Exam 1 Review Guide - Food Science

Be able to describe contributors to the deterioration of vegetables and know methods for prolonging shelf life.

Respiration • Vegetables continue to respire post-harvest by taking up oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide Moisture Loss • Vegetables are ~70% water, after being picked water is no longer replaced by root/leaf system Methods to prolong shelf life: • Controlled-atmosphere storage • Modified-atmosphere packaging • Edible films or coatings • Spray mist • Cool temperature- most fresh vegetables will last 3 days if refrigerated • Freezer-Blanch First! • Refrigerator crisper • Plastic bags with tiny holes • Exception: Potatoes, winter squash, dry onions, dry legumes should be kept in cool dry place

Review specific heat and how it relates to water

Specific Heat: the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1 degree Celsius. Different substances have different specificheats ◦ Water is used as a "standard" other substances are measured against water's specific heat of 1.00 ◦ Water's high specific heat is related to its molecular structure

Review mechanisms of taste and detecting odors; know factors that affect taste

Taste - Most influential factor in food selection; it occurs when a substance stimulates the taste buds. Compounds must dissolve in liquid or saliva gustatory cells detect taste and relay to the brain. • Detecting Aroma: People can differentiate between 2,000-4,000 odors - Volatile molecules: molecules capable of evaporating like gas into air - These molecules travel through air and are detected by the olfactory cells -Heat converts many substances into their volatile form Factors Affecting Taste - Age - Genetics - Temperature of the Food ◦ Food or beverages below 68F or above 86F become harder to taste - Degree of hunger - Gender - Variety in available food

Understand the basic structures of carbohydrates, protein and fat

Structure of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides Structure of protein: - Contain nitrogen atoms - Made from amino acids Structure of fat (lipids): ◦Differ from one another in two ways ◦ Length & degree of saturation ◦ 2-22 carbons in length ◦ Level of saturation play a role in melting point Fatty acid structure (cont.)... ◦ Saturated - no double bonds between carbons ◦ Unsaturated - one hydrogen missing between two carbons, allows double carbon bond ◦ Monounsaturated = When one double bond is present ◦ Polyunsaturated = When two or more double bonds are present ◦ The higher the unsaturation, the more likely fat is liquid at room temperature

Recognize some of the compounds contributing to the taste of fruit

Sugars, acids, essential oils, phenolic & aromatic compounds contribute to flavor

Review how water affects food perishability

◦ Determines perishability - Bacteria growth inhibited when water activity is below 0.85 ◦ Food with higher water content are more prone to spoilage & putrefying food releases water speeding up decay

Understand and be able to describe all of the functions of protein in food (Buffering)

◦ Having ability to resist extreme pH shifts & behave as buffers

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Parboiling

◦ Partially cooking in boiling water for later completion

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Stewing

◦ Simmering ingredients in a small to moderate amount of liquid; smaller cuts of meat (185-205 F) ◦ Often becomes a sauce which tastes better the day after

Describe the basic structure of a triglyceride and explain the two primary ways in which fatty acids differ

Basic triglyceride structure: ◦ Consist of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule ◦ P/S ratio Fatty acid structure ◦Differ from one another in two ways ◦ Length & degree of saturation ◦ 2-22 carbons in length ◦ Level of saturation play a role in melting point

Know the benefits and concerns for GMO's

Benefits Increased resistance to... • Pests • Disease • Harsh growing conditions • Transport damage • Spoilage Concerns • Allergens • Gene Contamination • Religions &/or Cultural

Know the terms "calories", "specific heat", "latent heat" and how they relate to the solid, liquid, gas state of water

Calorie: amount of energy it takes to raise 1g of water 1o Celsius Specific Heat: the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1 degree Celsius Latent Heat: Amount of energy per gram absorbed or emitted as a substance changes states - Heat is measured in the form of calories - When calories are absorbed or released, water changes its state

Be able to list criteria for taste panels

Can range from randomly selected to highly trained members General panels: ◦ Usually consist of at least 5 members; age and gender are considered ◦ Members must be free of colds, chew no gum immediately before testing, have not ingested any other food for at least 1 hour before testing, be nonsmokers, not color blind, have no strong likes or dislikes for the food to be tasted

Know the characteristics of carotenoids, chlorophylls and flavonoids and how PH affects them

