ETHICS Test 2

What is the main difference between a cloned (SCNT) individual and an individual who is a product of normal sexual reproduction? a. The SCNT individual has genetic material primarily from one person instead of two b. The SCNT individual has genetic material primarily from two people instead of one c. The SCNT individual has no genetic material d. There is no significant difference

a. The SCNT individual has genetic material primarily from one person instead of two

Kass claims that almost everybody thinks about cloning from the point of view of the cloned child, rather than from the point of view of adults choosing to clone. a. true b. false **** talk to professor about this

a. true

• _______ are undifferentiated cells found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ • They help to maintain and repair damaged differentiated cells of the SAME organ or tissue type in which they are found • This limits their therapeutic use, since, for example, a heart adult stem cell could only be used to generate heart cells & not cells of any other type

adult stem cells

Two different types of stem cells

adult, embryonic

Which of the following is a premise of Kass's despotism argument? a. Cloning is inherently morally wrong. b. In reproductive cloning, one seeks to impose one's will on a child's future. c. The permissibility of cloning depends on the parent's intent to raise the child. d. We have a good reason not to clone.

b. In reproductive cloning, one seeks to impose one's will on a child's future.

Genetic enhancement requires asexual reproduction. a. true b. false

b. false

Kass's only argument against cloning is that it will lead to a dystopian world much like the one described in Brave New World. a. true b. false

b. false

The crucial difference between sexual and asexual reproduction is that only the former requires sexual intercourse. a. true b. false

b. false

Which of the following is NOT an objection that Kass makes against cloning? a. It constitutes unethical experimentation. b. It threatens identity and individuality. c. It will produce harmful biological mutations as clones produce further clones. d. It perverts our values concerning parenthood and the raising of children.

c. It will produce harmful biological mutations as clones produce further clones.

Kass worries that cloned individuals: a. will be seen as curiosities b. will be scrutinized in relation to the person they are clones of c. both of the above d. none of the above

c. both of the above

What does SCNT stand for, as used in the discussion on cloning? a. skin cell nuclear transfer b. stem cell nuclear transmission c. somatic cell nuclear transfer d. none of the above

c. somatic cell nuclear transfer

In therapeutic cloning, the goal is to: a. produce and raise a child b. go down a slippery slope c. treat disease d. none of the above

c. treat disease

In ____ cloning, Researchers can add the DNA from the somatic cell to the empty egg in two different ways. In the first method, they remove the DNA-containing nucleus of the somatic cell and inject it into the empty egg. In the second approach, they use an electrical current to fuse the entire somatic cell with the empty egg.

reproductive

In ____ cloning, researchers remove a mature somatic cell, such as a skin cell or an udder cell, from an animal that they wish to copy. They then transfer the DNA of the donor animal's somatic cell into an egg cell, or oocyte, that has had its own DNA-containing nucleus removed.

reproductive

In the ___ cloning process, the egg is allowed to develop into an early-stage embryo in the test-tube and then is implanted into the womb of an adult female animal. Ultimately, the adult female gives birth to an animal that has the same genetic make up as the animal that donated the somatic cell. This young animal is referred to as a clone.

reproductive

___ cloning creates copies of whole animals.

reproductive

___ cloning may require the use of a surrogate mother to allow development of the cloned embryo, as was the case for the most famous cloned organism, Dolly the sheep.

reproductive

The technique used to clone whole animals, such as sheep, is referred to as ____

reproductive cloning

Kass is speaking only about __ cloning, not ____.

reproductive, therapeutic

____ cloning has as its aim the bringing about a child, while ____ cloning aims only at producing a human embryo, stem cells from which might be used for medical purposes

reproductive, therapeutic

Kass claims that in some cases ________ is "the emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason's power to completely articulate it."

repugnance

DESCRIBE HOW REPRODUCTIVE CLONING WORKS/THE PROCESS

researchers remove a mature somatic cell, such as a skin cell or an udder cell, from an animal that they wish to copy. They then transfer the DNA of the donor animal's somatic cell into an egg cell, or oocyte, that has had its own DNA-containing nucleus removed. Researchers can add the DNA from the somatic cell to the empty egg in two different ways. In the first method, they remove the DNA-containing nucleus of the somatic cell and inject it into the empty egg. In the second approach, they use an electrical current to fuse the entire somatic cell with the empty egg. • In both processes, the egg is allowed to develop into an early-stage embryo in the test-tube and then is implanted into the womb of an adult female animal. Ultimately, the adult female gives birth to an animal that has the same genetic make up as the animal that donated the somatic cell. This young animal is referred to as a clone. Reproductive cloning may require the use of a surrogate mother to allow development of the cloned embryo, as was the case for the most famous cloned organism, Dolly the sheep.

