Exam 2 BIO 202

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Place each label at the proper location on the graph to indicate appropriate oxygen saturation levels.5

Determine which muscles are contracted with each of the respiratory volumes and capacities below.

Determine which set of capillaries each of the following processes would occur in.

Determine if each characteristic is increased or decreased in someone who suffers from emphysema.

Each hemoglobin molecule can transport up to __________ oxygen molecules.

Hydrogen ions then dissociate from the hemoglobin and bind with ____ ions

BICARBONATE

acidosis

Which term refers to an acid-base imbalance in which the blood pH is lower than 7.35?

hypercapnia

Which term refers to an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood?

Respiratory cycle

Which term refers to one complete breath, in and out?

Eupnea

Which term refers to relaxed, quiet breathing?

hemoglobin without oxygen

deoxyhemoglobin

independently

each gas in a mixture behaves ______

reserve

the oxygen remaining in the blood after it passes through the capillary bed provides a venous ______

Which of the following is true at the venous ends of the pulmonary capillaries?

the pCO2 is EQUAL in the capillaries and in the alveoli

Which of the following is true at the arterial ends of the pulmonary capillaries?

the pO2 is LOWER in the capillaries than in the alveoli

expiratory reserve volume

the vital capacity minus the _______ equals the inspiratory capacity

tidal volume

the volume of air exchanged during normal breathing is called the _______

Breathing air that contains increased levels of oxygen

Which would increase the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange?

mucus

a second form, adenocarcinoma, originates in the _____ glands of the lamina propria

Macrophage

a type of human immune system cell that ingests pathogens by phagocytosis is:

originates in mucous glands of lamina propria

adenocarcinoma

inspiratory reserve volume

after a normal inspiration, the amount of air that can be inspired forcefully Is called the _______

lungs

alveolar gas exchange occurs in the ____

The blood transports more CO2 in the form of ___________ than in any other form.

bicarbonate ions

nose, mouth - pharynx, larynx - trachea, lungs - bronchi, bronchioles

conducting pathway

pathogen

a disease-causing organism or chemical is generally called a:

Dalton's law

knowing that the total pressure of three gases (A,B, and C) is equal to 10mmhg, we can calculate the partial pressure of C provided we know PA=6mmhg and PB=1mmhg

dissolved gas

less than 10% of CO2 is transported as ________

capillaries

gas exchange occurs at the ____

T/F: The partial pressure of oxygen usually has little effect on quiet respiration. True

Match the following characteristics with the appropriate type of lung cancer.

Normally, the systemic arterial blood has a PO2 of ___________ mm Hg, a PCO2 of ___________ mm Hg, and a pH of ___________.

95;40;7.4

Naive

A T cell which has undergone positive and negative selection but has not become activated by an antigen is said to be:

Plasma; B cells do not produce antibodies but give rise to plasma cells which do

A ____ cell produces antibodies

Neutrophil

A _____ is a leukocyte that functions to nonspecifically destroy bacteria by means of phagocytosis, intracellular digestion, and secretion of bactericidal chemicals

Natural passive immunity

A baby acquires resistance to a virus through antibodies obtained through breast milk

an underactive immune system

A patient who is immunodeficient would have?

Hyperventillation

A falling blood pH would have what effect on respiration normally?

basophil

A mast cell is very similar to the type of leukocyte called a(n) _____. Both secrete histamine, heparin and other chemicals involved in inflammation

A) B) C) D)

A) Afferent lymphatic vessel B) Efferent lymphatic vessel C) Germinal center D) Lymphatic nodule

Corniculate

Along with the arytenoid cartilage, the ___ cartilages are also involved in movement of the vocal folds.

Which passageway is NOT a conducting pathway? A) Trachea B) Secondary bronchus C) Tertiary bronchus D) Alveoli E) Pharynx

Alveoli

Eosinophilia; Occurs when a person has a high number of eosinophils in their blood, such as in the case of allergy or parasitic infection

An elevated eosinophil count is called:

inability of blood to carry adequate oxygen

Anemic hypoxia

A high eosinophil count may indicate: A) Viral infection B) Bacteria infection C) Parasitic infection D) Allergies E) C & D

C&D

Bronchitis

Chronic _____ is characterized by a reduction in the number of cilia lining the airway and increased mucus production

oxygen deficiency

Clinically, cyanosis is very important because it indicates an underlying physiological problem. It indicates:

The rest of each chain is a constant (C) region, which has the same amino acid sequence, or nearly so, in all antibodies of a given class (within one person). The C region determines the mechanism of an antibody's action—for example, whether it can bind complement proteins.

Constant (C) region of antibody

Which law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of its individual gases

Dalton's

False

Exercise decreases lymphatic return (T/F)

____ law states that the amount of gas dissolving in water is determined by its partial pressure

HENRY'S LAW

Since blood arriving at the alveolus has a ____ pCO2 than air, it releases CO2 into the air

HIGHER

inadequate pulmonary gas exchange

Hypoxemic hypoxia

Each gas in a mixture behaves ____

INDEPENDENTLY

The diffusion of one gas does not ____ the diffusion of another

INFLUENCE

after a normal inspiration, the amount of air that can then be inspired forcefully is called the ____

INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME

clones

Identical cells produced by mitosis from a single parent cell are called

Cricotracheal; Thyrohyoid

Identify the extrinsic ligaments of the larynx.

Carbon dioxide is transported in three forms: carbonic acid, carbamino compounds, and dissolved gas.

Identify the forms in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.

Put the following in order of occurrence: A) Infection, fever, chills, sweating B) Infection, sweating, fever, chills C) Fever, infection, chills, sweating D) Chills, infection, fever, sweating E) Infection, chills, fever, sweating

Infection, chills, fever, sweating

hypoxia

Insufficient oxygen levels in a tissue is called:

Thymus

Located behind the sternum, this gland functions to mature T cells of the immune system:

Emphysema

Long tern inhalation of cigarette smoke often leads to _____, a COPD that is characterized by a loss of alveolar surface area

False

Lymph is propelled through the lymphatic system by the rhythmic contractions of the heart (T/F)

filter lymph, contain lymphocytes, collect pathogens, collect cancer cells

Lymph nodes:

False; They are closes-ended vessels consisting of loosely overlapping endothelial cells.

Lymphatic capillaries are open-ended vessels consisting of loosely overlapping endothelial cells (T/F)

cortex

Lymphatic nodules are located in the _____ of the lymph node

the maximum volume of gas that a person can inhale and exhale per minute by breathing as quickly and deeply as possible

Maximum Breathing Capacity

As hemoglobin loads ____ its affinity for H+ declines

OXYGEN

bicarbonate

Most carbon dioxide in the blood is transported in the form of _____ dissolved in the plasma

bicarbonate ion

Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is transported as

Dendritic cells

Name the cell that is found in the epidermis, mucous membranes, and lymphoid tissues that initiates immune responses by activating lymphocytes and secreting cytokines

Thoracic duct

Name the duct that drains lymph from the body below the diaphragm, the left upper limb and the left side of the head, neck and thorax

Skin

Name the external barrier that is coated with antimicrobial chemicals such as lactic acid, dermicidin, and defensins

Superior and inferior

Name the lobes of the human left lung

Middle, superior and inferior

Name the lobes of the human right lung

B lymphocyte

Name the lymphocyte that mediates humoral immune responses, differentiating into an antibody-producing plasma cell

splenectomy

Name the procedure for removing the spleen

Hemoglobin combined with one or more oxygen molecules

Oxyhemoglobin

The cortical process of selecting the few T cells that prove their immunocompetence is called positive selection. Only a small percentage of them pass this cortical "exit exam" and Page get the opportunity to move on to "graduate school," the medulla. This explains why the medulla of the thymus looks so much lighter than the cortex in histological sections.

Positive selection:

Toxins

Precipitation is a way that antibodies can neutralize:

It is safe to breathe 100% oxygen at 1 atm for a few hours, but oxygen toxicity rapidly develops when pure oxygen is breathed at 2.5 atm or greater. Excess oxygen generates hydrogen peroxide and free radicals that destroy enzymes and damage nervous tissue; thus, it can lead to seizures, coma, and death.

Prolonged exposure to oxygen at 2.5 ATM can be toxic

the ____ is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration

RESIDUAL VOLUME

This type of exchange is the opposite of ____ gas exchange

SYSTEMIC

They help to kill parasites such as tapeworms and roundworms by producing superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and various toxic proteins including a neurotoxin.

What do eosinophils secrete?

False

The forces responsible for normal quiet expiration comes from the contraction of muscles in the lungs (T/F)

trachealis

The _____ is a smooth muscle that connects the ends of the C-shaped tracheal cartilages

Lumbar and interstitial

The cisterna chyli, which denotes the beginning of the thoracic duct, is formed by the convergence of which lymphatic duct?

agglutination

The clumping of cells by antibodies is called

False; Voluntary control of breathing is important in singing, speaking, breath-holding, and other circumstances. Such control originates in the motor cortex of the cerebrum. The output neurons send impulses down the corticospinal tracts to the integrating centers in the spinal cord, bypassing the brainstem centers. There are limits to voluntary control. Temperamental children may threaten to hold their breath until they die, but it is impossible to do so. Holding one's breath raises the CO2 level of the blood until a breaking point is reached when automatic controls override one's will. This forces a person to resume breathing even if he or she has lost consciousness.

The respiratory control centers of the brainstem are involved in voluntary respiration (T/F)

Bone and hyaline cartilage

The nasal septum is composed of which of the following types of tissue?

The expansion of the lungs during inspiration generates a pressure gradient causing air to flow into the lungs. This is an example of Boyle's law.

True

degranulation

What is the exocytosis of lysosomal contents by neutrophils called?

acute; includes the most common allergies. Some authorities use the word allergy for type I reactions only, and others use it for all four types. Type I is an IgE-mediated reaction that begins within seconds of exposure and usually subsides within 30 minutes, although it can be severe and even fatal.

Type 1 hypersensitivity:

Chloride ions are transported into the RBC, Bicarbonate ions are transported out of the RBC

What occurs during the "chloride shift" in red blood cells?

When they are relaxed

When do vocal cords produce low pitched sounds?

The principal organs of the respiratory system are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

Which are considered principle organs of the respiratory system?

Complement proteins are synthesized mainly by the liver. They circulate in the blood in inactive form and are activated in the presence of pathogens.

Which body organ synthesizes complement proteins?

The rest of the nasal cavity, except for the vestibule, is lined with respiratory epithelium. Both of these are ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelia, but in the olfactory epithelium, the cilia are immobile and serve to bind odor molecules. In the respiratory epithelium, they are mobile.

With the exception of the vestibule, the nasal cavity is lined with which type of tissue?

right

elevated temperatures and a drop in pH will shift the dissociation curve to the _____

bronchi

in this type, ____ develop bleeding lesions as the dividing epithelial invade the bronchiole wall

increases

as the intercostal muscles relax and the thoracic cavity becomes smaller, the pressure in the alveoli ______

lower

at a given PO2, hemoglobin also unloads more oxygen at a _____ pH

rises

at low PO2, the curve ___ slowly

hemoglobin bound to carbon dioxide

carbaminohemoglobin

Which of the following is not an important factor in adjusting the amount of oxygen delivered to tissues? A) Bohr effect (tissue activity) B) BPG C) Carbonic anhydrase D) Partial pressure of O2 E) Temperature

carbonic anhydrase

expiration

during _____, the atmospheric pressure is less than the alveolar pressure

load

eventually at high PO2 levels, the hemoglobin approaches 100% saturation and can not ___ more oxygen

metabolic poisons such as cyanide prevent the tissues from using oxygen delivered to them

histotoxic hypoxia

gas B

if the alveolar partial pressure of gas A is 110mmhg and the partial pressure of gas B is 135, then _____ will diffuse into the blood at a faster rate

increase

if the volume of the alveoli _____, the pressure would decrease

if two gases have the same partial pressure, but gas A has a higher water solubility coefficient than gas B, then gas __ will diffuse at a faster rate

You can swim longer without having to take a breath

if you hyperventilate for a minute before jumping in a swimming pool, what would be the physiological consequence?

vital capacity

if you subtract the residual volume from the total lung capacity, you get the ______

the diaphragm contracts

inspiration begins as...

nerve endings amid the epithelial cells of the airway Respond to smoke, dust, pollen, chemical fumes, cold air, and excess mucus Trigger protective reflexes such as bronchoconstriction, shallower breathing, breath-holding (apnea), or coughing

irritant receptors

peripheral chemoreceptors

metabolic acidosis would stimulate the )________ leading to an increase in their rate of respiration

central chemoreceptors

monitoring CO2 levels by detecting pH of the CSF is the function of _______

Match the levels of Po2 and Pco2 with the corresponding point in the circulatory route.