Carotenoids and Chlorophyll - Located in plastids, fat soluble Carotenoids - Carotene (yellow-orange) - Lycopene (red-orange) - Xanthophyll (yellow) Chlorophyll - Chlorophyll a (blue-green) - Chlorophyll b (green) Flavonoids Located in vacuoles, water soluble - Anthocyanin (red-purple) - Anthoxanthin (cream/white) - Betalains (purple-red/yellow) How PH affects them: (attached chart)

Understand the changes that occur to texture, flavor, odor, color and nutrition during cooking. Texture

Temperature • High temperatures gelatinize starch, denatures protein, and decrease bulk by softening cellulose and cause a reduction in turgor due to water loss. Acid • Acids or acidic foods, such as vinegar or tomatoes, should be added toward the end of the cooking time, because they make vegetables more resistant to softening. Calcium • Calcium salts are often added to pickles and canned vegetables tocompensate for turgor lost during processing. The salts combine with pectic substances, firming the food's texture. Alkalines • Adding alkaline ingredients such as baking soda has the opposite effect- causing cellulose to break down and producing a mushy texture.

Review the functions and sources of the 3 groups of lipids discussed

Three groups of edible lipids... ◦ Triglycerides (fats & oils), phospholipids, & sterols Triglycerides ◦ About 95% of all lipids ◦ Consist of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule ◦ P/S ratio Phospholipids ◦ Contains phosphorus, which makes them water soluble ◦ Used as emulsifiers (e.g., lecithin) Sterols ◦ Cholesterol only found in animal foods ◦ Plant sterols can lower risk for coronary heart disease - Plant stanol esters

Know the differences between simple (citrus, drupes, pomes), aggregate and multiple fruits Multiple fruits

develop from a cluster of several flowers • Pineapples, Figs

Describe fruit pigments and their sources

•Cellular Structure & Pigments • Similar to vegetables • Fruits illustrate the range of anthocyanins clearly • Albedo: anthoxanthin • Regreening • Organic acids • Volatile & nonvolatile • Pectic substances • Three types - Protopectin, pectin, pectic acid • Phenolic compounds • Also known as tannins

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Scalding

◦ 150ºF ◦ Large, still, bubbles on the bottom and sides of pan - Milk and cream are scalded during the preparation of puddings, crème anglaise, crème caramel, hot icings and gnache. Scalded milk facilitates the melting of chocolate and draws flavour from citrus peel/zest, vanilla beans and whole spices like star anise and cinnamon.

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Poaching

◦ 160º-180ºF; hotter than scalding, but not bubbling ◦ Food partially or totally immersed in H2O ◦ Good for delicate foods, such as fish &/or eggs

Discuss how rack position and pan type influence results

◦ Baking results affected by: ◦ Rack position: ◦ Middle of the center rack if using one rack ◦ Do not stack ◦ Color of pan: ◦ Shiny metal pans reflect heat ◦ Duller metal pans absorb heat ◦ Glass pans heat food more rapidly

Know the calorie contribution of each nutrient in the diet

◦ Carbohydrates - 4 calories/gram ◦ Lipids - 9 calories/gram ◦ Protein - 4 calories/gram

Know dry heat preparation methods and be able to describe uses in food preparation, temperatures and equipment/techniques for desired outcome Broiling

◦ Cook under intense heat; high temps = quick cooking ◦ 5-10 minutes, use tender cuts of meat & fish ◦ Temp adjusted by moving rack; thicker cuts cooked farther, thinner closer

Understand and be able to describe all of the functions of protein in food (Denaturation/coagulation)

◦ Denaturation (protein structure disrupted) ◦ Coagulation (clotting or precipitation of protein) ◦ Both are irreversible ◦ Uses - foam formation, cheese production ◦ Denatured by: ◦ Heat, extremes in pH, alcohol, physical or chemical disruption

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Blanching

◦ Dipping food briefly in boiling water ◦ Sets color of green vegetables, loosens skin of fruits/vegetables/nuts for peeling, destroys enzymes that contribute to deterioration

Review preparation methods for vegetables (simmering, steaming, baking, microwaving, frying, blanching) Blanching