This approach (_______) leads to many opposing conclusions. For example, some argue that various forms of assisted reproduction are reasonably included within a general right to reproductive liberty. On this basis, one might argue that cloning should be regarded as something we may choose and which is presumptively morally permissible, unless there are compelling reasons against exercising this form of reproductive liberty. But ____ are often center stage in arguments that oppose both types of cloning. A main ethical objection to therapeutic cloning is based on that fact that extracting stem cells from a human embryo destroys the embryo, and those who think that a human embryo has a right to life are against therapeutic cloning for the same reason they are against abortion - such activities would involve killing an innocent human being with a right to life.

rights approach

_____ 1) have the capacity to renew themselves for long periods of time, 2) are "undifferentiated" in that they do not have a specific function, and 3) can result in specialized cells through a process called differentiation

stem cells

_____ are found throughout the body and are significant b/c they have the capability of developing into various kinds of cells or tissues in the body

stem cells

This is one of Kass's arguments. Which one is it: • 1. Reproductive cloning "seeks to make one's children after one's own image... and their future according to one's own will." • 2. To impose one's will on someone else for such purposes is despotic. • 3. Despotism is a clear case of treating someone as a mere means. • 4. It is wrong to treat someone as a mere means. • Therefore 5. Reproductive cloning is morally wrong.

the despotism argument

This is one of Kass's arguments. Which one is it: • 1. Cloned individuals would inevitably (or very likely) experience certain psychic and social identity "problems" peculiar to being a clone (e.g., being "scrutinized" in relation to older version; being a curiosity). And such "problems" will likely be a source of psychological suffering or stress for the cloned individual. • 2. The fact that some practice would likely cause such suffering is a good moral reason for being morally opposed to it. • Therefore 3. There is good moral reason for being opposed to human cloning.

the identity argument

This is one of Kass's arguments. Which one is it: • 1. Reproductive cloning involves genetic selection and reproductive technology in bringing about children. • 2. The result of technology is an artifact, or at least something that will likely be treated as one. Add to this the "commodification" of cloning and... • 3. As a result, the cloned individual will "not stand on the same plane" as the parents and scientists who were responsible for cloning that individual. • 4. Having such a status (not being on the same plane) is dehumanizing. • 5. Actions that constitute or are involved in bringing about a dehumanizing existence are morally wrong. • Thus 6. Reproductive cloning is morally wrong.

the manufacturing argument

This is one of Kass's arguments. Which one is it: • 1. Regarding the history of cloning nonhuman animals, there is a high incidence of major disabilities, deformities, and deaths. • 2. To engage in an experimental process that puts individuals at risk of serious disabilities, etc., is morally wrong (unless there is some compelling reason to do so). • 3. The sorts of reasons people do or would have for cloning do not constitute sufficiently good reason to override the reasons against cloning that concern possible disabilities, etc. • Therefore 4. Reproductive cloning is morally wrong

the unethical experimentation argument

Describe how NORMAL sexual reproduction works (sexually made or IVF)

• In NORMAL sexual reproduction, an unfertilized egg (called an oocyte) is fertilized by a sperm resulting in what is called a zygote (a one-cell organism whose nucleus contains genetic information contributed by the individual who produced the egg and by the individual who produced the sperm) • One-cell zygote then undergoes cellular division, and many cells later we have an embryo

Is one of Kass's points that cloning is repulsive and therefore unethical? Explain his thoughts about cloning being repugnant

• Obviously, Kass believes being disgusted or repulsed by the idea of cloning is not an argument. However, in some crucial cases, repugnance is the emotional expression of deep wisdom, beyond reason's power completely to articulate it. So, while it is difficult to entirely articulate the logical reasons cloning is immoral, it can be at least partially articulated

Kass's 4 main arguments against reproductive cloning:

1. that it constituted unethical experimentation 2. that it threatens identity and individuality 3. that it turns procreation into manufacture (especially when understood as the indication of manipulations to come) 4. that it means despotism over children and perversion of parenthood

Cloning involves asexual reproduction in which (4 steps from textbook)

1. the nucleus of an unfertilized egg is removed and 2. the nucleus of another cell, the "donor" nucleus, is removed and then 3. inserted into the hollow unfertilized egg, 4. which is then implanted in a female's uterus

Involves the process of "asexually" producing a biological organism that is virtually genetically identical to another organism

Cloning

________ is the project of "improving" humanity by bringing about genetic changes in future generations.

Genetic enhancement

Kass ARGUMENT ONE: Any attempt to clone a human being would constitute unethical experimentation upon the resulting child-to-be. EXPLAIN THIS FURTHER.

In the animal experiments, fewer than 2-3% of all cloning attempts succeed. Many of the so-called "successes" are in fact failures. There is a very high incidence of major disabilities and deformities in cloned animals that attain live birth. Scientists suggest the problem may be that an egg with a new somatic nucleus must re-program itself in a matter of minutes or hours (whereas the nucleus of an unaltered egg has been prepared over months & years). Thus, there is an increased likelihood of error in translating the genetic instructions, leading to developmental defects, some of which will only show themselves much later. Nearly all scientists now agree that attempts to clone human beings carry massive risks of producing unhealthy, abnormal, and malformed children. What are we to do with them? Shall we just discard the ones that fall short of expectations? Attempts at human cloning are IRRESPONSIBLE and UNETHICAL. We cannot ethically even get to know whether or not human cloning is feasible.

In addition to objections based on likely bad consequences of cloning, Kass argues that cloning is "unethical in itself" because in various ways it represents a degradation of our human nature and thus is not in accord with our respect for humanity. This sort of reasoning is representative of ____ and ____ ethics

Kantian, natural law

________ cloning is cloning whose main purpose is to produce an individual member of a species.

Reproductive

Crucial difference between sexual and asexual production

Sexual reproduction - the genetic makeup of the zygote and the resulting offspring result of the contributions of TWO individuals. Asexual reproduction - individuals produced asexually by the process of nuclear transfer are virtually genetically identical to the nuclear donor

Kass ARGUMENT TWO: If cloning were successful, it would create serious issues of identity and individuality. EXPLAIN THIS FURTHER.

The clone may experience concerns about his distinctive identity not only because he will be, in genotype and appearance, identical to another human being, but because he may also be tin to the person who is his "father" or "mother". Natural identical twins is no precedent, but even in this less problematic situation of identical twins, we see how difficult it is to wrest independence from the being for whom one has the most powerful affinity). People forget about the unique dangers of mixing the twin relation with the parent-child relation. Virtually no parent is going to be able to treat a clone of him or herself as one treats a child generated by the lottery of sex. What will happen when the adolescent clone of Mommy becomes the spitting image of the woman with whom Daddy once fell in love? In case of divorce, will Mommy still love the clone of Daddy, even though she can no longer stand the sight of Daddy himself? Most people think about cloning from the point of view of adults choosing to clone, but almost nobody thinks about what it would be like to be the cloned child. Surely his or her new life would constantly be scrutinized in relation to that of the older version. Even if the parents don't have unusual expectations for the clone (say to live the same life only without its errors), the child is likely to be ever a curiosity, ever a source of déjà vu. Unlike "normal" identical twins, a cloned individual will be saddles with a genotype that has already lived. He will not be fully a surprise to the world, people are likely to always compare his doings in life with the doings of his alter ego (especially if his clone is somebody gifted or famous).

____ cloning creates embryonic stem cells. Researchers hope to use these cells to grow healthy tissue to replace injured or diseased tissues in the human body.