Place each label in the correct position to indicate the muscular activation required to produce the designated volume.

Clinical terms for variations in respiratory rhythm are listed in the boxes below. Place each term in the proper location to identify the combination of factors (e.g. volume and rate) that characterizes each condition.

Which of these events lead to increased airflow and which lead to decreased airflow?

allergens

Antigens which induce hypersensitivity responses are called:

host

Any cell belonging to the human body, as opposed to foreign cells introduced to it by such causes as infections and tissue transplants, is called a _____ cell

Boyle's law

As the volume of a closed container decreases, the pressure of the gas within it increases. This is an example of which law?

red; this is where they complete their differentiation and maturation

B cells are produced from hematopoietic stem cells in the _____ bone marrow

They are identical, they are self tolerant and they react to the same antigen

Describe a clonal population of T cells

inspiration

During the respiratory cycle, the intake of air is called:

False

Expiration requires more energy than required by inspiration. T/F?

Activate immune response (macrophages, B cells and T cells)

Helper T cells:

passive

In artificial _____ immunity, the body is injected with antibodies from another person or an animal

active

In natural _____ immunity, the body makes its own antibodies or T cells against a pathogen

Alveolar gas exchange occurs in the ____

LUNGS

Neutrophils

Leukocytes that kill bacteria by setting up a "killing zone" that includes a suicidal respiratory burst are:

bicarbonate ions dissolved in the plasma

Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is transported as:

arytenoid

Movement of the _____ cartilages results in abduction or adduction of the vocal folds

False; Cells are not saved

Release of interferons is an effective mechanism for saving infected cells (T/F)

The ventral respiratory group (VRG) is the primary generator of the respiratory rhythm.

The _____ respiratory group sets the basal respiratory rate which may then be adjusted by commands from the pontine and/or dorsal respiratory groups

hyaline cartilage

The dense support-material that can be palpated at the tip of your nose is composed of:

stratified squamous, pseudostratidied

The vestibule is lined with _____ epithelium, while the rest of the nasal cavity is lined with _____ epithelium

Pleura

What is the serous membrane that encloses each lung?

Olfactory epithelium

Where are the sensory receptors for smell located?

oxygen

as hemoglobin loads ___ its affinity for H+ declines

movement of chloride ions from the blood plasma into red blood cells as bicarbonate ions diffuse out of the red blood cells into the plasma

chloride shift

Asthma, chronic bronchitis

examples of obstructive lung disorders?

higher

for a given PO2, hemoglobin unloads more oxygen at _____ temperatures

increase

if the PCO2 in the tissues increases, then the PCO2 in the systemic venous blood will ______

Pseudostratified epithelium

the nasal cavity is lined with (excluding the vestibule):

stratified squamous epithelium

vestibule is lined with

decreased PCO2 and increase in PO2

what can cause an increase in oxyhemoglobin levels

What factors INCREASE respiratory rhythm?

-blood pH DECREASES -arterial pO2 DROPS below 60 mmHg -levels of CO2 in the blood increase -blood levels of H+ ions increase things are becoming more acidic when you are increasing

What factors DECREASE respiratory rhythm?

-blood pH INCREASES -blood levels of H+ ions decrease things are becoming more basic

Identify the proper region for each pressure label.

Identify the skeletal muscles of breathing listed by correctly placing the labels.

Identify each of the cell types listed that are associated with the alveoli of the lungs.

Which of the following are functions of the respiratory system?

1. Promotes the flow of lymph and arterial blood 2. Filters small blood clots from the bloodstream 3. Conducts air from the nasal cavity to the alveoli 4. provides for oxygen and hydrogen gas exchange between the blood and air

Place the following in order from highest to lowest expected partial pressure oxygen levels.

Identify each compound based on its structural and empircal formula.

Place the labels in the correct sequence indicating the order this reversible reaction will occur within the PULMONARY CAPILLARIES. You should start with, and end with, either carbon dioxide or bicarbonate.

Indicate whether an increase or decrease of each of the following physiologic situations would result in an increase or decrease in the rate of ventilation.

Classify the following muscles according to their principle action in respiration.

How do each of the following affect the level of oxyhemoglobin?

Which of the following events increase respiration and which decrease respiration?

Determine whether each of the conditions listed below would result from hyperventilation or hypoventilation.

T/F: The partial pressure of a gas is measured in millimeters of mercury. True

T/F: At the venous end of tissue capillaries, there is no net movement of O2 and CO2. True

What determines the direction of gas movement? The temperature The size of the gas molecule The solubility of the gas in blood The partial pressure differences The pH

Which of the following statements about partial pressures of gases in the lungs is true? Po2 in the lungs > Po2 in the blood; Pco2 in the lungs > Pco2 in the blood Po2 in the lungs > Po2 in the blood; Pco2 in the lungs < Pco2 in the blood Po2 in the lungs > Po2 in the blood; Pco2 in the lungs = Pco2 in the blood Po2 in the lungs < Po2 in the blood; Pco2 in the lungs is < Pco2 in the blood Po2 in the lungs < Po2 in the blood; Pco2 in the lungs > Pco2 in the blood

T/F: Oxygen-rich blood is carried through pulmonary arteries from the lungs to the heart. False

T/F: Oxygen-poor blood is carried through systemic veins from the body tissues back to the heart. True

Determine whether the following conditions will increase or decrease the respiratory rate.

Natural active immunity

A person develops resistance to a virus picked up from a drinking fountain

False

A person is either allergic to many antigens, or to none. (T/F)

Artificial active immunity

A person is given an attenuated smallpox virus and develops resistance

tracheostomy

A procedure called a _____ involves making an incision within the trachea in order to bypass an airway obstruction

node

A small organ found alone the course of a lymphatic vessel that filters the lymph and functions as an activation site for B and T cells is called a lymph _____

What type of cell is not found in the alveoli? A) Goblet B) Great C) Dust D) Epithelial E) Macrophage

A) Goblet

Bohr effect

Active tissues generate extra CO2, which lowers the pH of the blood and facilitates the unloading of oxygen. Because of this, more oxygen is released to tissues with higher metabolic rates, a phenomenon known as the _____ effect

Local anaphylaxis

After being injected with a vaccine, a patient develops a hypersensitivity reaction characterized by swelling and inflammation. This is an example of?

nasal cavity

Air is warmed and humidified in this structure.

erectile tissue

Airflow alternates through the right and left nasal fossa in response to the engorgement of?

The respiratory centers receive afferent input from the: A) Blood chemoreceptors B) Hypothalamus C) Limbic system D) Vagus nerve E) all of above

All of above

False; RBC's usually leave the systemic capillaries at about 75% oxygen saturation. This is called the venous reserve of oxygen and can sustain the body for several minutes.

All of the oxygen transported in the blood is usually unloaded at a systemic capillary

hypersensitivity

An excessive harmful reaction to antigens is called:

Which of the following would slow down gas exchange between the blood and alveolar air?

An increase in membrane thickness

Neutralization, complement fixation, agglutination, precipitation

Antibodies function to render antigens harmless by:

Hypersensitivity

Any heightened or inappropriate immune response resulting in tissue damage is called a/an:

This is the production of one's own antibodies or T cells as a result of vaccination against diseases such as smallpox, tetanus, or influenza.

Artificial active immunity

This is a temporary immunity that results from the injection of an immune serum obtained from another person or from animals (such as horses) that have antibodies against a certain pathogen. Immune serum is used for emergency treatment of snakebites, botulism, tetanus, rabies, and other diseases.

Artificial passive immunity

Right; The right primary is wider and more vertical than the left bronchus

Aspirated objects that enter the trachea are more likely to lodge in which primary bronchus?

Producing speech

Besides keeping food out of the airway, the larynx is also responsible for?

In smokers, pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium of bronchi may become stratified squamous epithelium. Which of the following would NOT be a consequence? A) Lack the ability to produce mucus B) Lack cilia C) Cannot move debris out of lungs D) Cannot trap debris E) Cannot effectively exchange gases

Cannot effectively exchange gases

Which of the following enzymes in an RBC breaks H2CO3 down to water and carbon dioxide?

Carbonic anhydrase

Carbon monoxide bound with hemoglobin

Carboxyhemoglobin

Macrophages are very large, avidly phagocytotic cells of the connective tissues. They develop from monocytes that have emigrated from the bloodstream. They phagocytize tissue debris, dead neutrophils, bacteria, and other foreign matter

Cells derived from monocytes that function as phagocytes and antigen-presenting cells are called:

destroyed by cytotoxic T cells

Cells infected with a virus are:

antigen-presenting cells

Cells that display parts of a pathogen's proteins on their surface are called:

T, B

Cellular immunity is mediated mainly by _____ cells, while humoral immunity is mediated mainly by _____ cells

False; Activated complement contributes to pathogen destruction by four methods: inflammation, immune clearance, phagocytosis, and cytolysis

Complement functions to induce pathogen destruction by inducing apoptosis (T/F)

APC function hinges on a family of genes called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on chromosome 6. These genes code for MHC proteins—proteins on the APC surface that are shaped a little like hotdog buns, with an elongated groove for holding the "hotdog" of the foreign antigen. MHC proteins are structurally unique to every person except for identical twins. They act as "identification tags" that label every cell of your body as belonging to you. These proteins present endogenous and exogenous antigens

Describe MHC proteins

keep airway open during inhalation

Describe the function of the cartilaginous rings:

Which of the following is not a function of the spleen? A) Production of blood cells in fetus B) Detection of foreign antigens/invaders in the blood C) Blood filter D Blood reservoir E) Development site for T lymphocytes

Development site for T lymphocytes

Lymphatic organs In contrast to the diffuse lymphatic tissue, lymphatic (lymphoid) organs have well-defined anatomical sites and at least a partial connective tissue capsule that separates the lymphatic tissue from neighboring tissues. The red bone marrow and thymus are regarded as primary lymphatic organs because they are the sites where B and T lymphocytes, respectively, become immunocompetent—that is, able to recognize and respond to antigens. The lymph nodes, tonsils, and spleen are called secondary lymphatic organs because immunocompetent lymphocytes migrate to these organs only after they mature in the primary lymphatic organs.

Distinct connective tissue capsules surround:

Lower, higher

During inspiration, the intra-alveolar pressure is _____ than atmospheric pressure. During expiration, the intra-alveolar pressure is _____ than atmospheric pressure

Elimination or conversion of self-reactive T cells is called negative selection, and it leaves the immune system in a state of self-tolerance—restraint from attacking one's own tissues.

During what are self reacting T cells eliminated?

the vital capacity minus the ____ equals the inspiratory capacity

EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME

All of the following could produce bronchoconstriction except: A) Cold air B) Histamine C) Asthma D) Epinephrine E) Airborne irritants

Epinephrine

Which of the following has no effect on oxyhemoglobin dissociation?

Erythrocyte count

True

Expanding the chest wall and lowering the diaphragm will cause inspiration T/F?

The amount of air that can be exhaled in a given time interval

Forced expiratory volume (FEV)

N2>O2>H2O.>CO2

From greatest to lowest, what is the correct order of gases in our atmosphere?

AIDS

HIV causes what disease?

What does this graph illustrate?