◦ Dipping food briefly in boiling water ◦ Sets color of green vegetables, loosens skin of fruits/vegetables/nuts for peeling, destroys enzymes that contribute to deterioration

Understand and be able to describe all of the functions of protein in food (Enzymatic reactions)

◦ Enzymes are catalysts that speed up chemical reactions ◦ Only operate under mild conditions of pH (near neutral) & temperature 95ºF to 104ºF ◦ Examples of uses of enzymes in food: Milk to curd in cheese production (rennin), tenderizing meat (papain, Bromelain, ficin), adding dark hue to tea, coffee, cocoa (phenol oxidase), improve flour & dough quality

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Steaming

◦ Food heated via direct contact with steam generated by boiling water ◦ Best method for vegetables to retain texture, color, taste, nutrients ◦ En Papillote - Indirect technique - wrap food in foil or parchment before baking ◦ Pressure cookers

Review preparation methods for vegetables (simmering, steaming, baking, microwaving, frying, blanching) Steaming

◦ Food heated via direct contact withsteam generated by boiling water ◦ Best method for vegetables to retain texture, color, taste, nutrients ◦ En Papillote - Indirect technique -wrap food in foil or parchment before baking ◦ Pressure cookers

Compare free water and bound water

◦ Free water: easily separated from food, found in fruit ◦ Bound water: Incorporated in chemical structure of other nutrients - Not easily removed - Resistant to freezing and drying - Not able to dissolve sugar, salt or acids

Review preparation methods for vegetables (simmering, steaming, baking, microwaving, frying, blanching) Baking

◦ Heating by hot air in an oven; average temp is 350ºF

Know dry heat preparation methods and be able to describe uses in food preparation, temperatures and equipment/techniques for desired outcome Baking

◦ Heating by hot air in an oven; average temp is 350ºF ◦ Baking results affected by: ◦ Rack position: ◦ Middle of the center rack if using one rack ◦ Do not stack ◦ Color of pan: ◦ Shiny metal pans reflect heat ◦ Duller metal pans absorb heat ◦ Glass pans heat food more rapidly

Know dry heat preparation methods and be able to describe uses in food preparation, temperatures and equipment/techniques for desired outcome Frying

◦ Heating food in fat ◦ Temps vary across methods: ◦ Medium Heat: Sautéing, stir-frying, pan-broiling or frying ◦ Deep Frying: 350º-450ºF

Review preparation methods for vegetables (simmering, steaming, baking, microwaving, frying, blanching) Frying

◦ Heating food in fat ◦ Temps vary across methods: ◦ Medium Heat: Sautéing, stir-frying, pan-broiling or frying ◦ Deep Frying: 350º-450ºF

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Braising

◦ Larger cut of meat, cooks in own juices ◦ Flavors blend and intensify ◦ Meats frequently sautéed before

Understand and be able to describe all of the functions of protein in food (Browning)

◦ Maillard Reaction: the reaction between a sugar and a protein resulting in the formation of brown complexes ◦ Temperature must be at least 194F ◦ Enzymatic Browning: a reaction in which an enzyme acts on a phenolic compound in the presence of oxygen to produce brown-colored products.

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Boiling

◦ Must reach 212ºF at sea level to boil ◦ Common technique: ◦ Bring liquid to rolling boil, add food evenly ◦ Return to full boil before reducing heat

Review preparation methods for vegetables (simmering, steaming, baking, microwaving, frying, blanching) Simmering

◦ Never < 180ºF ◦ Gently rising bubbles, barely breaking the surface; more gentle than boiling

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses. Simmering

◦ Never < 180ºF ◦ Gently rising bubbles, barely breaking the surface; more gentle than boiling - Often used for soups, stews and slow cooking meat

Describe the changes that occur when fruits ripen.

