex sentence does not mean a difficult sentence. Complex sentences contain an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Ex - I watched a little TV before I went to bed. - is a complex sentence because it consists of an independent clause (I watched a little TV) and a dependent clause (before I went to bed)

Definitive article

The term definitive article is probably the only term in English grammar that refers to a single term: the

Degree

The term degree refers to the fact that most descriptive adjectives can be used in three different forms 1. a base form (tall, beautiful) 2. a comparative form (taller, more beautiful) 3. a superlative form (tallest, most beautiful)

Direct address

The term direct address refers to including the actual person you are speaking or writing to as a part of the sentence Ex - It is my pleasure, ladies and gentlemen, to introduce our next speaker. - the words ladies and gentlemen are in direct address. Words in direct address are always set off from the rest of the sentence by commas

Modal verb

The term is used in modern grammar to describe an important group of helping verbs: can, may, must, shall, and will. Always followed by a verb in the base form. Ex - You can go; Susan must finish her homework; We will see For historical reasons, traditional grammar only recognized will, which was considered to be the best English equivalent of the future tense in Latin. In traditional grammar, the other modals remained nameless and unloved

Nearest noun agreement error

The term is used to describe a particularly common form of subject-verb agreement error in which the verb incorrectly agrees with the nearest noun, rather than the more remote actual subject. Ex - Uncertainty about the terms of the settlements have thrown the case into the courts. - the verb have incorrectly agrees with the nearest noun settlements, rather than the more distant subject uncertainty

Noun phrase

The term is widely used in modern grammar as a collective term for any grammatical structure that plays a noun role. Most noun phrases are headed by nouns (with or without modifiers). Ex - A tall young woman in a raincoat entered briskly . - A tall young woman in a raincoat is a noun phrase playing the role of a subject. The noun phrase is headed by the noun woman. Single-word nouns, pronouns, gerunds, infinitive phrases used as nouns, and noun clauses are all included within the umbrella term noun phrase

Sentences classified by structure

These fall into four categories: 1. Simple sentences (single independent clause, no dependent clause) 2. Compound sentences (two or more independent clauses) 3. Complex sentences (Single-independent clause and one or more dependent clauses) 4. Compound-complex sentences (at least two independent clauses and one dependent clause)

Possessive pronoun

They have two forms. One form is used as an adjective to modify a following noun Ex - I lost my porcupine again. - the possessive noun my modifies the noun porcupine and thus is classified as an adjective. The other form of possessive pronoun functions as a true pronoun that stands in place of a noun. Ex - I found mine. - mine functions as the object of found and is thus a true pronoun, not an adjective. ADJ - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their PRONOUN - mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs

Pronoun antecedent

Unlike nouns, pronouns have no independent meaning. To be meaningful, pronouns must refer back to some previously mentioned noun. The nouns that pronouns refer back to are called pronoun antecedents. Ex - My aunts live in Chicago. They are my mother's sisters. - the antecedent of the pronoun they is my aunts. Note that the antecedent of the pronoun does not need to be in the same sentence as the pronoun. Pronouns that do not have proper antecedents are called vague pronouns.

Future tense

Use the helping verb will followed by a verb in the base form. Ex - Sally will start tomorrow

Future perfect tense

Use the helping verb will have followed by a verb in the past participle form. Ex - Sally will have been with the company for a year now

Future progressive

Use the helping verbs will be followed by a verb in the present participle form. Ex - Sally will be working in the accounting department

Past tense

Used to describe actions that took place at or during some past time. Ex - John borrowed my car last night.

Topic of sentence

Used to describe the nature of the subject in linking verb sentences. Ex - The Panama Canal is now too small for many modern ships. - the subject Panama Canal is not the doer of any action as would be the case with most subjects in sentences with action verbs. The linking verb sentence is really about the Panama Canal. in other words, the subject of a linking verb sentence is a topic that the rest of the sentence describes or comments on.

Voice

Used to distinguish passive and active sentences. A passive sentence is said to be in the passive voice. Ex - Mary was seen by John. An active sentence is said to be in the active voice. Ex - John saw Mary.

Past participle

Verb forms used in three different constructions: 1. Perfect tenses after the helping verb have (Santa has seen the list of bad little boys and girls) 2. Passive voice sentences after the helping verb be (The list was seen by Santa) 3. Past participial phrases (The list seen by Santa is the official one)

Past participial phrase

Verbal phrases headed by a verb in the past participle form. Past participial phrases are used as adjectives. Ex - The books written by American authors are on that shelf. - The past participial phrase written by American authors modifies the noun books. Written is the past participial form of the verb write.

Present participial phrase

Verbal phrases headed by a verb in the present pariticiple form. Present participial phrases are used as adjectives. Ex - The children playing in the yard live next door. - the present participial phrase playing in the yard modifies the noun children. Playing is the present participle form of the verb play

Participial phrase

Verbal phrases headed by either a present participle or a past participle. Participial phrases are used as adjectives to modify preceding nouns. Ex - The woman was taking notes at the hearing was a reporter. - Taking notes at the hearing is a present participial phrase modifying woman. Ex - I just finished a book written by a college classmate. - written by a college classmate is a past participial phrase modifying book

Helping verb

Verbs used before other verbs to form multiple-verb constructions. They are Modals (can, may, must, shall, will) have, and be. The modals are followed by base forms Ex - Rob can take notes Have is followed by the past participle to form the various perfect tenses. Ex - Rob has recorded the meeting. The helping verb be has two functions: 1. When be is followed by the present participle, it creates progressives Ex - Rob is taking notes 2. When be is followed by a past participle, it creates the passive Ex - Notes were taken by Rob

Irregular verb

Verbs with one or more unpredictable forms. In particular, irregular verbs do not use -ed for both their past form and their past particle form. Ex - run is irregular because neither its past nor its past participle forms (ran and run) use -ed. Ex - hit is irregular because neither its past or its past participle forms (both hit) use -ed

Verb complement

Whatever complements are required by the verb to make a complete sentence. Ex - Mary loved her lambs. - the noun phrase her lambs is the noun phrase complement of the verb loves. In traditional grammar, only nouns (and noun substitutes) and predicate adjectives can be complements. In modern grammar, the term verb complement is broadened to include adverbials of place can be complements. Ex - The train was at the station. - the adverb prepositional phrase at the station is a complement of the verb was because if it were deleted, the sentence would become ungrammatical - the train was

Subject complement

a collective term for the two types of complements of linking verbs: 1. Predicate adjectives 2. Predicate normatives They are called so because predicate adjectives and predicate nominatives always refer back tot he subject. Ex - Gloria is famous. - the predicate adjective famous describes the subject Gloria. Ex - Sally is a right jolly old elf. - the predicate nominative a right jolly old elf describes the subject Santa

Descriptive adjective

descriptive adjectives are a class of adjectives that have comparative and superlative forms and can be used as predicate adjectives. Ex - The adjective angry is a descriptive adjective because it has the comparative form angrier and the superlative form angriest, and it can be used as a predicate adjective: Popeye was very angry. Adjectives that are not members of the class of descriptive adjectives are called determiners

Present paticiple

forms made by adding -ing to the base form of verbs. Ex - be, being; have, having; go, going; smile, smiling. Present participles are the only verb forms that are completely regular without a single exception

Perfect tense

refer to an action that takes place over a period of time or is frequently repeated. There are three perfect tenses: 1. Present perfect (Winston has been checking his maps) 2. Past perfect (Winston had gotten lost once too often) 3. Future perfect (Winston will have finished packing by now) The perfect tenses all use have as a helping verb followed by a verb in the past participle form