Higher temperatures promote the unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin

vasodialation

Histamine increases numbers of leukocytes arriving at an injured area by causing?

Normal expiration is an energy-saving passive process achieved by the elasticity of the lungs and thoracic cage. The bronchial tree, the attachments of the ribs to the spine and sternum, and the tendons of the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles spring back when the muscles relax. As these structures recoil, the thoracic cage diminishes in size, the air pressure in the lungs rises above the atmospheric pressure outside, and the air flows out. The only muscular effort involved in normal expiration is a braking action—that is, the muscles relax gradually rather than abruptly, thus preventing the lungs from recoiling too suddenly. This makes the transition from inspiration to expiration smoother.

How do the elastic components of the lungs and bronchial tree help conserve energy?

It is humidified, warmed and cleansed

How is air modified as it passes through the meatus in between two nasal conchae?

TV + IRV

How is inspiratory capacity calculated?

Hyperemia refers to the increased flow of blood to a tissue due to vasodilation, this is what causes the redness and increased temperature at the site of inflammation.

Hyperemia is the basis for which cardinal inflammatory signs?

The right arm

If the right lymphatic duct became blocked, where might you see lymphedema?

False

If your child's pediatrician recommends a fever reducer, aspirin is the best choice (T/F)

The immunoglobulin class that has a dimer form found in mucus, saliva, tears and other body secretions is:

IgA

Emphysema

In this condition, the walls of the alveoli are destroyed, leading to a lower surface area for respiration

If you sprint, your breathing frequency would _____ and your tidal volume would ____. a. decrease; increase b. decrease; decrease c. increase; increase d. increase; not change e. increase; decrease

Increase; increase

volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

proteins (cytokines) secreted by T cells and other cells to aid and regulate the immune response

Interferons:

True; With so many cell types involved in immunity, it is not surprising that they require chemical messengers to coordinate their activities. Lymphocytes and APCs talk to each other with cytokines called interleukins — chemical signals from one leukocyte (or leukocyte derivative) to another.

Interleukins are a class of cytokines secreted by a variety of cells which function to promote the development and differentiation if T, B and hemapoietic cells (T/F)

False;

Intrapleural pressure is always greater than atmospheric pressure (T/F)

inadequate circulation of the blood, as in congestive heart failure

Ischemic hypoxia

You work at a blood bank and your supervisor tells you to dispose of a batch of blood because it is deficient of BPG. Why is that blood unsuitable for donation? a. it doesn't bind O2 well b. it doesn't release O2 well c. it is contaminated with a toxin d. it is too viscous e. it lacks nutrients

It doesn't release O2 well

False

It is good to breathe pure oxygen whenever possible (T/F)

Which of these events lead to increased airflow? A) Decreased levels of pulmonary surfactant B) Scar tissue in lungs C) Anaphylactic shock D) Breathing air at sub-zero temperatures E) Jogging

Jogging

Deep, rapid breathing often seen in terminal diabetes mellitus is known as what

Kussmaul respiration

Which of the following inhibitors of microbial growth is a component of the perspiration on our skin? A) Keratin B) Lactic acid C) Interferon D) Mucus E) Complement protein

Lactic acid

they are found especially in the mucous membranes, standing guard against parasites, allergens (allergy-causing antigens), and other foes. They congregate especially at sites of allergy, inflammation, or parasitic infection. They help to kill parasites such as tapeworms and roundworms by producing superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and various toxic proteins including a neurotoxin. They promote the action of basophils and mast cells (see next paragraph). They phagocytize and degrade antigen-antibody complexes. Finally, they secrete enzymes that degrade and limit the action of histamine and other inflammatory chemicals that, unchecked, could cause tissue damage.

List the mechanisms used by eosinophils to kill parasites

efferent

Lymphatic vessels that carry lymph away from a lymph node are called _____ vessels

Which of the following is not part of the left lung? A) Cardiac notch B) Superior lobe C) Middle lobe D) Inferior lobe E) Bronchial tree

Middle lobe

active tissues are warmer than less active ones. Based on that information and the graph shown, what is true?

More oxygen will be delivered to more active tissues

alveoli

Most of the surface area for gas exchange within the respiratory system is found within the many _____ of the lungs

Granzymes; These enter the pore made by the perforins, destroy the target cell's enzymes, and induce apoptosis (programmed cell death).

NK cells induce apoptosis in virally infected cells by secreting which protein degrading enzymes?

The thymus is a member of the endocrine, lymphatic, and immune systems. It houses developing lymphocytes and secretes hormones that regulate their later activity. It is a bilobed organ located between the sternum and aortic arch in the superior mediastinum. The thymus shows a remarkable degree of degeneration (involution) with age.

Name the organ that is the site of T-cell maturation

MHC proteins

Name the proteins on the surface of APC's that function to present antigens to other cells

Severe combined immunodeficiency disease

Name the specific disorder that results in a lack of both cellular and humoral immunity

inflammation

Name the tissue response to injury or trauma that serves to ward off a pathogen and promote tissue repair.

Some molecules, called haptens (incomplete antigens), are too small to be antigenic in themselves, but they can stimulate an immune response by binding to a host macromolecule and creating a unique complex that the body recognizes as foreign.

Name the type of molecule that is too small to be antigenic by itself, but can induce an immune response when bound to a larger molecule

The four major signs of an inflammation include all of the following except: A) Redness B) Edema C) Heat D) Odor E) Pain

Odor

MHC-II proteins

Once a B cell binds to an antigen, it phagocytizes it and displays antigen fragments on what molecules?

Polio can sometimes damage the brainstem respiratory centers and result in which condition?

Ondine's curse

Venous reserve

RBCs usually leave the systemic capillaries at about 75% oxygen saturation. which term refers specifically to the oxygen remaining in the blood after it passes through a capillary bed?

The reaction of H+ and bicarbonate ____ the hydration reaction and generates free carbon dioxide

REVERSES

artificial passive immunity

Receiving gamma globulin as a treatment for rabies would be considered an example of:

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration; the amount that can never be voluntarily exhaled

Redidual Volume (RV)

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation

Residual Volume (RV)

What is the least common but most dangerous form of lung cancer?cancer?

Small-cell carcinoma

the volume of air exchanged during normal breathing is called the ____

TIDAL VOLUME

T or F At the venous end of tissue capillaries, there is no net movement of O2 and CO2

TRUE

T or F Gases diffuse because of differences in partial pressures from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure

TRUE

T or F The partial pressure of a gas is measured in millimeters of mercury

TRUE

rapid breathing

Tachypnea:

Hyaline cartilage

The C-shaped rings that support the trachea are composed of what type of tissue?

tonsils; Each is covered by an epithelium and has deep pits called tonsillar crypts lined by lymphatic nodules

The _____ are patches of lymphatic tissue located at the entrance to the pharynx, where they guard against ingested and inhaled pathogens

The _____ cell is a lymphatic cell that functions to non-specifically target bacteria, transplanted tissue cells, and virally infected or cancerous host cells

The superior opening of the larynx is guarded by a flap of tissue called the epiglottis.

The _____ is an elastic cartilage structure in the larynx which helps prevent food from entering the airway during swallowing

Residual volume

The _____ is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration

larynx

The _____ is the main structure located between the laryngopharynx and the trachea

nasopharynx

The _____ is the portion of the pharynx found superior to the soft palate at the back of the oral cavity

Expiratory

The _____ neurons inhibit the inspiratory neurons of the ventral respiratory group

base

The _____ of the lung is the broad concave surface of the lung that rests on the diaphragm

The parenchyma exhibits two types of tissue named for their appearance in fresh specimens (not in stained sections): red pulp, which consists of sinuses gorged with concentrated erythrocytes; and white pulp, which consists of lymphocytes and macrophages aggregated like sleeves along small branches of the splenic artery. In tissue sections, white pulp appears as an ovoid mass of lymphocytes with an arteriole passing through it. However, the three-dimensional shape is not egglike but cylindrical.

The _____ pulp is the portion of the spleen surrounding the splenic artery, which consists of lymphocytes and macrophages monitoring for blood-bourne pathogens

True; If a person inhales 500 mL of air and 150 mL of it stays in the dead space, then 350 mL ventilates the alveoli. Multiplying this by the respiratory rate gives the alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)—for example, 350 mL/breath x 12 breaths/min. = 4,200 mL/min. Of all measures of pulmonary ventilation, this one is most directly relevant to the body's ability to get oxygen to the tissues and dispose of carbon dioxide.

The anatomical dead space is subtracted from tidal volume when calculating the alveolar ventilation rate (T/F)

Reticular cells (They should not be confused with reticular fibers, which are fine, branched collagen fibers common in lymphatic organs.)

The branched _____ cells help form the connective tissue framework of the thymus

The components of the lymphatic system are (1) lymph, the recovered fluid; (2) lymphatic vessels, which transport the lymph; (3) lymphatic tissue, composed of aggregates of lymphocytes and macrophages that populate many organs of the body; and (4) lymphatic organs, in which these cells are especially concentrated and which are set off from surrounding organs by connective tissue capsules.

The components of the lymphatic system are the lymph, lymphatic tissues, lymphatic nodes and lymphatic _____

Hyaluronic acid is a component of connective tissues, where it becomes hydrated and forms the viscous ground substance. The viscous nature makes it an effective barrier against microbes.

The connective tissue of skin and mucous membranes produces _____ acid, a viscous gel that inhibits the migration of microbes

Inspiratory reserve volume

The difference between the amount of air you normally inhale with each breath and the amount you can inhale with maximum effort is:

carbonic anhydrase

The enzyme found in the erythrocytes that catalyzes the decomposition of carbonic acid into carbon dioxide and water or the reverse reaction is called:

(RV + ERV)

The functional residual capacity is obtained by adding together which of the following respiratory volumes?

thyroid

The laryngeal prominence (also called the "Adam's apple") is an anterior peak on the _____ cartilage, the largest of the laryngeal cartilages

A serous membrane, the pleura (PLOOR-uh), lines the thoracic wall and forms the surface of the lung. It has two layers, visceral and parietal. The visceral pleura forms the surface of the lung and extends even into the fissures between the lobes. At the hilum, it turns back on itself and forms the parietal pleura, which adheres to the mediastinum, inner surface of the rib cage, and superior surface of the diaphragm. An extension of the parietal pleura, the pulmonary ligament, connects it to the diaphragm.

The layer of serous membrane called the parietal ____ lines the thoracic cavity

The importance of this surfactant is especially apparent when it is lacking. Premature infants often have a deficiency of pulmonary surfactant and experience great difficulty breathing. The resulting infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS) can be treated by administering artificial surfactant.

The lungs of premature infants often develop respiratory distress syndrome. Explain why these infants experience alveolar sac collapse.

palatine and lingual tonsils

The oropharynx contains?

Peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the carotid and aortic bodies of the large arteries above the heart. They respond to the O2 and CO2 content of the blood, but most of all to pH. The carotid bodies communicate with the brainstem by way of the glossopharyngeal nerves, and the aortic bodies by way of the vagus nerves. Sensory fibers in these nerves enter the medulla and synapse with neurons of the DRG.

The peripheral chemoreceptors detect changes in:

Pleurisy

The pleura can get inflamed, just like the pericardium of the heart. This condition is known as:

Only certain regions of an antigen molecule, called epitopes (antigenic determinants), stimulate immune responses. One antigen molecule typically has several different epitopes, however, that can stimulate the simultaneous production of different antibodies.

The region of the antigen which stimulates an immune response is the:

Oxygen loading in the lungs decreases hemoglobin's affinity for H+. How does this promote alveolar gas exchange?

The release H+ combines with HCO3- to form free CO2, which can diffuse out of the blood

False; the amount that can never be voluntarily exhaled

The residual volume may be exhaled with a forceful expiration (T/F)

Hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorite and superoxide anion

The respiratory burst by neutrophils leads to the production of?

cricoid

The ring of hyaline cartilage located inferior to the thyroid cartilage is called the _____ cartilage

lacteals

The specialized lymphatic capillaries located in the villi of the small intestines are the:

hypercapnia

The term _____ describes a condition where there is an excess of CO2 in arterial blood (PCO2 greater than 43 mm Hg)

The thymus is considered part of which body systems?

subclavian veins

The two collecting ducts empty lymph into the:

The mucus traps inhaled particles, and the upward beating of the cilia drives the debris-laden mucus toward the pharynx, where Page 852it is swallowed. This mechanism of debris removal is called the mucociliary escalator.