◦ Protopectin - Large, insoluble molecule in young fruit; enzymes transform intopectin as fruit ripens; doesn't contribute to gelling ◦ Pectin - Produced at height of ripeness; extracted to make jams & jellies ◦ Pectic acid -Produced when fruit is overripe; doesn't contribute to gelling

Know dry heat preparation methods and be able to describe uses in food preparation, temperatures and equipment/techniques for desired outcome Grilling

◦ Similar to broiling because food is cooked above intense heat source

Monosaccharides (composition of CHO)

◦ Simplest sugars ◦ Classified by number of carbons - Triose (three carbons), tetrose (four carbons), pentose (five carbons), and hexose (six carbons) ◦ -ose means sugars ◦ Pentose & hexose most common in foods ◦Glucose - Most common hexose found in foods; present in fruits, honey, corn syrup, & some vegetables ◦ Refined glucose = dextrose - Used in production of a variety of foods ◦ Fructose - (a.k.a. fruit sugar) ◦ Found primarily in fruits & honey ◦ Sweetest of all sugars, but not used because of problems it causes during production ◦ Galactose - A part of lactose (from milk)

Soluble vs. Insoluble Fiber

◦ Soluble dissolve in water, whereas insoluble don't ◦Common fibers ◦ Cellulose, Hemicellulose & pectic substances - Every plant cell composed partly of cellulose - Long, non-branched chains of glucose; bonds not digestible Polysaccharides: Common fibers ◦Pectic substances ◦ Polysaccharides found between and within the cell walls of fruit and vegetables ◦ Protopectin ◦ Pectin ◦ Pectic acid ◦ Natural cementing agents

Disaccharides (composition of CHO)

◦ Sucrose (Table sugar) ◦ One glucose molecule and one fructose molecule linked together ◦ Lactose ◦ A glucose molecule + a galactose molecule forms lactose ◦ Lactose intolerant lack the enzyme (lactase) needed to break down lactose ◦ Maltose ◦ Two glucose molecules linked together create maltose, or malt sugar ◦ Primarily used in production of beer & breakfast cereals

Know dry heat preparation methods and be able to describe uses in food preparation, temperatures and equipment/techniques for desired outcome Roasting

◦ Term used for "baking" meats & poultry ◦ Meats based every 20 minutes ◦ Seared meats initially: seared at 400º - 450ºF for 15 minutes

Discuss changes that occur during heating of fruits

◦ Texture ◦ Conversion of protopectin to pectin ◦ Degradation of cellulose & hemicellulose ◦ Denaturation of cell membrane proteins ◦ Osmosis - fruit's osmotic system of selective permeability is replaced with simple diffusion ◦ Flavor ◦ Sugars, acids, essential oils, phenolic & aromatic compounds contribute to flavor... ◦ These can be lost during heating, which is why fruits are served raw or heated minimally

Lignin

◦ The one fiber that isn't a CHO ◦ Plants increase lignin content as they age ◦ Produce tough, stringy texture in food (e.g., celery)

Polysaccharides (composition of CHO)

◦Starch-digestible ◦ Digestible polysaccharide from plant sources ◦ In food, heat, enzymes, & acid are used to break down starches into smaller, sweeter segments (called dextrins) ◦Glycogen-digestible ◦ Digestible polysaccharide from animal sources ◦ Glycogen in meat is converted to lactic acid during slaughtering

Know the differences between simple (citrus, drupes, pomes), aggregate and multiple fruits Aggregate fruits

develop from several ovaries in one flower • Blackberries, raspberries, strawberries

Understand and be able to describe all of the functions of protein in food (Hydration)

Ability of protein to dissolve & attract water ◦ Roles: capability to form a gel & aid in dough formation ◦ Uses: gels, binders, stabilizers, thickeners

Know controls for sample preparation used to minimize outside influences and perceptions

Environment: controlled lighting and temperature Food samples: controlled portion size, freshness, randomly presented, not allowed to swallow to avoid "taste fatigue", etc. Food containers: white or clear Time of day: Mid-morning or mid-afternoons

Taste vs. flavor: contributions to flavor and its detection

Flavor - The combined sense of taste, odor, and mouthfeel Anatomy of Flavor • Broader concept than either taste or aroma • The combined sense of taste, odor, and mouthfeel • Aroma provides about 75% of the impression of flavor - The amount of FAT in a food or beverage determines how intense the flavor is over time

Know temperature points for freezing, melting and boiling, and how they can be increased or decreased