Therapeutic

Kass ARGUMENT FOUR: The practice of human cloning by nuclear transfer, like other anticipated forms of genetically engineering in the next generation, would enshrine and aggravate a profound misunderstanding of the meaning of having children and the parent-child relationship. EXPLAIN THIS FURTHER

When a couple normally chooses to procreate, the partners are saying yes to the emerge of new life in its novelty and are not only saying yes to having a child, but also to having whatever this child turns out to be. In accepting our state of having limits or bounds, in opening ourselves to our replacement, we silently confess the limits of our control. Embracing the future by procreating means that we are surrendering our grip in the very activity of taking up our own share in what we hope will be the immortality of human life and the human species. This means that our children are not our children, they are not our property or our possessions. Neither are they supposed to live their lives for us or to live anyone's life but their own. Their genetic distinctiveness and independence are the natural foreshadowing of the deep truth that they have their own, never-before-enacted, life. Much mischief is done already by parents who try to live vicariously through their children. Children are sometimes compelled to fulfill the broken dreams of unhappy parents. But whereas most parents normally have HOPES for their children, cloning parents will have EXPECTATIONS. In cloning, such overbearing parents will have taken at the start a decisive step that contradicts the entire meaning of the open and forward-looking of parent-child relationships. The child is given a genotype that has already lived, with full expectation that this blueprint of a past life ought to be controlling the life that is to come. A wanted child now means a child who exists precisely to fulfill parental wants. Cloning is thus inherently despotic (dictatorial), as it seeks to make one's children after one's own image (or an image of one's choosing and their future according to one's will). Also, if a cloned child is unhappy with their big nose or nervous tendencies (or anything else he hates about himself), no parent would be able to blame nature of the lottery of sex. Children will hold their cloners responsible for everything (nature & nurture). As a result, parents may be liable to guilty.

Kass ARGUMENT THREE: Human cloning would also represent a giant step toward the transformation of begetting into making, of procreation into manufacture (literally, "hand-made"). EXPLAIN THIS FURTHER

With cloning, not only is the process in hand, but the total genetic blueprint of the cloned individual is selected and determined by the human artisans. We would be taking a major step into making man himself simply another one of the man-made things. Begetting differs from making because in natural procreation, human beings come together to give existence to another being that is formed exactly as we were, by what we are—living hence perishable, hence aspiringly erotic, hence procreative human beings. But in clonal reproduction, we give existence to a being not by what we are but by what we intend and design. TO BE CLEAR*, the problem is not the mere invention of technique, and the point is not that "nature knows best". The problem is that any child whose being, character, and capacities exist owing to human design does not stand on the same plane as its makers*. As with any product of our making, no matter how excellent, the artificer stands above it, not as an equal but as a superior, transcending it by his will and creative skill. In human cloning, scientists and prospective "parents" adopt a technocratic attitude toward human children: human children become their artifacts. Such an arrangement is profoundly dehumanizing, no matter how goof the product.

In ____ the unfertilized egg and the donor nucleus may be contributed by different individuals, neither of whom may be the individual in whom the embryo is planted

cloning

The term ____ describes a number of different processes that can be used to produce genetically identical copies of a biological entity. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is referred to as a clone.

cloning

____ involves asexual reproduction in which 1) the nucleus of an unfertilized egg is removed and 2) the nucleus of another cell, the "donor" nucleus, is removed and then 3) inserted into the hollow unfertilized egg, 4) which is then implanted in a female's uterus

cloning

(same blank for both) _______ worries about the likely negative effects of cloning. Their thinking about ethical issues is guided about the likely consequences of actions and practices.Those who oppose cloning point to what they think are likely negative consequences of cloning (like physical and psychological harms they think are likely to be suffered by SCNT individuals). One ____ argument is called the SLIPPERY SLOPE, that if we allow certain forms of reproductive cloning for what may seem like acceptable reasons, this will open the door to further and further cases of cloning, leading eventually to its abuse and thus its disaster.

consequentialism

In cloning, the resulting individual will be virtually genetically identical as the individual from whom the _____ was taken

donor nucleus

In the reproductive cloning process process, the unfertilized egg and the donor nucleus may be contributed by different individuals, neither of whom may be the individual in whom the embryo is planted. The resulting individual will be virtually genetically identical as the individual from whom the _____ was taken

donor nucleus

(same word for all 3 blanks) ______ are found in embryos and are "pluripotent", meaning they can become any cell type found in the body • Use of _____ has generated moral controversy b/c extracting these pluripotent cells from embryos inevitably resulted in the destruction of the embryos • However, because ______ can be manipulated to become a particular body cell type, makes them very valuable for treating disease & other medical conditions

embryonic stem cells

___ the project of "improving" humanity by bringing about genetic changes in future generations, is now very much a possibility