The upward movement of cilia helps to move mucus up the trachea to the pharynx where it is swallowed. This system of cleaning out trapped debris is called the _____ escalator of the trachea

pleura

The visceral _____ covers the lung surface

False

The volume of anatomical dead space cannot be changed and does not vary with circumstances within a given individual (T/F)

IgG

There are five classes of antibodies. Which one can cross the placenta to provide immunological protection for the newborn?

IgG

There are five classes of antibodies. Which one is responsible for mother-fetus mismatch?

slow the flow of lymph for maximal immune activity

There are multiple afferent lymphatic vessels and only a single efferent vessel in order to

The amount of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle; in quiet breathing, it averages about 500 mL.

Tidal Volume (TV)

Oxygen unloading occurs at the _________________________ This process causes a(n) _________________ in the oxygen partial pressure of the blood leaving this region. tissues.; decrease lungs.; decrease lungs.; increase tissues.; increase lungs.; increase

Tissues; decrease

antibody-dependent cytotoxic occurs when IgG or IgM attacks antigens bound to cell surfaces. The reaction leads to complement activation and either lysis or opsonization of the target cell. Macrophages phagocytize and destroy opsonized platelets, erythrocytes, or other cells. Examples of cell destruction by type II reactions are blood transfusion reactions, pemphigus vulgaris, and some drug reactions

Type 2 hypersensitivity:

True

Visceral pleura covers the surface of the lungs (T/F)

TV + IRV + ERV

Vital Capacity (VC)

Bohr effect (tissue activity), BPG, partial pressure of O2 and temperature

What are important factors in adjusting the amount of oxygen delivered to tissues?

This is the production of one's own antibodies or T cells as a result of vaccination against diseases such as smallpox, tetanus, or influenza. A vaccine consists of either dead or attenuated (weakened) pathogens that can stimulate an immune response but cause little or no discomfort or disease. In some cases, periodic booster shots are given to re-stimulate immune memory and maintain a high level of protection (tetanus boosters, for example).

What is artificial active immunity?

oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)

When oxygen binds to hemoglobin it forms the molecule called

expiration

When the diaphragm relaxes, air is forced from the lungs. This process is known as:

Chest expands first

When you inhale, does your chest expand because your lungs inflate, or do your lungs inflate because your chest expands?

Contracts and moves inferiorly

When you inhale, the diaphragm

In most body tissues, except the CNS, cartilage, cornea, bone and bone marrow

Where are lymphatic vessels found?

Memory T cells

Which T cells are descended from the cytotoxic T cells and responsible for subsequent immune responses to the same antigen?

Lymphocytes all look more or less alike in blood films, but there are several functional types. Three basic categories have already been mentioned: natural killer (NK) cells, T cells, and B cells.

Which are the types of lymphocytes?

Lymphatic system

Which body system maintains fluid balance, absorbs lipids and protects the body against pathogens?

lactic acid

Which byproduct of fermentation is excreted in the sweat where it inhibits microbial growth?

epiglottis

Which cartilage is the most mobile?

plasma cell

Which cell produces antibodies?

NK cells and cytotoxic T cells

Which cells induce cytolysis by secreting perforin?

Antigen-presenting cell

Which cells phagocytizes an antigen and displays fragment of it on its surface?

Basophils and mast cells

Which cells release inflammatory mediators such as histamine, leukotrienes and heparin?

plasma cells

Which cells secrete antibodies?

Ambient PO2, higher temp, ambient pH (binding of H+), BPG

Which factors facilitate systemic unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin in the peripheral tissues?

Increased bisphosphoglycerate production by RBC, increased temperature

Which factors that would decrease the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen?

Decreased PO2 of surrounding tissues and decreased blood pH

Which factors would decrease the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen?

Goblet cells, mucous, cilia, pseudo-stratified columnar cells

Which features are associated with the tracheal epithelium?

An elevated body temperature (as in fever) stimulates BPG synthesis, as do thyroxine, growth hormone, testosterone, and epinephrine. All of these hormones thus promote oxygen unloading to the tissues.

Which hormones promote oxygen delivery to tissues by stimulating BPG synthesis?

cuneiform cartilages (cue-NEE-ih-form) supports the soft tissues between the arytenoids and the epiglottis.

Which if the paired cartilages are attached to and support the soft tissue between the arytenoids and the epiglottis?

Physiological dead space

Which includes all of the regions of the airway incapable of gas exchange, including both conducting zones and respiratory zones that have been damaged by disease?

Blood platelets and endothelial cells in an area of injury secrete platelet derived growth factor; At the same time, hyperemia delivers oxygen, amino acids, and other necessities of protein synthesis, while the heat of inflamed tissue increases metabolic rate and the speed of mitosis and tissue repair. The fibrin clot in the tissue may provide a scaffold for reconstruction. Pain also contributes importantly to recovery. It is an important alarm signal that calls our attention to the injury and makes us limit the use of a body part so it has a chance to rest and heal.

Which is secreted by platelets and endothelial cells and stimulates the synthesis of collagen and multiplication if fibroblasts?

Monocytes

Which leukocyte transforms into a macrophage when it moves from the blood into the tissues?

The third line of defense is adaptive immunity, a group of mechanisms that not only defeat a pathogen but leave the body with a "memory" of it, enabling one to defeat it so quickly in future encounters that the pathogen causes no illness. The first line of defense consists of epithelial barriers, notably the skin and mucous membranes, which are impenetrable to most of the pathogens that daily assault us and the second line of defense consists of protections against pathogens that break through those external barriers. These defenses include leukocytes and macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, natural killer cells, fever, and inflammation.

Which line of defense not only defeats a pathogen but also leaves the body with a "memory" of it?

- external intercostals - sternocleidomastoid - scalenes

Which muscles are used for inspiration?

Complement proteins

Which proteins found in blood are involves in the nonspecific defense against pathogens?

Asthma and chronic bronchitis are the most common examples. Obstructive disorders can be measured by having the subject exhale as rapidly as possible into a spirometer and measuring forced expiratory volume (FEV)—the volume of air or the percentage of the vital capacity that can be exhaled in a given time interval. A healthy adult should be able to expel 75% to 85% of the vital capacity in 1.0 second (a value called the FEV).

Which respiratory volume takes into consideration the rate at which air is exhaled?

Nasopharynx

Which section of the pharynx acts as a passageway for air, but not for food?

Trachea

Which structure conducts air from the larynx to the primary bronchi?

Vocal cords and vocal volds

Which structures are responsible for generating sounds within the larynx?

vestibular folds

Which structures do not function in the production of speech, but instead is primarily responsible for closing the larynx during swallowing

Each lung is a somewhat conical organ with a broad, concave base resting on the diaphragm and a blunt peak called the apex projecting slightly above the clavicle. The broad costal surface is pressed against the rib cage, and the smaller concave mediastinal surface faces medially. The mediastinal surface exhibits a slit called the hilum through which the lung receives the main bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves. These structures constitute the root of the lung.

Which structures enter the lung at the hilium?

Innate immunity consists of defenses we are born with (hence innate) and that protect us from a broad spectrum of disease agents; it encompasses the first and second lines of defense described above. Adaptive immunity, by contrast, constitutes the third line of defense and is distinguished by the aforementioned memory. It adapts the body to the presence of an environmental pathogen so we become less vulnerable to the illness it might otherwise cause

Which type of defense guards against a broad range of pathogens?

Consider the two layers of the pleura: the parietal pleura lining the rib cage and the visceral pleura on the lung surface. They are not anatomically attached to each other along their surfaces, but they are wet and cling together like sheets of wet paper. The space between them (pleural cavity) is only about 10 to 30 µm wide (about the width of one typical cell). At the end of a normal expiration, the chest wall (including the parietal pleura) tends to expand outward because of its elasticity while the lungs, because of their elasticity, tend to recoil inward. Thus, the lungs and chest wall are pulling in opposite directions. This creates a negative intrapleural pressure, averaging about -5 cm H2O, between the parietal and visceral pleurae.

Why do lungs expand along with the thoracic cage during inspiration?

The primary response is followed by immune memory. Following clonal selection, some T cells become memory cells. These cells are long-lived and much more numerous than naive T cells. Aside from their sheer numbers, they also require fewer steps to be activated, and therefore respond to antigens more rapidly. Upon reexposure to the same pathogen later in life, memory cells mount a quick attack called the T cell recall response. This time-saving response destroys a pathogen so quickly that no noticeable illness occurs—that is, the person is immune to the disease.

Why do memory T cells allow for a faster immune response when the body is exposed to the same antigen again?

Low

You are a helicopter pilot who just picked up a patient for transport who has decompression sickness. Do you fly low or high?

Charles law

You place an empty, sealed plastic bottle in the freezer. When you remove the bottle 4 hours later it has collapsed. This is an example of which gas law?

henry's law

___ states that the amount of a gas that dissolves in water is a function of its partial pressure and it solubility coefficient

Lung

____ cancer accounts for more deaths than any other form of cancer

henry's

____ law states that the amount of as dissolving in water is determined by its partial pressure

daltons

____ law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the individual partial pressures of gases

Cytotoxic

_____ T cells attack foreign cells

hypoxemic

_____ hypoxia is caused by inadequate pulmonary gas exchange

low

air always moves from an area of high pressure to an area of ____ pressure

1. primary bronchus 2. secondary bronchus 3. tertiary bronchus 4. terminal bronchiole 5. respiratory bronchiole 6. alveolar duct

airways in order from trachea to alveoli

chloride

alternately, carbon dioxide is loading during an exchange called a ___ shift

The _____ _____ duct is indicated by the arrow in the figure

right lymphatic

higher

since blood arriving at the alveolus has a ____ PCO2 than air, it releases CO2 in the air

originates in primary bronchi, but invades mediastinum and quickly metastasizes to other organs

small cell carcinoma

originates in the basal cells of the bronchial epithelium

squamous cell carcinoma

sensors in blood vessels that identify internal pressure

strech receptors

Several afferent lymphatic vessels lead into the node along its convex surface. Lymph flows from these vessels into the sub-capsular sinus, percolates slowly through the sinuses of the cortex and medulla, and leaves the node through one to three efferent lymphatic vessels that emerge from the hilum.

structures that lymph flows through a lymph node in order:

residual volume

the _____ Is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration

inspiratory reserve

the _____ _____ volume represents the maximum amount of air that may be inhaled after the tidal volume

pontine respiratory group

the _____ receives input from higher brain centers and issues output to both the DRG and VRG

carbonic anhydrase

the reaction between CO2 and H2) to H2CO3 is catalyzed by _______

saturation

the relationship between hemoglobin ___ and PO2 is shown by an oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

Bohr

this concept, specifically the change in pH is referred to as the ____ effect

sustain

this is enough oxygen to ______ life for 4-5 minutes in the event of respiratory arrest

systemic

this type of exchange is the opposite of ___ gas exchange

the inner layer of pleura that surrounds each lung

visceral pleura

1. If intrapulmonary pressure was 760 mm Hg, what would you expect the intrapleural pressure to be? 756 mm Hg 2. Contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles results in ____________ in the thoracic volume which results in _______________ of the intrapulmonary pressure. an increase; a decrease

1. Negative pressure ventilation, demonstrated by iron lungs, allows a person to breathe by producing an intermittent negative pressure that moves across the chest and diaphragm. This specific action would artificially induce the intrapulmonary pressure to _____________ atmospheric pressure thus resulting in ______________ drop below; inspiration. 2. When this negative pressure stops being applied, the lungs __________________and the intrapulmonary pressure __________________ recoil; increases. 3. When using positive pressure ventilators, what triggers the elastic recoil of the lung, and what does this action cause? airway pressure reaching zero; expiration

Identify the structures listed that are associated with the respiratory membrane.