Freezing point: ◦ The temperature at which liquid turns to solid ◦ Freezing = 32ºF/0º at normal atmospheric pressure Adding anything to water (e.g., salt or sugar) lowers freezing point, but too much slows the process of freezing Melting point: ◦ The temperature at which solid turns to liquid ◦ Returning the 80 calories to the ice causes it to reach melting point Boiling point: ◦The temperature at which a liquid begins to boil: 212ºF (100ºC) at sea level ◦ Requires 540 calories to boil and vaporize ◦ Occurs when vapor pressure of a liquid just exceeds atmosphere pressure ◦ After point is reached, additional heat will not increase temperature or cook food faster Elevation & Boiling Point ◦ As altitude increases, boiling point decreases (1ºF for every 500-ft increase) ◦ Occurs because there is less air & atmospheric pressure pushing down; steam is faced with less resistance ◦ Artificial pressure can be created by pressure cookers; speeds up heating time

Compare and contrast fresh, dried, frozen, and canned fruits.

Fresh • Ripe fruit w/ high water content ... • Consume within 3 days of purchase • Once ripe, increase storage time by... • Placing in plastic bag with air holes• Refrigerate Dried About 25% water • Takes 5lbs of grapes to make 1lb of raisins • Fruit leather: jerky-like strips of fruit • Rehydrating dried fruit: Add ½ cup liquid per 1 cup dried fruit, microwave Frozen • Retains color & taste, but texture is damaged • Signs of refrozen fruit = heavy frost, flaccid, less flavorful Canned Whole, halve, sliced, chunks, crushed,sauce or juice • Fruits canned in their own juice or in light, medium, or heavy syrup

Understand the changes that occur to texture, flavor, odor, color and nutrition during cooking. Color

Heating Initially, chlorophyll appears brighter Greens become duller when cooked -membranes that separated acids and pigments are disrupted • Acids come in contact with Chloroplasts • Hydrogens replace magnesium in chlorophyll, resulting in an olive brown compound called pheophytin Presence of metals Red cabbage turns purplish blue when cut with a knife • Anthocyanin reacts with metal ions in iron, tin and aluminum Solubility: Because betalains are much more soluble than chlorophyll or carotenoids, a greater percentage is leached out into the turnip's cooking water, compared with the amount seen with broccoli or carrots.

Review preparation methods for vegetables (simmering, steaming, baking, microwaving, frying, blanching) Microwaving

Incorporates moist- and dry-heat methods - Magnetron tube generates waves of frequency at 915 or 2,450 MHz ◦ Aimed at H2O or fat in food causes rapid vibration of molecules, so food will begin to heat rapidly

How does a microwave heat our food?

Incorporates moist- and dry-heat methods - Magnetron tube generates waves of frequency at 915 or 2,450 MHz ◦ Aimed at H2O or fat in food causes rapid vibration of molecules, so food will beginto heat rapidly

Review accurate measuring techniques for liquids, eggs, fat, sugar and flour

Liquids: - Clear graduated measuring cup Eggs: Peewee to jumbo (large = standard) ◦ When half an egg is called for... ◦ 4 large eggs = 7 ounces or just under 1 cup ◦ 8-10 egg whites, or 12-14 yolks = 1 cup Fat: Liquid in measuring cups; Solid - warmed to plastic state & pushed into fraction cup; water displacement method ◦ Bar = ½ cup or 8 tablespoons Sugar: Sugar: Depends on type of sugar ◦ Granulated: Pour into measuring cup & level off ◦ Brown: Back into cup & level off ◦ Can become hard because it contains 2% moisture, which evaporates ◦ Can we prevent/fix this?? ◦ Confectioner's: Sift, pour into cup & level off Flour: Best to weigh flour; sift before pouring into measuring cup ◦ Cup should not be tapped ◦ Various white flours differ in density

Know dry heat preparation methods and be able to describe uses in food preparation, temperatures and equipment/techniques for desired outcome

Methods - Bake, roast, broil, grill, fry (rest in more detail on separate cards)

Know the types of moist heat preparation methods and be able to describe their appearance, temperature and uses.

Methods - Scalding, poaching, simmering, stewing, braising, boiling, parboiling, blanching, steaming (rest in more detail on separate cards)

List and describe the most common monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Know their functions in food and digestibility.

