Exam 3

The definitional approach to categorization is not well suited for geometrical objects but works for familiar everyday objects. was proposed to replace the prototype approach. sets definite criteria called family resemblances that all category members must have. doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.

doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.

immediate emotions

emotions experienced at the time a decision is being made

expected emotions

emotions that people predict that they will feel concerning an outcome

Research suggests that the _____ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents). semantic network prototype definitional exemplar

exemplar

According to the ________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain. sensory-functional semantic category neuronal limitation multiple-factor

semantic

Which of the following is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network? Semantic network theory Parallel distributed processing theory The prototype approach Enhancement due to priming

semantic

The _____ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation. semantic network connectionist network parallel distributed processing neural network

semantic network

In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?

A field sparrow is an animal

"In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether"

A presented stimulus is a word

______ is a "typical" member of a category. A unit A prototype An exemplar A component

A prototype

According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?

A turtle is an animal

According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below? A turtle is an amphibian. A turtle is related to a fish. A turtle is an animal. Turtles are turtles.

A turtle is an animal.

connectionist network approach

Based on to the actual brain mechanism. Distributed representation. Input, hidden, and output units.

"According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically ""privileged"" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience."

Basic

According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically ""privileged"" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience.

Basic

Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach? The connectionist model is rather complex, and involves components like units, links, and connection weights. Connectionist networks can explain generalization of learning. The operation of connectionist networks is not totally disrupted by damage. Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.

Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.

criticisms of semantic network (collins and loftus)

Cannot explain the typicality effect Response times of some sentences do not correspond to the network.

Which of the following statements is NOT cited in your text as a reason why categories are useful? Categories serve as a valuable tool for making inferences about things that belong to other categories. Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects. Categories help us understand behaviors that we might otherwise find baffling. Categories have been called "pointers to knowledge" because once you know an object's category, you know a lot of general things about it.

Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects.

Which term below is most closely associated with semantic networks? Distributed processing Cognitive economy Prototype formation Serial processing

Cognitive Economy

It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties.

Crowding

One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that

Damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation

If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that

Damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation

Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization.

Definitional

Semantic network model

Each concept is represented as a node and related concepts are connected

_______ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past. Units Prototypes Exemplars Icons

Examplars

The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of ""chairs"" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is

Family resemblance

permission schema (Cheng & Holyoak)

If A is satisfied, then B can be carried out. If A is not satisfied, then B cannot be carried out

Which of the following is an example of the sentence verification technique? Fill in the blank in the following sentence: An apple is a(n) ______. Indicate whether the following statement was previously presented: An apple is a fruit. YES NO Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO Fill in the blank in the following sentence: A(n) ______ is a fruit.

Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO

Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category ""dog."" Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal

Is a dog that does not bark

According to the typicality effect,

Items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group

Gallese and colleagues (1996) noted that certain types of neurons, now called ________ neurons, activated when a monkey grasped food on a tray, but also activated when they watched the experimenter grasping food on a tray.

Mirror

Olin and Bob are neighbors. Olin loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. One day they go hiking and see many birds which they point out to each other. Which of the following is most likely?

Olin uses subordinate names and Bob uses basic level names

Rosch primed participants with colour names, followed by two colour patches that either matched or mismatched. She found that participants responded more rapidly in the matching task if the colour patches were "good" examples of colours like red and green than if they were "poor" examples like "pink" or "light green". Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with ""good"" examples of colors such as ""red"" and ""green"" than when they are presented with ""poor"" examples such as ""pink"" or ""light green."" The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization.

Prototype

functional fixedness

Restricting the use of an object to its familiar functions

According to the ________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain.

Semantic category

According to the S-F hypothesis, our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes ________ and one that distinguishes ________.

Sensory attributes; function

If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level.

Subordinate; basic

People playing the parlor game ""20 Questions"" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: ""Is it an animal?"" ""Is it a vegetable?"" and ""Is it a mineral?"" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization?

Superordinate

Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information.

Superordinate level to basic level

Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify ""a canary is a bird"" is _____ the reaction time to verify ""an ostrich is a bird.

The same as

For the category ""fruit,"" people give a higher typicality rating to ""banana"" than to ""kiwi."" Knowing that, we can also reason that

The word ""fruit"" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi

Which of the following is not one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model? Hidden units Input units Working units Output units

Working units

When a participant is asked to list examples of the category vegetables, it is most likely that a carrot would be named before eggplant. an eggplant would be named before carrot. a carrot and eggplant would have an equal likelihood of being named first. the order of examples is completely random, varying from participant to participant.

a carrot would be named before eggplant.

Prototype approach

a single 'average' representation of the members of a category

A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be a task where participants rate the extent to which category members resemble one another. a fill-in-the-blank task where participants generate the category classification for a list of members. a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title. a fill-in-the-blank task where participants generate paired members within a category.

a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title.

How is cognitive economy represented in the following example? The property ________ is stored at the _______ node. a. can fly; bird b. can fly; canary c. has feathers; ostrich d. bird; penguin

a. can fly; bird

back propagation

adjustment based on feedback

According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below? a. Turtles are turtles. b. A turtle is an animal. c. A turtle is related to a fish. d. A turtle is an amphibian.

b. A turtle is an animal.

You completed a CogLab experiment for lexical decision-making in which you were asked to distinguish between words and non-words. What does the demonstration predict? a. That people will distinguish between words and non-words equally well regardless of how it is related to preceding words. b. Participants will be faster to identify words when they are preceded by a semantically related word then it is preceded by an unrelated word c. Mental lexicons (i.e., mental representation of words) do not affect word and non-word distinction. d. That lexical decisions are not related to the semantic priming

b. Participants will be faster to identify words when they are preceded by a semantically

The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by _____________________________________. a. the amount of information contained in each concept. b. the distance that must be traveled through the network. c. the typicality of the information contained in each concept. d. the representativeness of the information contained in each concept.

b. the distance that must be traveled through the network.

Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of _____ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units. spreading activation graceful degradation error verification back propagation

back propagation

According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience. prototypical superordinate basic subordinate

basic

Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is ______ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird." a. interfered with by b. faster than c. the same as d. slower than

c. the same as

Two different definitions of ________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "the meaning of objects, events, and abstract ideas." exemplars concepts units prototypes

concepts

Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network hidden units. output units. connection weights. nodes.

connection weights

One of the key properties of the _____ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network. semantic network connectionist hierarchical spreading activation

connectionist

definitional approach

could be useful for categorizing geometric objects but not work for many other cases (ex. fish)

It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties. obstruction overlapping crowding convergence

crowding

Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ________ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units. a. graceful degradation b. error verification c. spreading activation d. back propagation

d. back propagation

One of the key properties of the _______ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network. a. semantic network b. hierarchical c. spreading activation d. connectionist

d. connectionist

One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that learning can be generalized between similar concepts to facilitate future learning. these networks learn by a process that is analogous to the way a child learns about the world by making mistakes and being corrected. damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation. learning a new concept does not interfere with remembering a previously learned concept.

damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.

One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that these networks learn by a process that is analogous to the way a child learns about the world by making mistakes and being corrected. learning a new concept does not interfere with remembering a previously learned concept. damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation. learning can be generalized between similar concepts to facilitate future learning.

damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.

If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that it is either functioning at 100 percent, or it is not functioning at all. it can be set to operate at "low efficiency" or "high efficiency" depending on the demand of the current task. damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation. it loses information at a very slow rate.

damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation.

framing effect

decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated with a highlight on one aspect (gain or loss) of a situation

Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization. family resemblance prototype definitional

definitional

Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus relates to a prototype in a way that is unrelated to associated exemplars. acts as a cue that tells the participant when his or her response was correct. facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time. disrupts the processing of another stimulus

facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.

Which of the following represents a basic level item? Guitar Rock guitar Paul McCartney's bass guitar Musical instrument

guitar

In the two-string problem, tying the pliers to one of the strings best represents a(n) _____ state. intermediate initial goal analogy

intermediate

Heuristic

intuitive decision making process based on past experiences. Faster and more efficient than exhaustive and careful search

Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal matches an exemplar of one of the dogs she has experienced. is a dog that does not bark. matches the size of the poodle but is of a different breed. is similar to an "average" for the dogs she has encountered.

is a dog that does not bark

According to the typicality effect, objects in a category have a family resemblance to one another. we remember typical objects better than non-typical objects. objects that are not typical stand out and so are more easily remembered. items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.

items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group

According to the typicality effect, objects in a category have a family resemblance to one another. objects that are not typical stand out and so are more easily remembered. items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group. we prefer typical objects to non-typical objects.

items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.

Gallese and colleagues (1996) noted that certain types of neurons, now called ________ neurons, activated when a monkey grasped food on a tray, but also activated when they watched the experimenter grasping food on a tray. mirror redundant anticipatory imitative

mirror

Exemplar approach

multiple actual members of a category

In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a

node

In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a output unit. node. input unit. link.

node

Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization. prototype exemplar parallel processing network

prototype

Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past? Exemplar Prototype Network Typicality

prototype

According to the S-F hypothesis, our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes ________ and one that distinguishes ________. sequential networks; familial resemblance sensations; facts serial nodes; familiar concepts sensory attributes; function

sensory attributes; function

Griggs and Cox (1982)

showed that people are better at judging the validity of syllogisms when real-word examples are substituted for abstract symbols

Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality in the "birds" category? Hummingbird Goose Sparrow Crow

sparrow

Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of _____ into their network model. spreading activation cognitive economy typicality back propagation

spreading activation

cognitive economy

storing shared properties just once at a higher-level node.

risk-aversion

strategy used when problem is stated in terms of gains (ex. 200 people will be saved)

risk-taking

strategy when problem is stated in terms of losses (400 people will die)

Items high on prototypicality have ____ family resemblances. moderate strong no weak

strong

If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level. subordinate; basic superordinate; basic superordinate; subordinate basic; subordinate

subordinate; basic

People playing the parlor game "20 Questions" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "Is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "Is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization? Superordinate Basic Typical Subordinate

superordinate

Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information. basic level to subordinate level subordinate level to basic level superordinate level to basic level basic level to superordinate level

superordinate level to basic level

confirmation bias

tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and overlook information that argues against it

The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by the amount of information contained in each concept. the distance that must be traveled through the network. the typicality of the information contained in each concept. the representativeness of the information contained in each concept.

the distance that must be traveled through the network.

conjunction rule

the probability of a conjunction between two independent events should be smaller than the probability of each individual event

representative heuristic

the probability that A (a person) comes from B category (a specific profession) can be determined by how well A resembles properties of B.

goal state

the problem is solved

Categorization

the process by which things are place into groups

intermediate state

the process of solving the problem

Mental Set

the tendency to keep using an approach that worked previously to similar problems on a new problem

initial state

thinking about the unsolved problem

falsification principle

to test a rule or hypothesis, you must look for situations that can falsify the rule (instead of just keep searching for evidence that would support the rule)

An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ________ effect. resemblance priming reaction-time typicality

typicality

People tend to overestimate what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings. what positive feelings will occur following a decision more so than negative feelings. what positive and negative feelings will occur following a decision to the same degree. subjective utility values following a decision.

what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.

Availability heuristic

when we estimate the likelihood or probability of events, we base our judgments on how easily we can think of the examples of the events

Which of the following is not one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model? Hidden units Output units Input units Working units

working