1. Respiratory gases cross the respiratory membrane by ___________________ simple diffusion 2. Which environment separated by the respiratory membrane would display the highest oxygen partial pressure? alveolar air

1. Surfactant is produced by __________________ Type II pneumocytes. macrophages. Type I pneumocytes. red blood cells. 2. Increased production of surfactant would __________________ not impact the rate of diffusion of respiratory gases. result in an increase in the thickness of the respiratory membrane, which would decrease diffusion of respiratory gases. result in a decrease in the thickness of the respiratory membrane, which would increase diffusion of respiratory gases. result in an increase in the thickness of the respiratory membrane, which would increase diffusion of respiratory gases. 3. Insufficient surfactant production would result in __________________ a decrease in the intrapulmonary pressure. an increase in pulmonary compliance. an excessive reduction in surface tension of the alveolar wall. a tendency for the lungs to collapse. an increase in air flow.

1. Oxygen molecules bind ___________________ of the hemoglobin. either to the heme or to the globin region specifically to the globin region specifically to the heme region neither to the heme nor to the globin region 2. A single hemoglobin displaying a saturation level of 75% would be bound to ___________________________ one oxygen molecule. four oxygen molecules. three oxygen molecules. two oxygen molecules.

1. The binding of CO to hemoglobin causes the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to ___________________ shift to the left, indicating that the carboxyhemoglobin is more likely to release bound oxygen. shift to the left, indicating that the carboxyhemoglobin is less likely to release bound oxygen. shift to the right, indicating that the carboxyhemoglobin is less likely to release bound oxygen. shift to the right, indicating that the carboxyhemoglobin is more likely to release bound oxygen. 2. Acute carbon monoxide poisoning would result in ____________________ of the tissues because oxygen ____________________ hypoxia; is released from hemoglobin to a greater than normal degree at the tissues. hyperoxia; is released from hemoglobin to a greater than normal degree at the tissues. hyperoxia; is not released from hemoglobin in sufficient amounts at the tissues. hypoxia; is not released from hemoglobin in sufficient amounts at the tissues

1. Hyperpnea would result in ___________________________ within the blood. an increase in Pressure (oxygen) and a decrease in Pressure (carbon dioxide) a decrease in both Pressure (oxygen) and Pressure (carbon dioxide) an increase in both Pressure (oxygen) and Pressure (carbon dioxide) a decrease in Pressure (oxygen) and an increase in Pressure (carbon dioxide) 2. Decreased Pressure (carbon dioxide) results in an increase in blood pH levels. Both of these conditions result in a shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the ______________________. This shift _______________ hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. left; increases right; decreases left; decreases right; increases 3. Increased levels of 2,3 BPG occur in response to decreased blood pH levels. With all other variables unchanged, an increased concentration of 2,3 BPG in the blood would _____________________. result in the shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the left reducing the unloading of oxygen at the tissues. result in a shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right enhancing unloading of oxygen at the tissues. result in a shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right reducing unloading of oxygen at the tissues. have no impact on the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve. result in a shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin association curve to the left, enhancing unloading of oxygen at the tissues. 4. Using the graph provided, determine the correct oxygen partial pressure associated with the classification of "high altitude." 89 mm Hg 112 mm Hg 130 mm Hg 617 mm Hg 77 mm Hg 365 mm Hg 534 mm Hg 426 mm Hg

14a

5. The altitude of Kabul, Afghanistan, is approximately 6000 feet. What is the approximate alveolar oxygen partial pressure found here? 18 mm Hg 130 mm Hg 85 mm Hg 617 mm Hg 104 mm Hg 6. Under normal conditions, the alveolar oxygen partial pressure is ______________________ than the atmospheric oxygen partial pressure. always higher always lower 7. Within the Tibetan highlander population, genetic variation has been found to determine relative oxygen-hemoglobin saturation levels. Individuals within this population may be homozygous for either the low oxygen saturation gene or the high oxygen saturation gene. Individuals may also be heterozygous, carrying one low and one high oxygen saturation gene. Based on this information, individuals within the population carrying __________________________ alleles are expected to demonstrate a physiological advantage for survival. homozygous high oxygen saturation population homozygous low oxygen saturation heterozygous oxygen saturation 8. No genetic differences were found among the Andean population in either oxygen-hemoglobin saturation levels, nor hemoglobin concentrations. However, this group as a whole displayed higher hemoglobin concentration levels than their lower altitude neighbors. The most accurate explanation for this finding is that individuals constantly exposed to lower atmospheric partial pressures for oxygen would have a physiologic response which would _______________________. result in a higher than normal oxygen partial pressure gradient between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries increase the cumulative number of red blood cells enhance the binding of oxygen to the hemoglobin

14b

1. ___________________ is used to sustain metabolic activities within the cells, and ________________ is produced as a result of these activities. Oxygen; carbon dioxide Oxygen; oxygen Carbon dioxide; oxygen Carbon dioxide; carbon dioxide 2. Under normal conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within the tissues is _____________ than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within the systemic capillaries. lower higher 3. The unloading of oxygen at the tissues results in the formation of ______________________ . This configuration of hemoglobin _____________________ carbon dioxide. oxyhemoglobin; more readily binds to deoxyhemoglobin; is less likely to bind to oxyhemoglobin; is less likely to bind to deoxyhemoglobin; more readily binds to

1. Under normal conditions, the region expected to have the lowest PCO2 is the ___________________ atmosphere. lungs. pulmonary capillaries. systemic capillaries. 2. If the atmospheric Pressure(CO2) exceeded the alveolar Pressure(CO2) the pulmonary capillary Pressure(CO2) would ________________________ increase well above normal range. drop well below normal range. likely remain in normal range. 3. A person suffering from hypercapnia compensates by ____________________ ventilation. increasing decreasing

1. Carbon dioxide enters the blood at the _____________________ capillaries. Here, some of the carbon dioxide binds to the _____________ region of hemoglobin. pulmonary; globin pulmonary; heme systemic; heme systemic; globin 2. The empirical formula for bicarbonate is ________________. HCO3- H2CO3 H+ H2O CO2 3. Carbon dioxide goes through a series of reactions resulting in the formation of bicarbonate. Where does this reaction occur? Systemic capillaries Pulmonary capillaries

1. Carbonic anhydrase is found in the _______________ where it directly catalyzes the formation of ____________________ blood plasma; carbonic acid into bicarbonate. red blood cells; carbon dioxide gas into carbonic acid. blood plasma; carbon dioxide gas into carbonic acid. red blood cells; carbonic acid into bicarbonate. 2. Blood pH decreases in response to ________________________ the combination of bicarbonate and hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid. a decrease in blood carbon dioxide levels. the dissociation of carbonic acid into carbon dioxide and water. the dissociation of carbonic acid into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. 3. Renal retention of bicarbonate _______________ blood pH acting as a compensatory mechanism for the condition of respiratory ____________________________ decreases; alkalosis. decreases; acidosis. increases; alkalosis. increases; acidosis. 4. Hypoventilation results in a(n) _________________ in the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, which may result in respiratory ___________________________ increase; acidosis. decrease; alkalosis. decrease; acidosis. increase; alkalosis.

In one passage through a bed of systemic blood capillaries, the blood gives up about what percentage of its oxygen?

20% to 25%

1. Which of the following are bicarbonate ions exchanged for when they diffuse from plasma back into red blood cells? chloride ions hydrogen ions carbon dioxide molecules water molecules 2. At the respiratory membrane, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the plasma is _____ than in the _____ of the lungs. lower; tertiary bronchioles higher; tertiary bronchioles lower; alveoli higher; alveoli

1. The inspiratory muscles ____________ during normal exhalation resulting in a(n) __________________ in the thoracic volume. contract; decrease relax; decrease relax; increase contract; increase 2. The intrapulmonary pressure is _______________ than the atmospheric pressure during exhalation. higher lower

Identify the image that best represents each type of ventilation.

1. The reason tetrodotoxin causes death so quickly is directly related to __________________________ the loss of respiratory muscle function, which disables a person's ability to appropriately adjust thoracic volumes and associated intrapulmonary pressures. its stimulation of the respiratory nerves inducing hyperventilation. its ability to bind oxygen, thereby removing it from the tissues. the large increase in the pulmonary Pressure (CO2), which is detected by the chemoreceptors in the brain stem. 2. If four new drugs were discovered and each of them resulted in the unique physiologic responses indicated below, which drug do you think would hold the most promise as a cure for tetrodotoxin poisoning? Drug 1: Stimulated an increase in the amount of neurotransmitters released from motor neuronsDrug 2: Inhibited action potentials of motor neuronsDrug 3: Caused hyper-exitability of nervous and muscle tissueDrug 4: Dilated the alveoli within the lungs Drug 2 Drug 4 Drug 3 Drug 1

Place each of the following muscles or actions in the location below that indicates their respective respiratory function.

Predict whether each condition would increase or decrease the delivery of oxygen to the tissues.

Four conditions and conclusions are provided below. Identify the law that allows each conclusion to be made provided the list of known variables.

Determine if each characteristic is increased or decreased in someone who suffers from chronic bronchitis.

Inspiration begins as __________. the diaphragm relaxes the diaphragm contracts the lungs expand the lungs contract the external and internal intercostals contract

What is the result of inspiration? An increased alveolar volume causes increased alveolar pressure. An increased alveolar volume causes decreased alveolar pressure. A decreased alveolar volume causes increased alveolar pressure. A decreased alveolar volume causes decreased alveolar pressure. An increased alveolar pressure causes decreased alveolar volume.

Your breathing rate is 12 breaths/minute; your tidal volume is 500 mL; your vital capacity is 4700 mL; and your dead air space is 150 mL. Your alveolar ventilation rate is __________ mL/min.

4200

Which of the following occurs during expiration? Increased alveolar volume causes increased alveolar pressure. Increased alveolar volume causes decreased alveolar pressure. Decreased alveolar volume causes increased alveolar pressure. Decreased alveolar volume causes decreased alveolar pressure. Decreased alveolar pressure causes increased alveolar volume.

T/F: The alveoli never attain equal pressure with the ambient (outside) air. False

T/F: If the volume of the alveoli increased, the pressure would decrease. True

Which of the following is true at the arterial ends of the pulmonary capillaries? The Po2 is higher in the capillaries than in the alveoli. The Po2 is lower in the capillaries than in the alveoli. The Po2 is equal in the capillaries and in the alveoli. The Po2 is higher at first in the capillaries than in the alveoli, and then it is lower in the alveoli than in the capillaries. The Po2 is lower at first in the capillaries than in the alveoli, and then it is higher in the alveoli than in the capillaries.

Which of the following is true at the venous ends of the pulmonary capillaries? The Pco2 is higher in the capillaries than in the alveoli. The Pco2 is lower in the capillaries than in the alveoli. The Pco2 is equal in the capillaries and in the alveoli. The Pco2 is higher at first in the capillaries than in the alveoli, and then it is lower in the alveoli than in the capillaries. The Pco2 is lower at first in the capillaries than in the alveoli, and then it is higher in the alveoli than in the capillaries.

At the arterial end of a tissue capillary, rank the following structures from highest to lowest Po2. Capillaries, tissue fluid, cells Cells, tissue fluid, capillaries Cells, capillaries, tissue fluid Tissue fluid, capillaries, cells The Po2 is the same in all three

T/F: When partial pressures for a given gas are equal between the capillaries and the tissue fluids, no net movement of that gas occurs. True

T/F: Gases diffuse because of differences in partial pressures from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. True

Which of the following statements about partial pressures of gases in the tissues is true? Po2 in blood is > Po2 in tissues; Pco2 in blood > Pco2 in tissues Po2 in blood > Po2 in tissues; Pco2 in blood < Pco2 in tissues Po2 in blood > Po2 in tissues; Pco2in blood = Pco2 in tissues Po2 in blood < Po2 in tissues; Pco2 in blood < Pco2 in tissues Po2 in blood < Po2 in tissues; Pco2 in blood > Pco2 in tissues

Correctly assign each of the following statements to one factor that affects resistance to airflow.