Most common monosaccharides ◦ Pentose & hexose most common in foods ◦Glucose - Most common hexose found in foods; present in fruits, honey, corn syrup, & some vegetables ◦ Refined glucose = dextrose - Used in production of a variety of foods ◦ Fructose - (a.k.a. fruit sugar) ◦ Found primarily in fruits & honey ◦ Sweetest of all sugars, but not used because of problems it causes during production Most common disaccharides ◦ Sucrose (Table sugar) ◦ One glucose molecule and one fructose molecule linked together ◦ Lactose ◦ A glucose molecule + a galactose molecule forms lactose ◦ Lactose intolerant lack the enzyme (lactase) needed to break down lactose ◦ Maltose ◦ Two glucose molecules linked together create maltose, or malt sugar ◦ Primarily used in production of beer & breakfast cereals Most common oligosaccharides - Two most common - Raffinose (3 monosaccharides) & stachyose (4 monosaccharides) • Found in dried beans; not well-digested & result in gas as a by-product - Used as bulking agents in low-calorie foods & fat replacers in beverages - Not cariogenic, as are disaccharides Most common polysaccharides Starch-digestible ◦ Digestible polysaccharide from plant sources ◦ In food, heat, enzymes, & acid are used to breakdownstarches into smaller, sweeter segments (called dextrins) ◦Glycogen-digestible ◦ Digestible polysaccharide from animal sources ◦ Glycogen in meat is converted to lactic acid during slaughtering

Review the nutritional content of vegetables

Most fresh, unprocessed vegetables are: Naturally low in: • Calories • No Cholesterol • Sodium • Fat • Protein Good sources of: • Carbs (especially fiber) • Vitamins • Minerals • Phytochemicals Oxalates- prevent the absorption of calcium, zinc and iron

Understand the changes that occur to texture, flavor, odor, color and nutrition during cooking. Nutrition

Nutrient Retention Minimizing Nutrient Loss • Avoid immersing in water (Go for steaming, microwave, baking) • Use as little cooking water aspossible (simmering) • Cook just to the point of doneness • Leave skins on vegetables • Cut vegetables into fewer pieces • Simmer with little water to: • Reduce nutrient loss • Avoid overcook causing effects on flavor, texture and color. • Steaming takes a little longer than simmering but helps to maintain texture, color and nutritional value. • One of the best ways to retain a vegetable's texture, color, and nutrient content • Requires very little water and is fast enough to minimize loss of quality

Be able to define and compare objective tests and subjective tests, and know examples of each

Objective Tests ◦ Use laboratory instruments ◦ Quantify physical and chemical differences in food Two types of testing: ◦ Physical ◦ Chemical Physical Tests: measure certain observable aspects of food ◦ Examples: ◦ Volume: measurement of three-dimensional space that is often used to measure liquids - Quantifies the area occupied by a mass ◦ Density: concentration of matter measured by the amount of pass per unit of volume - Mass of a given volume ◦ Viscosity: resistance of a fluid to flowing freely, caused by the friction of its molecules against a surface. - Warner-Bratzler shear, penetrometer Chemical Tests: measure certain observable aspects of food ◦Determines... - Food safety (e.g., microbial evaluation) - Information for Nutrition Facts labels - Possible contamination (e.g., presence of pesticides) Subjective (Sensory) Testing Evaluation of food quality based on sensory characteristics and personal preferences as perceived by the five senses. Testing foods involves our perception of the food (sight,taste, odor, etc.) Two main types: ◦ Analytical (effective) tests: (used to detect "differences") ◦ Affective tests (consumer): (used to detect "individual preferences"

Recognize the common ingredients in fruit spreads

Protopectin, pectin, pectic acid, albedo

Know equivalent measurements

(attached image)

Oligosaccharides (composition of CHO)

- 3 to 10 monosaccharides - Two most common - Raffinose (3 monosaccharides) & stachyose (4 monosaccharides) • Found in dried beans; not well-digested & result in gas as a by-product - Used as bulking agents in low-calorie foods & fat replacers in beverages - Not cariogenic, as are disaccharides

Know the term lignin

- Non-carbohydrate compound which increases in concentration as vegetable matures - Responsible for toughness of older broccoli stems and carrots cores

Know the term amylopectin

- Polysaccharide ◦ Digestible polysaccharide from plant sources ◦ In food, heat, enzymes, & acid are used to break down starches into smaller, sweeter segments (called dextrins)

Know the term pectin

- Polysaccharides found between and within the cell walls of fruit and vegetables - Produced at height of ripeness; extracted to make jams & jellies