eugenics

___ cloning creates copies of genes or segments of DNA.

gene

3 different types of cloning

gene, reproductive, therapeutic

(same word for both blanks) ___ differs from cloning in that cloning is a form of asexual reproduction as explained earlier, whereas human ___ refers to manipulating genetic material in order to "improve" the talents and capacities of living humans or to produce offspring with certain desirable traits

genetic enhancement

(same blank for both) _____ theory worries about whether cloning is somehow dehumanizing. A guiding idea of theirs to moral issues is the idea that morality requires that we respect humanity in others and ourselves. One of the most common ____ arguments against reproductive cloning is that it violated the dignity of the SCNT individual, it incolces treating the individual as a mere means to some end. HOWEVER, some ____ challenge this claim and may argue that there is nothing about cloning that necessarily involves treating anyone as a mere means, rather whether a child is treated as a mere mans and as a result immorally depends on the details of how he or she is treated, regardless of how that child was produced.

kantian moral

On Kass' view, cloning "turns procreation into ________" because "the total genetic blueprint of the cloned individual is selected and determined by the human artisans."

manufacture

(same blank for both) ______ Theory would say one argument against reproductive cloning (and other types of assisted reproduction like IVF), because they are asexual, break the natural connection bt/w sex and reproduction and they represent unnatural activities. If one thinks that unnatural actives are morally wrong, they will conclude that cloning is morally wrong. HOWEVER many ___ theorists do not necessarily appeal to alleged unnaturalness of actions, but instead some think that reproduction is intrinsically good and is something we are morally obliged to preserve and protect. Our moral obligations reregarding reproduction are also taken to include proper child rearing - child rearing that fully respects the dignity of the child. Worries about respecting the worth of the child are a basis for ____ objections to cloning.

natural law

In _____, an unfertilized egg (called an oocyte) is fertilized by a sperm resulting in what is called a zygote (a one-cell organism whose nucleus contains genetic information contributed by the individual who produced the egg and by the individual who produced the sperm)

normal sexual reproduction

Both reproductive and therapeutic cloning involve the process of ____.

nuclear transfer

In NORMAL sexual reproduction (refers to natural birth cases AND IVF cases), an unfertilized egg called an __) is fertilized by a sperm resulting in what is called a ____ (a one-cell organism whose nucleus contains genetic information contributed by the individual who produced the egg and by the individual who produced the sperm). One-cell zygote then undergoes ____, and many cells later we have an embryo.

oocyte, zygote, cellular division

Kass's thoughts on slippery slope of cloning

• SLIPPERY SLOPE - The principle of reproductive freedom currently expressed by the proponents of cloning logically embraces the ethical acceptability of sliding all the way down: to producing children wholly in the laboratory from sperm to term (should it become possible), and to producing children whose entire genetic makeup will be the product of parental eugenic planning and choice. If reproductive freedom means the right to have a child of one's own choosing by whatever means, then reproductive freedom knows and accepts no limits. • Proponents of cloning want us to believe that there are legit uses of cloning that can be distinguished from illegitimate uses, but these limits cannot be found, even by their own principle. Reproductive freedom (as they all it) is governed solely by the subjective wishes of the parent to be. The sentimentally appealing case of the childless marries couple is, on these grounds, indistinguishable from the case of an individual (married or not) who would like to clone someone famous or talented, living or dead. And this principle also endorses and justifies not only cloning but all future artificial attempts to create/manufacture the perfect baby. • Also, once it becomes possible (with the aid of human genomics) to produce or to select what some regard as "better babies", parents will leap at the opportunity to improve their offspring. Not to do so will be socially regarded as a form of child neglect. Those who would usually be opposed to this tinkering would be under enormous pressure to compete on behalf of their as yet unborn children.

Kass's response to the defenders of cloning

• The defenders of cloning are not wittingly friends of despotism, but quite the contrary. They regard themselves as friends of freedom, the freedom of individuals to reproduce, the freedom of scientists and inventors to discover and to devise and to foster "progress" in genetic knowledge and technique, the freedom of entrepreneurs to profit in the market. They want large-scale cloning as human option for exercising our "right to reproduce" (our right to have children and children with desirable genes). Some point out that cloning is no big deal as we already (under our right to reproduce) practice early forms of unnatural, artificial, and extra-marital reproduction. Kass believes this right here is the perfect example of the logic of a SLIPPERY SLOPE.