What is the definition of partial pressure? The sum of the pressures contributed by each of the individual gases comprising air The separate contribution of pressure by each each individual gas comprising air The solubility of a gas The difference of the contribution of nitrogen from oxygen in air

Pneumothorax is the presence of air in the pleural cavity. If the thoracic wall is punctured between the ribs, for example, inspiration sucks air through the wound into the pleural cavity and the visceral and parietal pleurae separate; what was a potential space between them becomes an air-filled cavity. Without the negative intrapleural pressure to keep the lungs inflated, the lungs recoil and collapse.

A(n) _____ is a clinical condition characterized by the presence of air in the pleural cavity

Artificial passive immunity

An antibody is injected into a person who has been bitten by a snake. The antibody infers resistance

naphylactic shock is a severe, widespread acute hypersensitivity that occurs when an allergen such as bee venom or penicillin is introduced to the bloodstream of an allergic individual, or when a person ingests certain foods (such as peanuts) to which he or she is allergic. It is characterized by bronchoconstriction, dyspnea (labored breathing), widespread vasodilation, circulatory shock, and sometimes sudden death. Antihistamines are inadequate by themselves to counter anaphylactic shock, but epinephrine relieves the symptoms by dilating the bronchioles, increasing cardiac output, and restoring blood pressure. Fluid therapy and respiratory support are sometimes required.

Anaphylactic shock is characterized by?

Fever is typically initiated by exogenous pyrogens—fever-producing agents originating outside the body, such as the surface glycolipids of bacteria and viruses. As neutrophils and macrophages attack such pathogens, they secrete a variety of polypeptides that act as endogenous pyrogens.10 These in turn stimulate neurons of the anterior hypothalamus to raise the set point for body temperature—say, to 39°C (102°F) instead of the usual 37°C.

Any surface glycolipid on a bacterium or virus that stimulates fever is what type of pyrogen?

antipyretic (fever-reducing)

Aspirin, acetaminophen, and ibuprofen reduce the synthesis of prostaglandins and are generally called:

Which explains why the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is nonlinear (s-shaped)

At low PO2, the curve rises slowly; then there is a rapid increase in oxygen loading as PO2 rises farther. This reflects the way hemoglobin loads oxygen. When the first heme group binds O2, hemoglobin changes shape in a way that facilitates uptake of the second O2 by another heme group. This, in turn, promotes the uptake of the third and then the fourth O2—hence the rapidly rising midportion of the curve. At high PO2 levels, the curve levels off because the hemoglobin approaches 100% saturation and cannot load much more oxygen.

Immunocompetent

B cells or T cells that are mature and capable of recognizing antigens presented by APC's are describes as:

which of these calculated volumes typically has the greatest value? a) expiratory reserve volume b) total lung capacity c) functional residual capacity d) tidal volume e) vital capacity

B) Total Lung Capacity

Lymphatic capillaries are found in all organs except: A) Bone B) Cartilage C) Central nervous system D) Bone marrow E) Liver

Cartilage

When certain cells (especially leukocytes) are infected with viruses, they secrete proteins called interferons. These are of little benefit to the cell that secretes them, but are like its "dying words" that alert neighboring cells and protect them from becoming infected. They bind to surface receptors on those cells and activate second-messenger systems within. This induces the synthesis of dozens of antiviral proteins that defend a cell by such means as breaking down viral genes and preventing viral replication. Interferons also activate NK cells and macrophages, which destroy infected cells before they can liberate a swarm of newly replicated viruses. Interferons also confer resistance to cancer, since the activated NK cells destroy malignant cells.

Cytokines known as _____ inhibit the viral infection of neighboring cells as well as activate NK cells and macrophages

haldane

Deoxygenated blood can carry more carbon dioxide, whereas oxygenated blood has lower carbon dioxide carrying capacity. This phenomenon is known as the _____ effect

allergens, occur in mold, dust, pollen, vaccines, bee and wasp venoms, animal dander, toxins from poison ivy and other plants, and foods such as nuts, milk, eggs, and shellfish. Drugs such as penicillin, tetracycline, and insulin are allergenic to some people

Describe allergens:

1) Immunocompetent B cells bind to an antigen 2) A B cell internalizes an antigen and displays it on MHC-II proteins to TH cells 3) TH cells secrete interleukins which activate the B cell 4) The B cell undergoes clonal selection 5) B cells differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells 6) Plasma cells produce and secrete antibodies

Events if the humoral response in order:

True; At the beginning of exercise, the rising blood CO2 level may directly stimulate the peripheral chemoreceptors and trigger an increase in ventilation more quickly than the central chemoreceptors do.

Evidence suggests that ventilation increases more quickly in response to high levels of CO2 than it does to low levels of O2 in the blood

Amount of air in excess of tidal volume that can be exhaled with maximum effort

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

How is the vital capacity calculated?

Expiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume

The maximum amount of air the lungs can contain is known as inspiratory capacity

False

deoxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin that is not bound to oxygen is called:

*arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide will fall* Hyperventilation causes CO2 to go way down while O2 stays the same

If you hyperventilate, what will happen?

False

In most cases, when an infection occurs, the accompanying fever is harmful and should be treated with aspirin or tylenol immediately (T/F)

Endothelial cells actively recruit leukocytes. In the area of injury, they produce cell-adhesion molecules called selectins, which make their membranes sticky, and snag leukocytes arriving in the bloodstream. Leukocytes adhere loosely to the selectins and slowly tumble along the endothelium, sometimes coating it so thickly they obstruct blood flow. This adhesion to the vessel wall is called margination. Leukocytes then crawl through the gaps between the endothelial cells—an action called diapedesis or emigration—and enter the tissue fluid of the damaged tissue. Most diapedesis occurs across the walls of the post-capillary venules. Cells and chemicals that have left the bloodstream are said to be extravasated.

Leukocytes crawl through gaps between endothelial cells into the tissue by means of a process called?

Veins; Lymphatic vessels form in the embryo by budding from the veins, so it is not surprising that the larger ones have a similar histology. They have a tunica interna with an endothelium and valves, a tunica media with elastic fibers and smooth muscle, and a thin outer tunica externa. Their walls are thinner and their valves are closer together than those of the veins.

Lymphatic vessels are anatomically similar to:

One means of generating diversity is that the genome contains several hundred DNA segments that are shuffled and combined in various ways to produce antibody genes unique to each clone of B cells. This process is called somatic recombination, because it forms new combinations of DNA base sequences in somatic (nonreproductive) cells.

Name the type of recombination whereby several hundred DNA segments are shuffled and combined in various ways to produce antibody genes unique to each clone of B cells

This is the production of one's own antibodies or T cells as a result of natural exposure to an antigen.

Natural active immunity

This is a temporary immunity that results from acquiring antibodies produced by another person. The only natural way for this to happen is for a fetus to acquire antibodies from the mother through the placenta before birth, or for a baby to acquire them during breast-feeding.

Natural passive immunity

Thus, the greater the pO2 in the alveolar air, the more ____ the blood picks up

OXYGEN

Blood capillaries -> Interstitial spaces -> Lymphatic capillaries -> Lymphatic vessels -> Lymphatic ducts -> Subclavian veins

Place the flow of fluid in order, beginning with blood in the blood capillaries.

The pontine respiratory group (PRG) on each side of the pons receives input from higher brain centers including the hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebral cortex, and issues output to both the DRG and VRG. By acting on those centers in the medulla, it hastens or delays the transition from inspiration to expiration, making each breath shorter and shallower, or longer and deeper. The PRG adapts breathing to special circumstances such as sleep, exercise, vocalization, and emotional responses (for example, in crying, gasping, or laughing).

The _____ respiratory group adjusts the respiratory rate based on stimuli from the limbic system or cerebral cortex

dorsal respiratory group (DRG) is one of the mechanisms that modifies this basic respiratory rhythm. It is a web of neurons that extends for much of the length of the medulla between the VRG and the central canal of the brainstem. Obviously, we don't always breathe at the same rate. Breathing can be faster or slower, shallower or deeper, as the DRG and other mechanisms modulate the VRG's activity. The DRG is an integrating center that receives input from several sources detailed in the coming discussion: a respiratory center in the pons (the PNG discussed next); a chemosensitive center of the anterior medulla oblongata; chemoreceptors in certain major arteries; stretch and irritant receptors in the airway; and higher brainstem centers that allow for emotional influences on breathing. The DRG issues output to the VRG that modifies the respiratory rhythm to adapt to varying conditions.

The _____ respiratory group recieves input from chemoreceptors and adjusts the respiratory rate accordingly

The nasopharynx is distal to the posterior nasal apertures and above the soft palate. It receives the auditory (eustachian) tubes from the middle ears and houses the pharyngeal tonsil.

The _____ tonsil(s) is/are found in the nasopharynx

The conducting zone of the respiratory system consists of those passages that serve only for airflow, essentially from the nostrils through the major bronchioles. The walls of these passages are too thick for adequate diffusion of oxygen from the air into the blood. The respiratory zone consists of the alveoli and other gas-exchange regions of the distal airway.

The _____ zone of the respiratory system serves only for airflow. It is incapable of gas exchange between the air and the circulatory system

Pus

The accumulation of dead cells, fluid, and tissue debris is called:

On the medial surface, the left lung has an indentation called the cardiac impression where the heart presses against it; part of this is visible anteriorly as a crescent-shaped cardiac notch in the margin of the lung

The cardiac notch is the indentation located on the _____ surface of the left lung that accommodates the heart

Central chemoreceptors are brainstem neurons that respond especially to changes in the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid. They are concentrated on each side of the medulla oblongata at a point only 0.2 mm beneath its anterior surface. The pH of the CSF reflects the CO2 level in the blood, so by regulating respiration to maintain a stable CSF pH, the respiratory centers also ensure a stable blood CO2 level.

The central __________ in the brainstem are neurons that sense changes in the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid.

memory

The characteristic of immunity termed _____ describes how, when reexposed to the same pathogen, the body reacts so quickly that there is no noticeable illness

Lymph is usually a clear, colorless fluid, similar to blood plasma but low in protein. It originates as tissue fluid taken up by the lymphatic vessels. Its composition varies substantially from one place and time to another. After a meal, for example, lymph draining from the small intestine has a milky appearance because of its lipid content. Lymph leaving the lymph nodes contains a large number of lymphocytes—indeed, this is the main supply of lymphocytes to the bloodstream. Lymph may also contain macrophages, hormones, bacteria, viruses, cellular debris, or even traveling cancer cells.

The fluid contained in lymphatic vessels, which originates as tissue fluid is called:

Lack of costimulation drives the T cell into anergy, a state of inactivity and ineffectiveness. Successful costimulation, in contrast, activates the process of clonal selection: The T cell undergoes repeated mitosis, giving rise to a clone of identical T cells programmed against the same epitope. Some cells in the clone become effector cells that carry out an immune attack, and some become memory T (TM) cells.

The process called _____ selection results in the formation of a clone of identical T cells programmed against the same epitope

Alveoli

The respiratory division of the respiratory system includes?

Gas exchange: It provides for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between the blood and air. Communication: It serves for speech and other vocalization (laughing, crying). Olfaction: Provides the sense of smell, which is important in social interactions, food selection, and avoiding danger (such as a gas leak or spoiled food). Acid base balance: helps to control the pH of the body fluids. Blood pressure regulation: The lungs carry out a step in synthesizing angiotensin II, which helps to regulate blood pressure. Blood and lymph flow: Breathing creates pressure gradients between the thorax and abdomen that promote the flow of lymph and venous blood. Blood filtration: The lungs filter small blood clots from the bloodstream and dissolve them, preventing clots from obstructing more vital pathways such as the coronary, cerebral, and renal circulation. Expulsion of abdominal contents: Breath-holding and abdominal contraction help to expel abdominal contents during urination, defecation, and childbirth.