Know the term dextrose

- Refined glucose, used in production of a variety of foods

Know the term raffinose

- Type of oligosaccharide - 3 monosaccharides • Found in dried beans; not well-digested & result in gas as a by-product - Used as bulking agents in low-calorie foods &fat replacers in beverages

Know the structure of vegetables and be able to identify the organelles storing nutrients and pigments. o Know terms: Leucoplast, parenchyma, chromoplast, vacuole, plastid and chloroplast

Cell Wall: Vegetable cells are surrounded by strong walls composed of fiber. • Pigments: provide color to fruits and vegetables - contained in sacs called chloroplasts, chromoplasts and vacuoles • Nonnutritive phytochemicals/antioxidants - Leucoplast: a colorless organelle found in plant cells, used for the storage of starch or oil. - Parenchyma: responsible for the plant's starch content, color, water volume, and flavor - the functional tissue of an organ as distinguished from the connective and supporting tissue - Chromoplast: a colored plastid other than a chloroplast, typically containing a yellow or orange pigment. - Vacuole: filled with cell sap that maintains pressure against cell wall -Plastid: stores pigments -Chloroplast: site of photosynthesis

Describe enzymatic browning in fruit and methods for preventing it.

Certain fruits susceptible to browning when sliced; inhibiting browning can be done by... • Denaturing enzymes • Blanching destroys enzymes, but blanching damages texture & flavor • Acid pH • Acid inhibits polyphenol oxidase enzyme activity; optimal pH is 7.0 • High acid content of oranges, lemons, & limes work well • Cold temperatures • Slows enzyme activity, but not complete enzyme inhibition • Coating with sugar or water • Prevents exposure to oxygen • Antioxidant • Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) & sulfites use up available oxygen

Know the classification of potatoes, the basic types and proper storage. Know non-waxy and waxy varieties and how they are best used in food preparation.

Classification: Basic types: Waxy and non-waxy, all- purpose - Waxy (red Pontiac, red triumph): holds shape well during boiling, great for potato salad - Non-waxy (Russet): slough off and lose shape during boiling, excellent for mashing and baking, good for frying - All-purpose: Yukon Proper storage: Storage temperatures will influence starch and sugar content of potatoes - Recommend 60F - When temperature lowers to around 45F, sugar begins to accumulate, and starch levels drop - Changes are detrimental to optimal quality when cooking

What is the difference between a complete and incomplete protein?

Complete vs. incomplete proteins ◦ Most animal proteins are complete ◦ Most plant proteins are incomplete (protein complementation)

Know the difference between conduction, convection, radiation and induction

Conduction - Direct transfer of heat contact from one substance to another Convection - Transfer of heat by moving air or liquid currents through & around food Radiation - Transfer of heat energy inform of waves of particles moving from source outward Induction - Transfer of heat energy without direct contact with coils

Know how vitamins and minerals are classified, review their functions

Vitamins: Organic compounds needed in very small amounts by the body and that must be included in the diet to maintain life and promote growth •Two major vitamin groups -Fat-soluble : A, D, E, K -Water-soluble: B complex, Vitamin C Minerals: Natural inorganic elements in foods that remain as ash in food if burned; many are essential nutrients • Essential for metabolism, structure, and hormone like functions. Cannot be destroyed by heat, light or oxygen Minerals are classified as either major minerals or trace minerals, depending on the amount needed in the body. Major minerals are those that are required in the diet in amounts larger than 100 milligrams each day. These include sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulfur.

Understand the various functions of water in food

Water is necessary for: ◦ Assimilating, digesting, absorbing, transporting, metabolizing, and excreting nutrients & by-products

Know the selection criteria for purchasing vegetables

Wise selection also depends on the variety • What is the ingredient being used for? • What is the intended preparation?