The respiratory system does:

Not only does abdominal pressure affect thoracic pressure, but the opposite is also true. Depression of the diaphragm raises abdominal pressure and helps to expel the contents of certain abdominal organs, thus aiding in childbirth, urination, defecation, and vomiting. During such actions, we often consciously or unconsciously employ the Valsalva maneuver. This consists of taking a deep breath, holding it by closing the glottis, and then contracting the abdominal muscles to raise abdominal pressure and push the organ contents out.

The valsalva maneuver involves closing the _____ while trying to exhale

Antibody titer As the plasma cells begin secreting antibody, the antibody titer (level in the blood plasma) begins to rise.

To confirm exposure to an antigen what is measured to demonstrate that an immune response has occured?

A lack of reactivity to self peptide fragments and the ability to recognize self MHC proteins

To function properly, T cells must have which two traits?

Immune complex occurs when IgG or IgM forms antigen-antibody complexes that precipitate beneath the endothelium of the blood vessels or in other tissues. At the sites of deposition, these complexes activate complement and trigger intense inflammation, causing tissue destruction. Two examples of type III hypersensitivity are the autoimmune diseases acute glomerulonephritis and systemic lupus erythematosus, a widespread inflammation of the connective tissues

Type 3 hypersensitivity:

Delayed a cell-mediated reaction in which the signs appear about 12 to 72 hours after exposure. It begins when APCs in the lymph nodes display antigens to helper T cells, and these T cells secrete interferon and other cytokines that activate cytotoxic T cells and macrophages. The result is a mixture of nonspecific and immune responses. Type IV reactions include allergies to haptens in cosmetics and poison ivy; graft rejection; the tuberculosis skin test; and the beta cell destruction that causes type 1 diabetes mellitus.

Type 4 hypersensitivity:

In both lungs, the lobar bronchi branch into segmental (tertiary) bronchi. There are 10 of these in the right lung and 8 in the left. Each one ventilates a functionally independent unit of lung tissue called a bronchopulmonary segment.

What airway supplies air to a single bronchopulmonary segment of the lung?

When a person is exposed to a particular antigen for the first time, the immune reaction is called the primary response. The appearance of protective antibodies is delayed for 3 to 6 days while naive B cells multiply and differentiate into plasma cells. As the plasma cells begin secreting antibody, the antibody titer (level in the blood plasma) begins to rise. IgM appears first, peaks in about 10 days, and soon declines. IgG levels rise as IgM declines, but even the IgG titer drops to a low level within a month.

What are characteristics of a primary immune response?

Trachea, bronchi, alveoli

What are components of the lower respiratory tract?

Reduction of friction. Pleural fluid acts as a lubricant that enables the lungs to expand and contract with minimal friction. Infection of the pleurae can produce a condition called pleurisy, in which the pleurae roughen and rub together, making each breath a painful experience. Creation of a pressure gradient. The pleurae play a role, explained later, in the creation of a pressure gradient that expands the lungs when one inhales. Compartmentalization. The pleurae, mediastinum, and pericardium compartmentalize the thoracic organs and prevent infections of one organ from spreading easily to neighboring organs.

What are functions of the pleurae and the pleural fluid?

macrophages

What are monocytes that migrate to the tissue and function as phagocytes called?

Lymphatic (lymphoid) tissues are aggregations of lymphocytes in the connective tissues of mucous membranes and various organs. The simplest form is diffuse lymphatic tissue, in which the lymphocytes are scattered rather than densely clustered. It is particularly prevalent in body passages that are open to the exterior—the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts—where it is called mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT).

What are mucosal associated lymphatic tissues?

Alteration of self antigens, cross reactivity between similar antigens, abnormal exposure to self antigens

What are possible causes for a lack of self tolerance?

Semen, vaginal secretions, breast milk, blood

What are possible routes by which HIV can be contracted?

Inflammation is characterized by four cardinal signs: redness, swelling, heat, and pain. Some authorities list impaired use as a fifth sign, but this may or may not occur and when it does, it is mostly because of the pain.

What are the cardinal signs of inflammation?

IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM

What are the five classes of antibodies

Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, water vapor

What are the four predominant components of inspired air?

Immunity, absorption of lipids, fluid recovery

What are the lymphatic system's main functions?

Interferon, defensin, complement

What are the three antimicrobial proteins?

Heparin, leukotriene, histamine

What are the three inflammatory mediators released by basophils and mast cells?

Basophils and mast cells

What are tho cell types that secrete histamine, heparin, leukotrienes and kinins, this inducing the inflammatory response?

The secondary lymphatic organs, include the spleen, lymph nodes, MALT, and the tonsils They are called secondary lymphatic organs because immunocompetent lymphocytes migrate to these organs only after they mature in the primary lymphatic organs.

What are three secondary lymphoid organs?

emphysema and chronic bronchitis

What are two examples of COPD

the pressure that each gas in a mixture would exert alone

What best defines partial pressure

The diaphragm relaxes, intrapulmonary pressure increases, air flows out

What best describes what happens during exhalation?

Closed-ended vessels consisting of loosely overlapping endothelial cells

What described lymphatic capillaries?

A granulocyte, usually with a multi-lobed nucleus, that serves especially to destroy bacteria by means of phagocytosis, intracellular digestion and secretion of bactericidal chemicals.

What describes a neutrophil

Eventually, the collecting vessels converge to form larger lymphatic trunks, each of which drains a major portion of the body. There are six of these, whose names indicate their locations and parts of the body they drain: the jugular, subclavian, bronchomediastinal, intercostal, intestinal, and lumbar trunks. There is a single intestinal trunk, whereas all the others are paired. The lumbar trunks drain not only the lumbar region but also the lower limbs.

What do collecting vessels converge to form?

The lymphatic trunks converge to form two collecting ducts, the largest of the lymphatic vessels (right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct)

What do lymphatic trunks converge to form?

Vadodialation; Certain cells secrete vasoactive chemicals that dilate the blood vessels in the area of injury. Among these are histamine, leukotrienes, and other cytokines secreted by basophils, mast cells, and cells damaged by the pathogens that triggered the inflammation. The resulting increase in local blood flow is called hyperemia. Hyperemia not only results in the more rapid delivery of leukocytes, but also washes toxins and metabolic wastes from the tissue more rapidly.

What does hyperemia result from?

the heme group

What does oxygen bind to in the hemoglobin molecule?

The second line of defense consists of protections against pathogens that break through those external barriers. These defenses include leukocytes and macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, natural killer cells, fever, and inflammation.

What does the body's second line of defense against pathogens consist of?

The cortex of the lymph node is a C-shaped structure that encircles the medulla. Germinal centers, areas of B cell multiplication and differentiation, are located in the cortex.

What does the cortex of a lymph node contain?

External barriers

What does the first line of defense against pathogens consist of?

Perforins

What is a cytolytic protein secreted by NK cells?

Abscess

What is an accumulation of pus in a tissue cavity called?

Antigen

What is any large molecule capable of triggering an immune response called?

An abnormal accumulation of fluid in the tissues.

What is edema?

An immunocompetent B cell has thousands of surface receptors for one antigen. B cell activation begins when an antigen binds to several of these receptors, links them together, and is taken into the cell by receptor-mediated endocytosis. One reason small molecules are not antigenic is that they are too small to link multiple receptors together. After endocytosis, the B cell processes (digests) the antigen, links some of the epitopes to its MHC-II proteins, and displays these on the cell surface. Thus, the B cell itself acts as an antigen-presenting cell. Usually, the B cell response goes no further unless a helper T cell binds to this Ag-MHC protein complex. (Some B cells are directly activated by antigens without the help of a TH cell.) When a TH cell binds to the complex, it secretes interleukins that activate the B cell. This triggers clonal selection—B cell mitosis giving rise to a battalion of identical B cells programmed against that antigen

What is required for activation of a B cell?

Spleen; measures up to 12 cm long and usually weighs about 150 g. It is located in the left hypochondriac region, just inferior to the diaphragm and posterolateral to the stomach

What is the body's largest lymphatic organ?

Tidal volume plus expiratory reserve volume plus inspiratory reserve volume (TV)+(ERV)+(IRV)

What is the correct calculation for vital capacity?

Pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles

What is the correct route of air flow in the respiratory tract?

Terminal bronchioles; These measure 0.5 mm or less in diameter and have no mucous glands or goblet cells. They do have cilia, however, so that mucus draining into them from above can be driven back by the mucociliary escalator, preventing congestion of the terminal bronchioles and alveoli.

What is the distal-most portion of the respiratory system that is incapable of gas exchange?

Pulmonary surfactant reduces surface tension of the lungs.

What is the function of pulmonary surfactant?

To trap dust, microbes and other debris that may be present in air that is inspired

What is the function of the coarse hairs present in the nasal vestibule?

Normally the systemic arterial blood has a PO2 of 95 mm Hg, a PCO2 of 40 mm Hg, and a pH of 7.40 ± 0.05.

What is the normal systemic arterial blood value for PCO2?

Epitopes

What is the region of an antigen that stimulates an immune response?

Each alveolus is surrounded by a web of blood capillaries supplied by small branches of the pulmonary artery. The barrier between the alveolar air and blood, called the respiratory membrane, consists only of the squamous alveolar cell, the squamous endothelial cell of the capillary, and their shared basement membrane. It is the membrane through which gases are exchanged in the alveolus.

What is the respiratory membrane?

Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the conversion of CO2 and H2O into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions

What is true about carbon dioxide loading?

Eosinophil

What type of cell phagocityzes antigen antibody complexes. allergens, and inflammatory chemicals and secretes histaminase and other molecules that combat parasitic infections?

Humoral immunity is a more indirect method of defense than cellular immunity. Instead of directly attacking enemy cells, the B lymphocytes of humoral immunity produce antibodies that bind to antigens and tag them for destruction by other means. But like cellular immunity, humoral immunity works in three stages: recognition, attack, and memory.

What type of immunity is mediated by B cells and the antibodies they secrete?

fixed

What type of macrophage moves into a specific tissue, then remains within that tissue waiting to phagocityze pathogens?

On all nucleated body cells

Where are type I MHC proteins found?

T cells are produced in the red bone marrow by hemopoietic stem cells. Newborn T cells enter the bloodstream and travel to the thymus—the "school" where they mature into fully functional T cells and face two harsh "graduation exams" that test their usefulness to the immune system.

Where do T cells mature?

There are two kinds of bone marrow: yellow and red. Yellow bone marrow is adipose tissue and can be disregarded for present purposes, but red bone marrow is involved in hemopoiesis (blood formation) and immunity. In children, it occupies the medullary spaces of nearly the entire skeleton. In adults, it is limited to the axial skeleton and the proximal heads of the humerus and femur. Red bone marrow is an important supplier of lymphocytes to the immune system.

Where does hemopoiesis occur?

Germinal centers The parenchyma is divided into an outer C-shaped cortex that encircles about four-fifths of the organ, and an inner medulla that extends to the surface at the hilum. The cortex consists mainly of ovoid to conical lymphatic nodules. When the lymph node is fighting a pathogen, these nodules acquire light-staining germinal centers where B cells multiply and differentiate into plasma cells. The medulla consists largely of a branching network of medullary cords composed of lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages, reticular cells, and reticular fibers. The cortex and medulla also contain lymph-filled sinuses continuous with the subcapsular sinus.

Where in a lymph node to B-cells undergo proliferation, differentiation, and activation?

Hypothalamus

Where is body temperature regulated?

Helper T cells

Which T cell plays an integral role in both humoral and cell mediated immunity

Memory B cells, found mainly in the germinal centers of the lymph nodes, mount a very quick secondary, or anamnestic, response if reexposed to the same antigen. Plasma cells form within hours, so the IgG titer rises sharply and peaks within a few days. The response is so rapid that the antigen has little chance to exert a noticeable effect on the body, and no illness results. A low level of IgM is also secreted and quickly declines, but IgG remains elevated for weeks to years, conferring lasting protection. Memory does not last as long in humoral immunity, however, as it does in cellular immunity.

Which are characteristics of a secondary immune response?

Red bone marrow and the thymus gland are primary lymphatic organs, the site where B and T cells become immunocompetent—that is, able to recognize and respond to antigens. The lymph nodes, tonsils, and spleen are called secondary lymphatic organs because immunocompetent lymphocytes migrate to these organs only after they mature in the primary lymphatic organs.

Which are primary lymphatic organs?

Thin, broad cells called squamous (type I) alveolar cells cover about 95% of the alveolar surface area. Their thinness allows for rapid gas diffusion between the air and blood. The other 5% is covered by round to cuboidal great (type II) alveolar cells.

Which are squamous cells, primarily responsible for forming the respiratory membrane of the lung?

APC's

Which cells carry MHC class II proteins

B cells, dendritic cells and macrophages

Which cells function as antigen presenting cells?

Plasma cell

Which cells produce antibodies?

Specificity

Which characteristic describes how immunity is directed against a particular pathogen, and that immunity to one pathogen usually does not confer immunity to others?

Interleukins

Which class of cytokines promotes the development and differentiation of T, B and hematopoietic cells?

The classical pathway requires an antibody to get it started; thus it is part of adaptive immunity. The antibody binds to an antigen on the surface of a microbe and changes shape, exposing a pair of complement-binding sites

Which complement pathway is antibody-mediated?

The ventral respiratory group (VRG) is the primary generator of the respiratory rhythm. It is an elongated neural network in the medulla with two commingled webs of neurons—inspiratory (I) neurons and expiratory (E) neurons—each forming a reverberating neural circuit

Which component of the respiratory center is responsible for setting the basal respiratory rate and providing output to the muscles of respiration?

The superior opening of the larynx is guarded by a flap of tissue called the epiglottis. At rest, the epiglottis stands almost vertically. During swallowing, however, extrinsic muscles of the larynx pull the larynx upward toward the epiglottis, the tongue pushes the epiglottis downward to meet it, and the epiglottis closes the airway and directs food and drink into the esophagus behind it. The vestibular folds of the larynx, discussed shortly, play a greater role in keeping food and drink out of the airway, however. Therefore it is elevation of the larynx and movement of the tongue

Which factors affect the position of the epiglottis during swallowing?

The primary mechanism of flow is rhythmic contractions of the lymphatic vessels themselves, which contract when the fluid stretches them. The valves of lymphatic vessels, like those of veins, prevent the fluid from flowing backward. Lymph flow is also produced by skeletal muscles squeezing the lymphatic vessels, like the skeletal muscle pump that moves venous blood. Since lymphatic vessels are often wrapped with an artery in a common connective tissue sheath, arterial pulsation also rhythmically squeezes the adjacent lymphatic vessels and contributes to lymph flow. A thoracic (respiratory) pump promotes the flow of lymph from the abdominal to the thoracic cavity as one inhales, just as it does in venous return. Finally, at the point where the collecting ducts empty into the subclavian veins, the rapidly flowing bloodstream draws the lymph into it. Considering these mechanisms of lymph flow, it should be apparent that physical exercise significantly increases the rate of lymphatic return.

Which factors cause or conrtibute to the flow of lymph?

The automatic, unconscious cycle of breathing is controlled by three pairs of respiratory centers in the reticular formation of the medulla oblongata and pons. There is one of each on the right and left sides of the brainstem; the two sides communicate with each other so that the respiratory muscles contract symmetrically.

Which locations contain the brainstem respiratory centers?

Pulmonary compliance means the ease with which the lungs expand, or more exactly, the change in lung volume relative to a given pressure change. Inspiratory effort may produce the same intrapleural pressure in two people, but the lungs will expand less in a person with poorer compliance (stiffer lungs), or at least that person must expend more effort to inflate the lungs to the same degree as the other. Compliance is reduced by degenerative lung diseases such as tuberculosis and black lung disease, in which the lungs are stiffened by scar tissue. In such conditions, the thoracic cage expands normally but the lungs expand relatively little.

Which term describes the ease with which lung tissue expands during breathing?

atelectasis

Which term refers to the collapse of part or all of a lung?

systemic gas exchange

Which term refers to the exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) that occurs in the capillary networks between the blood and the body's cells?

alveolar gas exchange

Which term refers to the exchange of gases across the respiratory membrane?

Laryngopharynx

Which term refers to the inferior portion of the pharynx which extends from the epiglottis to the esophagus?

The right main bronchus gives off three branches—the superior, middle, and inferior lobar (secondary) bronchi—one to each lobe of the lung. The left main bronchus is about 5 cm long and slightly narrower and more horizontal than the right. It gives off superior and inferior lobar bronchi to the two lobes of the left lung.

Which term refers to the portion of the lung ventilated by one secondary bronchus?

The space between the parietal and visceral pleurae is called the pleural cavity.

Which term refers to the potential space between the visceral and parietal pleura?

The nasopharynx passes only air and is lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium, whereas the oropharynx and laryngopharynx pass air, food, and drink and are lined by stratified squamous epithelium. Muscles of the pharynx play necessary roles in swallowing and speech.

Which tissue lines the oropharynx and laryngopharynx?

Diameter of the bronchioles and pulmonary compliance

Which two factors contribute most to airflow resistance?

Diaphragm and intercostals

Which two muscles (or muscle groups) are primarily responsible for resting (non-forced) inspiration?

Nares and nostrils

Which two terms describe the anterior openings of the nasal cavity?

If the intrapulmonary pressure falls below the atmospheric pressure, then air tends to flow down its pressure gradient into the lungs. Conversely, if intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric pressure, air flows out. Therefore, all we have to do to breathe is to cyclically raise and lower the intrapulmonary pressure.

Why does air flow into the lungs during inspiration?

It binds with hemoglobin and competes with oxygen, reducing the blood's oxygen carry-capacity

Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?

Slower

Would air diffuse from the air to the alveoli faster or slower at high altitude, compared to sea level?

Regulatory T cells, or T-regs

_____ T cells inhibit multiplication and cytokine secretion by other T cells, and thus limit immune responses

Each terminal bronchiole gives off two or more smaller respiratory bronchioles, which have alveoli budding from their walls. They are considered the beginning of the respiratory zone because their alveoli participate in gas exchange. Their walls have scanty smooth muscle, and the smallest of them are nonciliated.

_____ _____ are the first airways capable of gas exchange and are therefore considered part of the respiratory zone of the respiratory system?

Granzymes

_____ are protein-degrading enzymes secreted by NK cells that enter infected cells through pores made by perforins

Carbon dioxide, oxygen

_____ is more soluble in liquid, but _____ has a steeper concentration gradient

atelectasis

_____ is the collapse of a lobe or lung due to equalizing the intrapleural and atmospheric pressure

Complement proteins

_____ is/are secreted by cells that have been invaded by viruses. They diffuse to neighboring cells & stimulate production of antiviral proteins

stretch

_____ receptors respond to the degree of inflation of the lungs/alveoli

alkalosis

_____ refers to a shirt in the pH of blood above 7.45

tidal

______ volume is the volume of air inhaled or exhaled during a respiratory cycle

Henrys

_____________________ Law states that the amount of gas dissolved in water is determined by its solubility in the fluid and the partial pressure of the gas in the surrounding air.

forced

a person expelling air while yelling is performing ______ breathing

unloading

a shift in the curve to the right promotes an increased rate of oxygen ______

increases, decreases

according to Boyle's law, as volume decreases, pressure _____, and as volume increases pressure ______

branched airways that lead from the trachea to the microscopic air sacs called alveoli

bronchial tree

brainstem neurons that respond to changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid

central chemoreceptors

henry's law

despite a small partial pressure gradient from the respiring tissues to the blood, we know that carbon dioxide is capable of rapid diffusion due to its high solubility.

inspiration

during ____, the pressure in the alveoli is less than the atmospheric pressure

the effects of obstructive diseases such as asthma or emphysema may be determined by measuring the ____

forced expiratory volume

PO2 of arterial blood

hypoxic drive refers to a condition where the respiratory centers of the brainstem respond to:

squamous-cell

of the three forms of lung cancer, the most common is _______ carcinoma

Receptors in the carotid arteries and the aorta that monitor blood pH to help regulate ventilation rate.

peripheral chemoreceptors

oxygen

systemic gas exchange is the unloading of ___ and loading of carbon dioxide

chloride shift

the ______ is an anion exchange that takes place in RBCs as a mechanism to transport bicarbonate ion out of the cell

dorsal respiratory group

the ______ issues output to the VRG that modifies the respiratory rhythm to adapt varying conditions

ventral respiratory group

the __________ is the primary generator of the respiratory rhythm

haldane

the ability of CO2 to bind to deoxygenated hemoglobin more readily than it binds oxyhemoglobin is referred to as the _____ effect

carbaminohemoglobin

the combination of carbon dioxide and protein known as _______ is abbreviated HbCO2

hypocapnia

the condition called __________________ occurs when arterial CO2 concentrations fall below normal. (PCO2 less than 37mm Hg)

influence

the diffusion of one gas does not ___ the diffusion of another

forced expiratory reserve volume

the effects of obstructive diseases such as asthma or emphysema may be determined by measuring the _____

Dalton's law

the law of partial pressure, also known as _____ states that the individual gases in the air contribute to the total atmospheric pressure as a function of the percentage each gas contributes to the total volume

metastasizes

the least common but most dangerous is small-cell carcinoma, which easily and quickly ______ to other organs

bicarbonate ion

the majority of CO2, in the blood is carried as______

oxygen

thus, the greater the PO2 in the alveolar air, the more _____ the blood picks up

if you subtract the residual volume from the total lung capacity, you get the ____

vital capacity

Charles's law

we know that a known volume of air entering the lungs increases when its temperature is increased by respiratory mucosae

Boyle's law

we know that the volume of intrapulmonary gas is lower following expiration due to the increased pressure of the thoracic cavity

increased temperature, decreased pH and heavy exercise.

what can cause a decrease in oxyhemoglobin levels

a decrease in pH of the CSF, stimulation of proprioceptors in skeletal muscles, stimulation of the dorsal respiratory group, stimulation of pain receptors

what can increase respiration

activation of irritant receptors in the airway and stimulation of stretch receptors in the lungs

what decreases respiration

blood pH decreases, blood levels of hydrogen ions increase

what decreases respiratory rhythm

blood pH increases, arterial PO2 drops below 60 mm hg, levels of CO2 in the blood increase, blood levels of hydrogen ions decrease.

what increases respiratory rhythm

Mucus, tears, and saliva contain lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys bacteria by dissolving their cell walls.

what is a lysozyme?

an increased alveolar volume causes decreased alveolar pressure

what is the result of inspiration

decreased alveolar volume causes increased alveolar pressure

what occurs during expiration?

carbonic acid in RBCs converts back to carbon dioxide and water, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood, oxygen is diffusing into the blood, decreasing carbon dioxide levels decreases the levels of the Hhb

what occurs in the alveolar capillaries

chloride ions shift into the RBC, carbon dioxide binds to plasma proteins, carbonic anhydrase is increasing the amount of carbonic acid, carbon dioxide is diffusing into the blood

what occurs in the systemic capillaries

oxygen

when the curve rises there is a rapid increase in _____ loading

decreases

when the diaphragm muscles contracts, the pressure in the alveoli_____

hemoglobin

when the first heme group binds a molecule of oxygen, _____ changes conformation to accept a second oxygen

Cytotoxic T (TC) cells are the only T lymphocytes that directly attack and kill other cells. When a TC cell recognizes a complex of antigen and MHC-I protein on a diseased or foreign cell, it "docks" on that cell, delivers a lethal hit of chemicals that will destroy it, and goes off in search of other enemy cells while the chemicals do their work. Among these chemicals are: perforin and granzymes, interferons, tumor necrosis factor

which T cells attack and destroy target cells by secreting perforins and granzymes?

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