Describe the composition and nutritive value of fruits. Compositon

• Cellular Structure & Pigments • Similar to vegetables • Fruits illustrate the range of anthocyanins clearly • Albedo: anthoxanthin • Regreening • Organic acids - Volatile & nonvolatile • Pectic substances • Three types - Protopectin, pectin, pectic acid • Phenolic compounds - Also known as tannins Organic Acids - Volatile and Nonvolatile - Contribute to flavor and are important in preservation techniques - Tartness related to acidic content Phenolic Compounds = Tannins ◦ Responsible for browning & bruising ◦ Found mostly in unripe fruits, giving them a bitter taste and leaving astringent taste in mouth ◦ Cranberries bacterial anti-adhesive properties are due to its high tannin content (oligomeric proanthocyanidins)

Understand the changes that occur to texture, flavor, odor, color and nutrition during cooking. Odor

• Food odors contribute to the perception of flavor, but some odors may be undesirable. • Pungent odors are generated by sulfur compounds present in the cruciferous and Allium (onions, garlic, shallots, leeks, chives) vegetables.

Describe the composition and nutritive value of fruits. Nutritive value

• Low in Calories • Water - 80-90% water - Dried Fruits ~25% water • Fat - Fruits are low, except.... - Cholesterol free • Carbohydrates - Main source of calories; carbs converted from starch to sugars during ripening - 3-14% Carbohydrates • Protein - Low and incomplete

Describe how sensory (sight, odor, taste, touch, hearing), nutritional, religious, psychological and sociological, cultural and budgetary criteria affect the foods we choose to buy and consume

• Sensory Criteria: - Color - Aroma - Taste - Texture - Overall Appearance Color, Sight, Appearance • Eyes receive 1st impression of foods but can be deceiving... - Flavor - Strength of flavor - Ripeness - Cooking method/doneness - Visually stimulating Taste is the most influential in food selection. Aroma & Odor • Aroma of some foods can be detected even before they are seen - People can differentiate between 2,000-4,000 odors - Adaptation: diminishing ability to distinguish between various odors over the time of exposure to smells • Detecting Aroma: • Volatile molecules: molecules capable of evaporating like gas into air - These molecules travel through air and are detected by the olfactory cells - Heat converts many substances into their volatile form Nutritional: Obesity epidemic has made more people aware of the link between diet and health. Cultural: Ethnic influences, places of birth, geography, and climate, manners all influence food habits by dictating what is or is not acceptable to eat. Psychological and sociological: Organic/Inorganic Foods, GMOs Religion • Declares foods as acceptable or unacceptable • Specifies preparation procedures • Designates certain foods for specific occasions and assigning symbolic value to some Examples: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Judaism, Islam

Review methods used to obtain favorable colors, flavors and odors, as well as methods to diminish undesirable compounds.

• Simmer with little water to: • Reduce nutrient loss • Avoid overcook causing effects on flavor, texture and color. • Steaming takes a little longer than simmering but helps to maintain texture, color and nutritional value. • One of the best ways to retain a vegetable's texture, color, and nutrient content • Requires very little water and is fast enough to minimize loss of quality

Know the differences between simple (citrus, drupes, pomes), aggregate and multiple fruits Simple fruits

• Simple: develop from 1 flower • Drupes: fruits with seeds encased in a pit • Apricots, Cherries, Peaches, Plums • Pomes: fruits with seeds contained in a central core • Apples and Pears • Citrus • Oranges, Lemons, Mandarins

Know what compounds stimulate sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami and oleogustus

• Sweet: sugars, alcohols, and aldehydes • Sour: acids, related to the concentration of hydrogen ions • Bitter: caffeine, theobromine, phenolic compounds, alkaloids (quinine) • Salty: ionized salts • Umami: savory, glutamate • Oleogustus: "taste for fat"

Know what defines a food as a vegetable and know how vegetables are classified.

• Vegetable: a plant (usually herbaceous) containing an edible portion that can accompany the main course of a meal. • Impact color, texture and flavor of meals • Classify by the part of the plant from which it originates: • Roots • Tubers • Bulbs • Stems • Leaves • Seeds • Flowers

Understand the changes that occur to texture, flavor, odor, color and nutrition during cooking. Flavor

• Vegetables obtain their flavors from: - Volatile oils - Sulfur compounds - Organic acids - Mineral salts - Carbohydrates - Polyphenols • To retain these flavor compounds, vegetables should be heated in as little water and for as short a time as possible. • Strong flavored vegetables should have an excess of ¼ inch of water to help dilute strong flavors, mild flavored vegetables should have water barely covering them. • Cover a pan when a mild flavored vegetable is being prepared, do not cover when a strong-flavored vegetable is being boiled